Mariners’ Polytechnic College Foundation

Of Canaman (Cam. Sur) Inc.,

A/Y 2021-2022

RESEARCH
PAPER
SEAM 2 – Stability, Trim and Stress 1

SUBMITTED BY:

NAME VILLARE, ALJON V.

COURSE BS MARINE TRANSPORTATION
SECTION 1B13
S/Y 2021-2022

SUBMITTED TO:
C/M. MARIANO MARCO
INSTRUCTOR
PRELIM Week 1-4
MIDTERM Week 5-8
SEMI-FINAL Week 9-12
FINAL Week 13-16
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professionals
toward the
improvement of
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CORE VALUES
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SEAM 2 (Stability, Trim & Stress 1)
RESEARCH WORK WK 1-4

MIDN. ALJON V. VILLARE

BSMT 1B12
 Week 1-2
Introduction of Basic Stability
Ship stability - is the ability of a ship to float in an upright position and, if inclined under
action of an external force, to return to this position after the external force has ceased acting.
Stability is not connected with a defined direction. However, ship inclination in transverse
direction is most common and easiest to achieve and in practice transverse stability is the most
critical to ship safety. Stability of a loaded ship depends on her shape and dimensions and on
the actual location of her center of gravity. Small ships with low freeboard are more prone to
stability accidents than other seagoing vessels. After a ship is constructed, an operator has no
influence on shape, dimensions, as well as mass and location of the center of gravity of an
empty vessel. Still, he has an influence on the final mass of the loaded vessel and the location
of the center of gravity defining amount of cargo, stores and ballast water as well as their
locations.

A number of ship operations can adversely affectstability. Such effects must be understood and,
where possible, mitigated. When liquid is consumed or removed from tanks than a free surface
is created which decreases stability. When a weight is lifted and suspended, its centre of gravity
rises to the point of suspension. When a quantity of loose dry bulk cargo moves transversely
across the ship, it will list to one side with some lost of stability. Phenomena such as absorption
of moisture by timber or similar deck cargoes, ice accretion on decks and accumulation of
shipped water will rise the vertical centre of gravity VCG reducing the righting arm GZ.

- Damage stability – Stability of the ship in flooded condition. This stability is attained by
installing a number of watertight compartments. If one of these compartments is breached, then
the watertight bulkheads surrounding it will prevent the inflow of seawater from spreading to the
rest of the ship. See also Damage stability calculations.

Intact Stability of Surface Ships:

The only time a vessel can be assumed to be stationary and in upright position is when
it is in dry dock or before it is launched to the sea. Once in the sea, the ship has to
sustain different environmental conditions, along with effects of various external and
internal changes.

A ship is always acted upon by several forces from factors such as seawater, wind,
internal mass weight, free surface effect etc. Thus, it is of utmost importance for a
vessel to always remain stable and afloat in all conditions.

A Stable Ship

Ship stability can be defined in simple terms as its characteristics or tendency to return
to its original state or upright state, when an external force is applied on or removed
from the ship.
A ship is at equilibrium when the weight of the ship acting down through centre of
gravity is equal to the up thrust force of water acting through centre of buoyancy and
when both of these forces are in same vertical line.

Loading ad

B is center of buoyancy and G is center of gravity

A ship will come to its upright position or will become stable, when an external force is
applied and removed, if the centre of gravity remains in the same position well below
metacentric height of the ship. When ship is inclined, centre of buoyancy shifts from B to
B1, which creates a movement and the righting lever returns the ship to its original
position and makes it stable.

M is metacenter and GZ is righting lever

A ship is seaworthy if it fulfills two important stability criteria- Intact and Damage
stability.

Requirements for Intact and Damage Stability of the Ship

Intact stability

For a cargo vessel, the intact stability requirements are follows-

 Initial GM or metacentric height should not be less then 0.15 m.

 Righting lever GZ should be at least 0.2 m and angle of heel Ѳ ≥ 30̊.
 Maximum righting lever should occur at heel >30̊ preferably but not less than 25̊.
 The Area of the GZ curve should be at least:

a) 0.055 m radian up to Ѳ = 30̊

b) 0.090 m radian up to Ѳ = 40̊

c) 0.03 m radian between 30̊ and 40̊ or between 30̊ and angle of down flooding.
The angle of down flooding is an angle at which deck immersion takes place with
subsequent water ingress.

Damage Stability

A damage stability criterion varies from ship to ship and the requirement for the same is
given in SOLAS chapter II-1. It may be single compartment flooding, multi compartment
flooding, engine room flooding etc.

Under all the criteria as applicable, vessel margin line should not be submerged after
the damage. Margin line is an imaginary line drawn 75mm below the free board deck.

Intact and damage stability are very important factors that govern the overall stability of
the ship.

Free Surface Effect Of Ships:

When any tank or a compartment is partially filled, the motion of the liquid (due to the
ship’s rolling and pitching motions) would reduce the stability of the ship. Why?
Because, when the ship is inclined, the liquid in the tank shifts to the lower side of the
tank, as shown in the following figure.

Figure 1: Free surface effect.

In the above figure, the ship tank extends from the bottom to the tank top (shown in
red), and is only partially filled. When the ship is in upright position, the free surface of
liquid in the tank is shown as AA1. When the ship inclines to a certain angle of heel (say
‘theta’ Ɵ) the free surface of the liquid now changes to TT1. Also, the center of buoyancy
shifts from ‘B’ to ‘B1’.

What happens as a result of this? Do note that when the liquid in the tank is transferred
to the lower side, the volume of the liquid within the wedge between points ‘A’ and ‘T’
has now shifted to the lower side between the points A 1 and T1. So basically, the center
of gravity of that volume of liquid has shifted from ‘g’ to ‘g1’.

As a result of the weight shift within the ship, the center of gravity of the ship now shifts
from ‘G’ to ‘G1’. The effect of this shift of liquid is such that the resultant weight of the
entire system acts through a virtual point which is much higher than the actual center of
gravity of the ship. This virtual center of gravity ‘GV’ is obtained by extending a vertical
line from the new center of gravity ‘G1’ to the centerline of the ship. So the resultant KG
increases, therefore reducing the metacentric height of the ship.

The new metacentric height with free surface effect is now ‘GVM’, and the new righting
lever is ‘GVZV’, both of which are significantly less than the original values (without free
surface effect). It is this reduction in the metacentric height, or rise in the CG of the ship
due to free surface effect, that reduces the stability of the ship or may even render it
unstable.

This reduction in metacentric height due to free surface effect can be calculated by the
following expression:

In the above expression,

?L = Density of the liquid in the tank.

?S = Density of seawater.

IL = Area moment of the free surface about the tank’s longitudinal centre line.

∇S = Mass displacement of the ship in sea water.

There are some very important conclusions that can be drawn from the above
expression, and these are used to develop design methods to combat free surface
effect on ships. They can be enlisted as:

 The effect of free surface is independent of the position of the tank. That is, a tank may be
at any height within the ship, or at any longitudinal position, and the development of any
free surface in it would affect the ship in the same way irrespective of its location.

 Reduction of metacentric height due to free surface effect is more for denser liquids.

 The shape of the tank plays a major role in the evaluation of free surface effect. That is
because, reduction in the stability of the ship is directly proportional to the area moment of
the free surface about the tank’s longitudinal centerline. What does this imply? The lesser
transverse surface area of the free surface, lesser its area moment of inertia about the
tank’s longitudinal centerline, lesser the reduction in GM due to free surface effect.

In order to attain this, a design priority during the design of tanks is to reduce the
longitudinal moment of the free surface by providing longitudinal bulkheads in tanks
having large surface area, as shown in the figure below.
 Figure 2:Longitudinal division of a tank to reduce free surface effect.

In the first case, a tank with breadth same as the beam of the ship (b) would have
produced significantly high reduction in GM due to a free surface. If the same tank is
compartmentalised into three equal parts by providing two longitudinal bulkheads, the
free surface would reduce by a factor of cube of the breadth of the tank (b). If you study
the tank plan of any ship, you would notice that large fuel and fresh water tanks are
divided into Port, Center, and Starboard compartments for this reason.

Free Surface Effect For Two Liquids:

There are cases where one tank contains two immiscible liquids. In fuel compensation
tanks, the volume of fuel oil used is replaced by sea water. In gasoline tanks, seawater
is introduced into the tank in order to prevent leaving any spaces for inflammable
vapours. Gasoline being lighter than sea water, always forms the top layer, and is
extracted from the top of the tank.
The interesting question here is, these tanks are always full. How is free surface effect
related to these cases, then? Note the following figure.

Figure 3: Free surface effect in twin-fluid tanks.

What happens is, the interface of the two liquids act as a free surface. So when the ship
inclines, the interface will remain parallel to the waterline. In order for this to happen, the
certain volume of the heavier liquid needs to shift to the lower side of the ship, replacing
certain volume that was occupied by the lighter liquid. The replaced volume of the
lighter liquid in turn, shifts to the upper side. The resultant effect is a shift of CG due to
the motion of fluids, which creates a free surface effect.

Effect of Shifting of Dry Bulk Cargo:

In ships carrying dry cargo in bulk like grains, ore, coal, etc. even though the surface of
the cargo is flattened after loading, rolling motion during voyage is likely to redistribute
the cargo within the hold, causing it to shift to one side. This will result in a list towards
one side. Now, a ship which has listed due to shift in cargo is vulnerable to capsizing in
case rolling increases to larger angles. In fact, bulk carriers have been known to capsize
due to shift of cargo.

In order to prevent such cases, designers are supposed to make sure that their design
complies with the IMO Code of Safe Practices for Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMO, 1980). The
Code provides a list of technical specifications for each type of bulk cargo and their
respective angles of repose. What we will focus on, in this section, is not the details of
the Code, since it is a specific document and is easily obtainable. What’s important
here, is to see how shift in cargo affects a ship’s stability.

Figure 4: Stability curve of a ship with shift of dry cargo.

The above figure is the representation of the ship’s stability during shift of dry cargo.
The dotted curve ‘AB’ plots the heeling arm or lever caused due to grain shift. To
generate this plot, analysis is carried out for various loading conditions, and accordingly
a range of grain heeling plots are obtained. Each plot should be treated as a separate
case for analysing the stability of the ship at each load case.

Now, imagine a ship in which grain has shifted to one side. The ship would list upto an
angle at which the grain heeling moment would cancel out the righting moment.
Graphically, this point is achieved where the curves of grain heeling arm and static
stability curve of the ship intersect.

In case of grain shift, the resultant maximum righting arm of the ship also reduces.
How? Let’s say, maximum GZ for the given case occurs at a heel angle of 40 degrees.
Due to existence of a grain heeling arm at 40 degrees (ƛ40) the resultant maximum GZ
would be (GZMAX – ƛ40).

The dynamic stability of a ship is the area enclosed within its static stability curve. It
gives us the magnitude of external heeling energy that the ship can absorb before
capsizing. The area accountable to dynamic stability reduces due to the presence of a
grain heeling arm. In other words, in case of absence of a cargo shift, the area
contributing to dynamic stability would be the area between the static stability curve and
the horizontal axis. Whereas, the area between the heeling arm curve and the
horizontal axis is reduced from the original area when cargo shifting occurs (shown as
shaded portion in the above figure). This means, the ship can now absorb less external
energy (wind, waves, centrifugal force due to high speed turns) before capsizing.

Therefore, the following design constraints are taken care of in order to prevent loss of
stability due to shift of dry cargo:

 The value of initial transverse metacentric height (GMT) assuming free surface effect to be
present. It must not be less than 0.3 meter.
 The value of initial transverse metacentric height (GMT): It should not be less than 0.3
meter if we consider that the free surface effect is present.
 Angle of list due to shift of dry cargo. As per the code, this value should not exceed 12
degrees in any sea state.
 Angle of list due to shift of dry cargo: As per the code, this value should not exceed 12
degrees in any sea state.
 The value of grain heeling arm at 40 degrees heel. This constraint is laid down, assuming
the fact that most ships attain maximum GM at 40 degrees heel angle.
 The value of grain heeling arm at 40 degrees heel: This constraint has been set
assuming the fact that most ships attain maximum GM at 40 degrees heel angle.

The slope of top-side tanks and size of the cargo holds, hence, play a major role in
preventing shift of dry cargo within a dry bulk carrier.

There are a range of other reasons for rise in the center of gravity of a ship, or in other
words, reduction in its stability. We will list and discuss some of them below:

 Collapse of a longitudinal bulkhead or a tank bulkhead may lead to rise in the CG as it

would increase the moment of inertia of the free surface.

 Stability of a ship is significantly reduced due to build-up of ice on it superstructure. It not

only causes unwanted angles of list, but also unwanted trim conditions. Often, list due to
icing of superstructures is a result of asymmetrical accumulation of ice, which causes the
center of gravity of the ship to shift. The resultant value of righting arm would be
significantly less for all angles of heel, therefore causing a reduction in:

1. Maximum GZ
2. Initial transverse metacentric height.
 3. Dynamic stability.
4. Range of stability.

Icing also increases the windage area of the ship, causing the wind heeling moment to
rise, and the dynamic stability to further decrease in case there are beam winds.

 Entry of water into the ship through badly maintained hatches could result in flooding
between the tween decks. There have been cases where open doors on weather decks
have allowed water ingress causing significant rise in CG due to flooding of top level
decks.

 Timber deck cargo can often be accumulated on one side of the ship due to heavy rolling
in bad weather conditions. The shift in cargo would result in a list, and there have been
cases where the timber cargo ships have been forced to voluntarily lose a part of their
cargo to the sea in order to correct dangerous angles of list.

A very interesting question arises here. If, during an unloading operation, a timber deck
cargo ship has a list to the port side due to accumulation of timber on the port side,
which side should be unloaded first in order to correct the list?

Someone with only a basic intuition would obviously say that since the cargo is port side
is the lower side (and there is excess cargo in the port side), the ship must release
cargo from the port side itself. But this would capsize the ship. Why? Because while it
may appear that removal of excess cargo from the lower side would upright the ship,
what actually happens is, weight is being removed from the lower side. It means, the
center of gravity shifts upwards, resulting in a decrease in metacentric height, and
hence, the margin of stability decreases drastically.

Concept of Heel, List, and Loll:

We have used all the three terms a number of times in this and the previous articles of
this series. While all the three terms would mean that a ship is inclined to a certain
angle, they do not mean the same. As in, they are terms used to understand
the ‘cause’ behind the inclined condition of the ship.

List : A ship is said to be in a condition of list when the upsetting moments are caused
by internal shift of weight that can be caused due to the following actions:

 Shift of cargo within the ship.

 Free surface effects.
 Crowding of passengers on one side of the ship.
 Asymmetrical icing on the superstructure.
 Figure 5: A ship listing due to internal weight shift.
Heel: A vessel is said to be heeling when the upsetting moments are caused by
external agents, for example:

 Beam winds.
 Heel due to a high speed turn.
 Heel due to a missile shot in transverse direction (in warships).
 `
Figure 6: Ship heeling to port while executing a sharp turn to starboard.

Loll: The condition of loll is completely different from the above two. A ship is said to
have an angle of loll when it is investigated that the ship has a negative initial stability,
or a negative initial metacentric height, as shown in the curve below.

A negative initial GM may occur due to the following reasons:

 Free surface effects.

 Flooded compartments.
 Top heaviness – or excessive loading on upper decks.
 Accumulation of green waters on the weather deck due to clogged scuppers.
 Figure 7: Condition of Loll due to negative initial GM.
The analogies discussed above leave us with two very important inferences:

A ship with a heel or a list is not necessarily unstable, as heel or list does not imply that
a ship has a negative value of GM. However, the case of instability cannot be ruled out
unless the GM values are checked. But a ship with a loll is definitely an unstable ship
because it has a negative GM in upright condition.

The importance of understanding stability of ships lies in appreciating that, without all
the concepts that we have been discussing and the approaches we have adopted in
understanding stability, it is impossible to understand the inferences. It is based on
inferences such as these, that designers and experienced ship crew develop a sense of
intuition towards analyzing cases of ship’s stability.
 Week 3
Topic No. 1: Ship’s Watertight Integrity
Overview (8 hrs.)
LO1.1: Analyze the importance of maintaining
watertight integrity to the seaworthiness of the ship

A ship is nothing more than a water tight container or storage compartment with its own
means of propulsion. Its purpose is to load and carry cargo, whether the cargo is
passengers, fish, or a host of other commodities. Each type of ship is specialised for
the trade in which it will operate. One of the most important factor of design is to ensure
that the water in which your vessel floats, does not enter the hull and cause progressive
flooding. We call this characteristic of a vessel its watertight
integrity.

Watertight means:

a) In relation to a fitting above deck, that it is so constructed as to resist effectively

the passage of water under pressure, except for slight seepage.

b) In relation to the structure of the vessel, capable of preventing the passage of

water in any direction if the head of pressure were up to the freeboard deck, which in
your case would mean the main deck.

Weathertight means that the structure or fitting will prevent the passage of water
through the structure or fitting in any ordinary sea conditions.

WATERTIGHT INTEGRITY
It should be maintained in specific compartments to meet intact and damaged stability
criteria (see Section 2) and for other compartments that may need to be protected against
water ingress for operational and safety reasons (e.g. accommodation spaces, control
rooms, spaces containing safety equipment etc.).
The number of openings in the boundaries of watertight compartments should be kept to
a minimum compatible with the design and proper working of the unit. Where penetrations
of these boundaries are necessary for access, piping, ventilation, electrical cables, etc.,
suitable arrangements should be made to maintain the strength of these boundaries and
their watertight integrity.
All watertight boundaries, associated closing appliances and their means of closure
should be of sufficient strength and tightness of closure to withstand the pressure and
other loads likely to occur in service and following damage (including wave impact loads).
Established practice for ships can be used as a basis for the various requirements relating
to closing appliances (e.g. heights of hatch coamings and door sills). However, the
characteristics of Offshore Installations can differ significantly from those of conventional
ships, particularly for column-stabilised and self-elevating units. Such practice should
therefore only be applied to the extent that it remains valid for the intended circumstances.
Manned control rooms in surface and column-stabilised units that include remote controls
for ballast and bilge systems etc. (see Section 4) should be above any final waterplane
after damage as defined in Section 2.6. Where reference is made to remote controls being
in some other readily accessible position which is above any final waterplane after
damage, such positions should be readily accessible in all intact and damage conditions
and should be suitably protected, access being preferably from within the unit.
Where reference is made to controls for valves, doors, hatches etc. the following general
suggestions are applicable:
a) Remote controls and associated indicators should be situated in a manned control
room.
b) Unless required to be otherwise by below, remotely controlled closing appliances
should fail to a safe condition on loss of control power and remain so on restoration of
control power.
c) Remotely controlled access openings should have the following features to safeguard
personnel:
• A switch on the control panel in the control room which enables either ‘normal’ or
‘emergency’ mode to be selected;
• In ‘normal’ mode, control to be local without automatic re-closing (i.e. re-closing
overridden);
• in ‘emergency’ mode, control to be remote and such that the doors close automatically
when opened by local control; 17 the ‘emergency’ mode should be restricted to
emergency only use; • with ‘normal’ mode selected, there should be a physical safeguard
against accidental selection of ‘emergency’ mode;
• Powered means of closure should be provided with local alarms, and closure speed
should be limited to safeguard personnel;
d) Where closing appliances remain open on loss of control power, a separate remote
means of closure should be provided. In the case of valves this may be by manual
mechanical means from another readily accessible position that is above any final
waterplane after damage.
e) The status (open/closed) of each closing appliance should be indicated at each position
from which it may be controlled.
f) Closing appliances and their controls, indicators, actuators, sources of power etc.
should be arranged to ensure that they remain capable of functioning effectively in
emergency conditions, including damaged conditions. Reference should be made to
Sections 4 and 5 for the special areas that apply to ballast systems. Watertight doors and
watertight hatches intended for personnel access or escape should be operable locally
from both sides of the associated bulkhead or deck.

Hull Watertight Integrity

The steel plating in a metal vessel, the planking in a wooden one, or the FRP laminate,
have as their primary purpose, the task of keeping the interior of the vessel free from
water. In all types of vessel construction, a structural framework is built first to provide
the strength. This, when combined with the external covering, forms the hull. In steel
and aluminium ships, the hull is made watertight by welding the steel plates together
and to the framework. Often the frame is built upside down and the shell plating is
welded onto the inverted frame. The hull is then righted and the internal welds are
completed. This procedure allows for a better weld and hence improved water tightness
since all welds are 'downwelds'.

FRP and ferro cement hulls are continuous with no joints and are inherently watertight,
as is their deck/hull connection.

Vessels constructed of timber are not normally totally watertight but rely on seepage of
water to swell the planking and thus make them watertight.

Openings in Watertight Bulkheads

Openings may be necessary in watertight bulkheads to allow the passage of pipes or

electrical cables, and special arrangements are made to ensure that the watertight
integrity of the bulkhead is maintained. All pipes passing through a watertight bulkhead
must be flanged to the bulkhead and do not pass directly through it (see Fig. 1.18). The
pipe on the left has a valve incorporated in it for filling the tank on the other side of the
bulkhead. There is a spindle running up to the main deck from where this valve can be
operated. The siting of the valve outside of the tank it is servicing reduces corrosion
and maintenance.

Seaworthiness and Stability

A vessel must be designed to ensure that it is capable of surviving the variety

of weather and operating conditions likely to be encountered in its area of
operations. This means that under normal operating conditions, the vessel
should have enough stability to keep it upright and afloat.
Careful attention must be paid to the hull shape, the distribution of weights and
the protection of hull openings.

Stress
A vessel’s structure should be able to withstand the stresses caused by:
• Water pressure,
• Weights on board such as cargo and machinery,
• Action of wind and waves and
• Operation of machinery
When carrying out its planned operations.

Survey Requirements
A small vessel must be designed, constructed and operated in accordance with
the regulations contained in the Marine Acts of each State. Much of the detailed
legislation is contained in the Uniform Shipping Laws Code (USL), published by
the Australian Government Publishing Service. A vessel is surveyed by the
marine authorities during the building stage, on completion of building, and then
periodically throughout its life to ensure that it complies with the regulations.

Personnel Safety
Persons on board must have safe working areas, safe access to and from the
working areas and safe accommodation. In the event of accidents and
breakdowns at sea, necessary safety measures must be available as per
statutory requirements.

Construction Materials
Each type of building material has its own advantages and disadvantages as
we shall see later in this section. The choice of building material will influence
the carrying capacity, propulsion power requirements and construction
method of the vessel.
 Commercial Requirements
Commercial requirements dictate that a vessel should be designed so as to
keep the construction and operational costs at a level acceptable to its owner.
You should keep these requirements in mind when you study the remainder of
this section.

Design Features and Terminology

In general, vessels subject to survey by a State Authority are covered by the provision
of the Uniform Shipping Laws (USL) Code.

Most of these regulations use Measured Length as a reference.

Measured Length - It is the distance from the fore part of the hull to the after part of the
hull, taken at the upperside of the uppermost weathertight deck, or, in the case of open
vessels, at the height of the gunwale. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 show two examples.

Figure 1.1:

Figure 1.2:
 Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP) (Fig. 1.3) - length from the forward perpendicular to the
after perpendicular. The forward perpendicular is a vertical line drawn through the point
where the load waterline cuts the stem. The after perpendicular is a vertical line drawn
at the after end of the rudder post.

Figure 1.3:
Length Overall (LOA) (Fig. 1.3) - the length from the extreme tip of the bow to the aftermost point
of the stern.
Freeboard (Fig. 1.3) - the distance from deck to waterline.

Depth (Fig. 1.4) - the depth of a vessel is usually measured at the side and amidships, it
is the distance from deck to keel.

Figure 1.4:
Beam Or Breadth (Fig. 1.4) - is measured at the widest part of the vessel. It is the greatest
width from one side of the vessel to the other.
A vessel in a normally loaded condition is said to be floating at its Load
Waterline or Design Waterline (Fig. 1.3).
In that condition, the draft at which the vessel floats is called the Loaded Draft or
sometimes the Service Draft. Draft is measured from the waterline to the deepest point
of the vessel’s hull, usually the underside of the keel. (Fig. 1.4).
Some vessels have a keel parallel to the design waterline. Some have a keel at an angle
when compared with the design waterline called declivity of keel.
The bow is the region at the front of a vessel. (Fig. 1.5).
When facing forward, the part of the vessel on the left hand is the port side, the part on
the right hand is the starboard side. (Fig. 1.5)

The stern is the region at the back of a vessel. (Fig. 1.5).

Figure 1.5:

A person moving towards the bow is said to be going forward. (Fig. 1.6).
A person moving towards the stem is said to going aft. (Fig. 1.6).
Amidships is the region in the middle of the length. Frequently this word defines the point
at the middle of LBP.
 Figure 1.6:

When moving along the length of a vessel a person is moving in a longitudinal direction.
When moving across a vessel a person is said to be moving in a transverse direction.
In some vessels the deck line curves forward and aft, this is called sheer. It aids water
run off and contributes to reserve buoyancy. (Fig. 1.6).
Flat Of Bottom - in some vessels, the area of the hull near to the keel is flat, this is called
Flat of Bottom. (Fig. 1.7).
Rise Of Floor (Deadrise) - if the bottom of a vessel rises from the centre line to the turn
of bilge, there is said to be a Rise of Floor. (Fig. 1.7).
Bilge - the rounded part of the hull, where the side meets the bottom is called the bilge. A
rounded bilge provides strength and reduces hull stresses. (Fig. 1.7).
Camber - if the deck of a vessel has an upward curve, it is said to have a camber. This
helps water to run off the deck and reduces deck stresses. (Fig. 1.7).
Tumblehome - if the sides of a vessel, ‘fall-in’ towards the centre line as they rise to the
deck-edge, the vessel is said to have tumblehome. This is not very common these
days. (Fig. 1.7).
 Figure 1.7:

Flare - the outward flowing of the bow (sometimes called Flare) forces water outwards
and away, promoting deck dryness and assisting the bow to lift over waves. (See Fig.
1.8).

Figure 1.8:

Bow Rake is similar to flare in that it promotes deck dryness by forcing water forward
when the bow strikes waves. See Fig. 1.9.
 Figure 1.9:

Principal Parts of a Vessel Hull

The main body of a vessel is called the hull.
Regardless of the material used in construction, the layout of the hull is similar in each
case. Every vessel has a shell of material which keeps the vessel watertight. The shell is
supported and obtains its strength from a series of internal stiffeners. In small vessels it
is common for the main stiffeners to be in the form of frames, sometimes described as
ribs.
If the main stiffeners of the hull run from side to side, the arrangement is called a
transversely framed structure. If the main stiffeners of the hull run fore and aft, the
arrangement is called a longitudinally framed structure.
Let us now look at some typical stiffening arrangements of metal and timber hulls.

Bottom Structure
The bottom structure of a vessel consists of a keel, with the flooring structure and side
shell plating on either side. The keel is located at the centre line of the bottom structure
and forms the ‘backbone’ of the vessel. Smaller vessels may be fitted with a bar keel,
however on the majority of larger vessels the keel is of a flat plate construction. A
longitudinal centre girder running along the ship’s centre line is fitted at right angles to the
flat plate keel. This helps in resisting bending of the hull in a longitudinal direction. On
some vessels with double bottoms, a ‘duct keel’ may be provided on the centre line. The
duct keel forms an internal watertight passage that can be used for carrying the
vessel’s pipework. The bottom shell plating is stiffened by means of transverse or
longitudinal frames. Additional strength is provided by fitting vertical plates to the bottom
shell. Those fitted transversely are called floors and those fitted longitudinally are
called side girders.
Figure 1.10 shows a “hard chine” (or Vee shaped) hull. It is called “hard” because the
topside meets the bottom at an angle as opposed to a “soft chine” hull where the topside
meets the bottom in a curve.

Figure 1.10: Flat Chine Hull

On some smaller vessels, a single bottom construction is employed as shown in figure

1.11. Figure 1.11 also shows the bottom construction of a “round bilge” type hull.

Figure 1.11: Single Bottom Construction

Double bottom construction is found on larger vessels. The double bottom space can be
used to carry fuel, ballast and fresh water. In addition it provides an extra margin of safety,
since in the event of bottom shell damage only the double bottom space may be flooded.
The bottom structure is similar to that found in single bottom construction, but with an
additional inner skin of plating. Figures 1.12 and 1.13 show transversely and longitudinally
framed double bottom constructions.

Figure 1.12: Transversely Framed Double Bottom

Figure 1.13: Longitudinally Framed Double Bottom

Transverse Webs (built up frames) may be provided on some vessels to support
longitudinal frames or where additional rigidity is required.
If it is necessary to enter a space, make sure that it is absolutely safe to do so and
you comply with occupational health and safety requirements.
The bottom structure will contain additional fittings depending upon the purpose for which
the space is being used. For example, if the space is used as part of a tank you are likely
to find sounding pipes and striker plates, suction valves, strum boxes and bottom plugs.
Other fittings may include speed and depth measuring devices.
Study figure 1.14 which shows typical timber chine hulls, and figure 1.15 which shows
typical timber round bilge type hulls.
Longitudinal strength is provided by major structural members running fore and aft such
as the keel, hog piece, stringers and hull planking. The shape of the transverse section
is maintained by means of floor timbers, gussets and handing knees that tie the whole
structure together.
Note how various parts are arranged to resist the stresses that we had identified earlier
when considering design requirements. In this respect, the arrangement of structures is
similar to a metal hull.
 Figure 1.14: Typical Timber Chine Hulls

Figure 1.15: Typical Timber Round Bilge Type Hulls

 Week 3
Topic No. 1: Ship’s Stability Condition
Overview (8 hrs.)
LO1.2: Determine the different ship’s stability condition and
its effect to maintain the watertight

Understanding Intact & Damage Stability of Ships

The only time a vessel can be assumed to be stationary and in upright position is when it
is in dry dock or before it is launched to the sea. Once in the sea, the ship has to sustain
different environmental conditions, along with effects of various external and internal
changes. A ship is always acted upon by several forces from factors such as seawater,
wind, internal mass weight, free surface effect etc. Thus, it is of utmost importance for a
vessel to always remain stable and afloat in all conditions.

A Stable Ship
Ship stability can be defined in simple terms as its characteristics or tendency to return to
its original state or upright state, when an external force is applied on or removed from
the ship.

A ship is at equilibrium when the weight of the ship acting down through center of gravity
is equal to the upthrust force of water acting through center of buoyancy and when both
of these forces are in the same vertical line.
B is center of buoyancy and G is center of gravityA ship will come to its upright position
or will become stable, when an external force is applied and removed, if the center of
gravity remains in the same position well below metacentric height of the ship. When the
ship is inclined, the center of buoyancy shifts from B to B1, which creates a movement
and the righting lever returns the ship to its original position and makes it stable.
M is metacenter and GZ is righting lever
A ship is seaworthy if it fulfills two important stability criteria- Intact and Damage stability.

Requirements for Intact and Damage Stability of the Ship

Intact stability
For a cargo vessel, the intact stability requirements are follows-

Initial GM or metacentric height should not be less than 0.15 m.

Righting lever GZ should be at least 0.2 m and angle of heel Ѳ ≥ 30̊.

Maximum righting lever should occur at heel >30̊ preferably but not less than 25̊.

The Area of the GZ curve should be at least:

a) 0.055 m radian up to Ѳ = 30̊

b) 0.090 m radian up to Ѳ = 40̊

c) 0.03 m radian between 30̊ and 40̊ or between 30̊ and angle of down flooding.
The angle of down flooding is an angle at which deck immersion takes place with
subsequent water ingress.

Damage Stability
A damage stability criterion varies from ship to ship and the requirement for the same is
given in SOLAS chapter II-1. It may be single compartment flooding, multi compartment
flooding, engine room flooding etc.

Under all the criteria as applicable, the vessel margin line should not be submerged after
the damage. Margin line is an imaginary line drawn 75mm below the free board deck.
Intact and damage stability are very important factors that govern the overall stability of
the ship.

How to maintain Water tightness, Seaworthiness, Fire

integrity and Security of Cargo ships?
It is critical that all openings to the hull below and above the waterline (weathertight &
watertight doors, etc.) are adequately secured to maintain the vessel's water tightness,
seaworthiness, fire integrity, and security.
A weathertight door is one that is installed above the freeboard deck in a construction. It
must be of sufficient strength and capable of maintaining the structure's waterproof
integrity. The term "weather deck" refers to a deck that is entirely exposed to the
elements from the top and on at least two sides (SOLAS). Water will not permeate the
ship in any sea conditions if it is weathertight (ICLL). A weathertight door or fitting must
be at least as strong as the bulkhead or deck to which it is attached.

A waterproof door is one that can open vertically or horizontally and is installed in a
watertight bulkhead. It is controlled either locally or remotely by a hydraulic system. It
must be well-built and capable of withstanding the complete hydraulic pressure of the
adjoining compartment in the event of flooding. It is capable of keeping water from passing
through the structure in either direction with a sufficient margin of resistance under the
pressure imposed by the greatest head of water that it may be subjected to (ICLL). The
distinction between watertight and watertight is that a watertight fitting must withstand
water pressure from the outside (be watertight from the outside), but a watertight fitting
must withstand water pressure from both sides (be watertight from both sides).

Watertight Integrity Plan - A diagram depicting the major and local watertight subdivisions,
as well as their internal openings and closing devices. The drawing is required by the
local class surveyor in order for suitable watertight integrity measures to be conducted
throughout the construction period.

Confirmation of closure of openings

The Master shall ensure the Chief Officer and Chief Engineer close all openings to
maintain Water tightness, Seaworthiness, Fire integrity and Security of the vessel, at the
following times, and enter the fact in the Log Book every time
a) Before Sailing,
b) When heavy weather is expected

For Water tightness

Since requirement of closure to maintain Water tightness is concerned with both
Seaworthiness and Cargo care, following attentions should be paid, especially at:
1. Watertight doors in E/R and any provided on bulkheads between cargo holds
2. Weather-tight doors (Iron doors on exposed decks)
3. Side ports for pilots boarding, if applicable
4. Access hatches or manholes leading to cargo holds or tanks
5. Hatch Covers or Tank domes, if applicable
6. Ventilators in which sea water can enter and particularly those on the forecastle
7. Fan dampers in cargo holds, except while ventilating is required
8. All sounding & ullaging pipes, and where applicable, peep holes.

a) If for any reason, any watertight or weather-tight openings are opened at sea,
permission must be taken from the Master as the case may be, and the same closed
immediately after completion of work and reconfirmed to the Master.
b) The Chief Engineer shall ensure that the watertight doors in the machinery space, Shaft
tunnel watertight door where fitted, are closed at all times, unless the space is manned.
c) The Chief Engineer shall ensure that all self-closing devices on sounding pipes and
glass-gauges for oil and water tanks are functional and never tied open. (This will also
prevent the oil in tank from fuelling an E/R fire)
For Fire integrity
There should be no hold-back mechanisms installed to any Fire doors, and all Fire
doors must be adjusted to close fully at all times, so fire prevention construction can
work normally when Fire doors are properly closed.

For Shipboard Security

a) All restricted spaces, as mentioned in the Ship Security Plan, are to be always kept
closed in port and in piracy-prone areas.
b) Such closures serve the dual purpose of safeguarding both the safety as well as the
security of the vessel.

Maintaining Vessel Watertight Integrity

This Safety Alert addresses two issues: watertight integrity and high level bilge alarms.
Recently a marine casualty involving a fishing vessel in the Bering Sea resulted in multiple
fatalities and complete loss of the vessel. A Marine Board of Investigation is currently
examining the various circumstances surrounding the casualty. Although the investigation
is not complete, testimony indicates the flooding of the vessel may have been
exacerbated due to open or leaking watertight doors and other compartmental
deficiencies which impacted the vessel’s overall watertight integrity. As a result of this
and other similar casualties, the U. S. Coast Guard strongly recommends vessel owners
and operators:

WATERTIGHT INTEGRITY

Ensure all watertight decks and bulkheads are inspected periodically to verify that there
are no unprotected openings or improper penetrations that will allow progressive flooding
and that closure devices (e.g. watertight doors, duct closures, etc.) are in place and in
working order.

Ensure all crewmembers are familiar with the locations of the watertight doors (WTDs)
and weather tight closures throughout their vessels. Knowing the locations of such WTDs
and weather tight closures should be part of the crewmember vessel familiarization
process.

Ensure WTDs and hatches are closed while at sea and as otherwise specified in the
stability guidance provided to the master or individual in charge. The importance of
keeping WTDs and hatches closed should be emphasized on a regular basis (e.g. at
safety meetings). WTDs and hatches should be opened only briefly to allow passage and
labeled appropriately to remind crewmembers to close them. If they must remain open to
permit work, WTDs and hatches should be attended at all times so that they can
immediately be closed. Any WTDs permitted to be open while the vessel is underway
should be secured during drills to ensure they work properly.
 Implement a WTD inspection program to ensure each WTD is regularly inspected and
properly maintained. As part of the inspection of each WTD, the following should be
examined: straightness of the knife edge; the door assembly for twisting or warp-age;
evidence of loose, missing seized or damaged components; permanent set in gasket
material, cracks in the gasket; gaps at gasket joints; paint, rust, or other foreign material
on gaskets, knife-edges and working parts; binding and difficult operations; and loose or
excessively tight dogs. Rotating spindles of the dog, handles and hinges, and other points
of friction should be lubricated to prevent seizing and allow proper closure. If fitted, the
spindle packing should also be examined.

Ensure watertight hatches, dogged manholes, bolted manhole covers, and access plates
are given similar examinations, focusing on the sealing surfaces and the method by which
the hatch is secured. Gasket materials should be replaced whenever they are found
insufficient. Regardless of the type of hatch or access, every component that secures the
device, such as dogs, wing nuts, or bolts should be inspected, lubricated and free, and
repaired or replaced as necessary to ensure they operate properly. As with watertight
doors, hatches and accesses should be labeled to indicate they remain closed while
underway. Most importantly, all securing devices must be used when the hatch or access
is closed. Improper closure of a hatch will not prevent flooding. Ensure compartments and
external hull structures fitted with ventilation ducts that have hinged covers with gaskets,
hinges, sealing surfaces and securing mechanisms are regularly inspected and properly
maintained (see above for guidance). Ensure electrical cables and conduits, piping runs,
remote valve actuators, and other components that penetrate watertight bulkheads,
decks, and compartments are inspected frequently and properly maintained. Each may
have a unique sealing method involving glands with packing assemblies, penetration
seals, or other methods. Frequent inspection and proper maintenance of these various
fittings and assemblies will assist in minimizing the possibility of progressive flooding.

BILGE AND HIGH WATER ALARMS

Ensure water accumulation is minimized and all spaces are kept dry unless permitted by
the stability instructions provided to the master or individual in charge.

Ensure bilge high level alarms are arranged to provide the earliest warnings of abnormal
accumulation. The high level bilge alarms should be set as low as possible to the deck or
bilge well and positioned along the centermost area of the compartment or in a location
at which the fluids will gravitate to first. In areas where bilge water routinely accumulates,
the bilge high level alarms should be placed just above the point where under normal
working conditions the accumulation would be pumped to a holding tank, overboard, or
through an oily water separation system if required. Alarms may be fitted with short time
delays to prevent nuisance alarms caused by the rolling and pitching of the vessel.

Ensure all crewmembers understand the importance of minimizing water in the bilges.
Provide the funding, labor, spare parts, and vessel availability necessary to ensure
leakages stemming from machinery, equipment and other components are kept to a
minimum at all times in accordance with good marine practice. This safety alert is
provided for informational purposes only and does not relieve any domestic or
international safety, operational or material requirement. Developed and distributed by
the Office of Investigations and Analysis, United States Coast Guard Headquarters,
Washington, DC.