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Physiology and Anatomy of Stress

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Research Article
Physiology and Anatomy of Stress
Manish Kumar Dwivedi*, HH Awasthi**
Abstract
The problem of stress remains a contentious issue. It depends on the way the stress is defined
and how the concept of health is viewed. Scientists accept this as a physical environment can
act as source of stress causes illness, disease or death. Stress can produce physiological and
psychological changes that lead to illness through direct route.3 Stress is the pattern of
specific and non-specific responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturb the
equilibrium and taxes the ability to cope. It disturbs the mental and physical level of an
individual affecting various parts of the brain and related body parts. Psychophysiology is a
field of study based on the principle that the mind and body are one, where thoughts and
perceptions affect potentially all aspects of physiology. This study examines the effects of
stress on the various parts of the body and the mind.

Keywords: Stress, Hippocampus, ACTH axis.

Introduction The Vegetative Level

Hens Selye proposed the direct relationship between
chronic stress and its effects on the various body parts.
The physical deterioration of the body has been noticed
the attention of the physiological dynamics involved
with stress response specifically the immediate,
intermediate and prolonged effects on the body. The
psychophysiology explains the concept of mind-body
relationship and supports the fact that many diseases
and illness occur due to psychosomatic disorders in the
mind through the higher brain centers. There are three
systems in the body which are directly involved with the
physiology of stress: the nervous system, the endocrine
system and the immune system that are stimulated by
the perceived threats.1
Central Nervous System
The brain plays a critical role in the body’s perception
and response to stress. The brain carries information of
stressful situations across regions of the brain, it would
help to explain how stress and its negative
consequences are responsible for neutral
communication dysfunction. The nervous system has
two parts: the Central Nervous system (CNS) consists of
the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous
system comprising of neural pathways. The human brain
is divided into three levels: the vegetative level, the
limbic system and neocortical level.1
*
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Rachana Sharir, IMS, BHU.
**
Head & Professor, Department of Rachana Sharir, IMS, BHU.
Correspondence to: Mr Manish Kumar Dwivedi, Ph.D Scholar, Department of Rachana Sharir, IMS, BHU.
E-mail Id: mdwivedifpm@gmail.com
The lowest level of the brain consist of two parts the
reticular formation and the brain stem. The reticular
activating system consist of fibers that link connecting
the brain to the spinal cord, it acts as a bridge and
communication link joining the mind and the body as
one. The brain stem composed of the pons, medulla
oblongata and mesencephalon is responsible for
involuntary functions of the human body such as
heartbeat, respiration and vasomotor activity.1
The Limbic System
The midlevel portion of the brain is limbic system. The
limbic system controls the emotions in the body
responsible for biochemical reactions constitute the
stress response system. The limbic system composed of
the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the amygdale and the
pituitary gland known as master gland helps to maintain
a level of homeostasis within the body.1 Homeostasis is
a physiological state of complete calmness or rest, it
include heart rate, blood pressure and ventilation. The
hypothalamus is a small portion of the brain located
below the thalamus and above the brainstem. One of its
most important functions is to help link together the
body’s nervous and endocrine systems. This structure
has many bidirectional neural inputs and outputs from
and to various other brain regions. These connections
help to regulate the hypothalamus’ ability to secrete

© ADR Journals 2015. All Rights Reserved.

J. Adv. Res. Ayur. Yoga Unani Sidd. Homeo. 2015; 2(3)
hormones into the body’s blood stream, having far-
reaching and long-lasting effects on physiological
processes such as metabolism. During a stress response,
the hypothalamus secretes various hormones like
corticotropin-releasing hormone, which stimulates the
body’s pituitary gland and initiates a heavily regulated
stress response pathway.2
The amygdala is a small, "almond"-shaped structure,
two of which are located bilaterally and deep within the
medial temporal lobes of the brain. The amygdalae are
part of the brain’s limbic system, with projections to and
from the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and locus
coeruleus among other areas. Thought to play a role in
the processing of emotions, the amygdalae have been
responsible for modulating stress response
mechanisms, particularly when feelings of anxiety or
fear are involved.2
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is a structure located bilaterally, deep
within the medial temporal lobes of the brain, just
below each amygdala and is a part of the brain’s limbic
system. The hippocampus is thought to play an
important role in memory formation. Hippocampus is
connected to the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, and
amygdala, among other regions. During stress, the
hippocampus is particularly important, in that cognitive
processes such as prior memories can have a great
influence on enhancing, suppressing, or even
independently generating a stress response.
The hippocampus is also an area in the brain that is
susceptible to damage brought upon by chronic stress
because of which people suffer from a problem of
memory loss very soon.2
The Neocortical Level
The neocortex is the highest and most sophisticated
level of the brain. At this level the sensory information is
processed as a danger or non threat and cognition takes
place. In close association with Central Nervous System,
the other neural fibers are considered to be peripheral
nervous system comprises of two individual networks:
somatic networks and autonomic nervous system. The
somatic networks are responsible for transmitting
sensory messages along the neural pathways between
the five senses and the higher brain centers while the
Autonomic Nervous system regulates the function of
circulation, digestion, respiration and temperature
regulation.1
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Dwivedi MK et al.
Prefrontal Cortex
The prefrontal cortex, located in the frontal lobe, is the
anterior-most region of the cerebral cortex. An
important function of the prefrontal cortex is to
regulate cognitive processes including planning,
attention and problem solving through extensive
connections with other brain regions. The prefrontal
cortex can become impaired during the stress
response.2
Locus Coeruleus
The locus coeruleus is an area located in the pons of the
brainstem that is the principal site of the synthesis of
the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, which plays a
crucial role in the sympathetic nervous system’s fight-
or-flight response to stress. This area receives input
from the hypothalamus, amygdala and raphe nucleus
among other regions and projects widely across the
brain as well as to the spinal cord.2
Raphe Nucleus
The raphe nucleus is an area located in the pons of the
brainstem that is the principal site of the synthesis of
the neurotransmitter serotonin, which plays an
important role in mood regulation, particularly when
stress is associated with depression and anxiety.2
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord transfer stress response neural impulses
from the brain to the rest of the body. The
neuroendocrine blood hormone signaling system
initiated by the hypothalamus, the spinal cord
communicates with the rest of the body by stimulating
the peripheral nervous system. Certain nerves that
belong to the sympathetic branch of the central nervous
system exit the spinal cord and stimulate peripheral
nerves, which in turn engage the body’s major organs
and muscles in a fight-or-flight manner.2
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland known as master gland, a small
organ is located at the base of the brain just under the
hypothalamus. This gland releases various hormones
that play significant roles in regulating homeostasis.
During a stress response, the pituitary gland releases
hormones into the blood stream, called
adrenocorticotropic hormone, which modulates a
heavily regulated stress response system.2
Dwivedi MK et al.
Adrenal Gland
The adrenal gland is a major organ of the endocrine
system that is located directly on top of the kidneys and
is chiefly responsible for the synthesis of stress
hormones that are released into the blood stream
during a stress response. Cortisol is the major stress
hormone released by the adrenal gland.
In addition to the locus coeruleus existing as a source of
the neurotransmitter norepinephrine within the central
nervous system, the adrenal gland can also release
norepinephrine during a stress response into the body’s
blood stream, at this point epinephrine acts as a
hormone in the endocrine system.2
Corticotrophin-Releasing Hormone
Corticotrophin-releasing hormone is the neuro hormone
secreted by the hypothalamus during a stress response
that stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
by binding to its corticotropin-releasing hormone-
receptors, causing the anterior pituitary to release
adrenocorticotropic hormone.2
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone is the hormone secreted
by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland into the
body’s blood stream that stimulates the cortex of the
adrenal gland by binding to its adrenocorticotropic
hormone-receptors, thus causing the adrenal gland to
release cortisol.2
Cortisol
Cortisol is a steroid hormone, belonging to a broader
class of steroids called glucocorticoids, produced by the
adrenal gland and secreted during a stress response. Its
primary function is to redistribute energy (glucose) to
regions of the body that need it most (i.e., the brain and
major muscles during a fight-or-flight situation). As a
part of the body’s fight-or-flight response, cortisol also
acts to suppress the body’s immune system.
Cortisol is synthesized from cholesterol in the adrenal
cortex. Its primary function is to increase blood sugar
through gluconeogenesis, suppress the immune system
and aid in fat and protein metabolism.2
Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter released from
locus coeruleus when stimulated by the hypothalamus
during a stress response. Norepinephrine serves as the
primary chemical messenger of the central nervous
ISSN: 2394-6547
J. Adv. Res. Ayur. Yoga Unani Sidd. Homeo. 2015; 2(3)
system’s sympathetic branch that prepares the body for
fight-or-flight response.2
Serotonin
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter synthesized in the raphe
nucleus of the pons of the brainstem and projects to
most brain areas. Serotonin is thought to play an
important role in mood regulation. Stress-induced
serotonin dysfunctions have been associated with
anxiety, fear and depression-like symptoms.2
Neuropeptide Y
Neuropeptide Y is a protein that is synthesized in the
hypothalamus and acts as a chemical messenger in the
brain. Traditionally, it has been thought to play an
important role in appetite, feeding behavior, and
satiety, but more recent findings have implicated
Neuropeptide Y in anxiety and stress, specifically, stress
resiliency.2
Automatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System consists of the sympathetic
(arousal) and parasympathetic nervous systems. The
Central Nervous System performs the involuntary
functions such as breathing and heart rate are
programmed to function automatically. The sympathetic
nervous system triggers the fight or flight response
when there is a threat perceived by the organism. The
sympathetic nervous system releases the hormones
called catecholamines specifically epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
prepare the body for rapid metabolic function. The
secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine causes the
acceleration of heart rate, vascodilation of arteries
throughout working muscles. The parasympathetic
calms the body through the parasympathetic response.1
Endocrine System
The Endocrine system consists of a series of glands
located throughout the body that regulate metabolic
functions requiring endurance rather than speed. The
endocrine system is a network of four components:
glands, hormones, circulation and target organs.
Endocrine glands manufacture and release biochemical
substances called hormones.
Hormones are chemical messengers made up of protein
compounds that are programmed to attach to specific
cell receptor sites to increase or decrease cell
metabolism. Hormones are transported through the
bloodstream from the glands that produced them to the
8
 J. Adv. Res. Ayur. Yoga Unani Sidd. Homeo. 2015; 2(3)
target organs. The glands which are closely involved
with the stress response are the pituitary, thyroid and
adrenal glands. The pituitary gland called the master
gland because it manufactures several important
hormones.1
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter is associated with mood. When a
level of serotonin decreases, it leads to take shape of
depression. Serotonin levels are affected by factors like
stress hormones and the foods consumed.2
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus is associated with emotional processing.
When someone perceives threats, the hypothalamus is
activated and secretes corticotrophin- releasing factor
(CRF) to the pituitary gland to stimulate the fight-or
flight response.1
The ACTH Axis
The hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis also
known as ACTH axis begins with the release of
corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) from the anterior
hypothalamus. This substance activates the pituitary
gland to release ACTH, which travels via the
bloodstream activate adrenal cortex.
The adrenal cortex releases a set of corticosteroids
(cortisol and aldosterone) which increases metabolism
and alter body fluids and thus blood pressure,
respectively.1
Cortisol
The other stress hormone, cortisol, is present in the
body all the time, but levels increase in response to
danger and stress. In the short-term, its effects are
positive, to help you deal with an immediate crisis, but
long term stress means that cortisol builds up and
creates a number of stress related health problems.
Short-term positive effects are a quick burst of energy,
decreased sensitivity to pain, increase in immunity,
heightened memory.
Long-term negative effects include imbalances of blood
sugar, increase in abdominal fat storage, suppressed
thyroid activity, decreased bone density, decreased
muscle mass, high blood pressure, lowered immunity
and less able to think clearly.4
9 ISSN: 2394-6547
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Dwivedi MK et al.
Body Reaction to Stress
The body’s response to stress having symptoms of fast
shallow breathing, headaches, constant tiredness,
restlessness, sleeping problems, tendency to sweat,
nervous twitches, cramps or muscle spasms, pins and
needles, high blood pressure, feeling sick or dizzy,
constipation or diarrhea, craving for food, indigestion or
heartburn, lack of appetite, sexual difficulties, fainting,
chest pains and grinding the teeth at night etc.4
Behavioral and Cognitive Symptoms of Stress
Irritable, aggressive, depressed, fearing failure, dreading
the future, a loss of interest in others, taking no interest
in life, neglected, that there's no-one to confide in a loss
of sense of humor, bad or ugly, fearful of seriously ill
etc. This may result in finding it difficult to make
decisions, finding it difficult to concentrate, denying
there's a problem, avoiding difficult situations,
frequently crying, biting your nails, unable to show your
true feelings, being very snappy or aggressive and
finding it difficult to talk to others etc.5
Conclusion
The prolonged stress have a harmful effects on the body
affecting various parts of the brain brings change in
behavior and having physiological, cognitive and
emotional effect on the various parts of the body. Long-
term exposure to stress can lead to serious health
problems. Chronic stress disrupts nearly every system in
the body. It can raise blood pressure, suppress the
immune system, increase the risk of heart attack and
stroke, contribute to infertility, and speed up the aging
process. Long-term stress can even rewire the brain
leads to anxiety and depression. There is a variation in
the body system due to which the different person
respond differently to the stressful situations. As a
result it may affect different body parts causes various
diseases and illness.
References
1. Brian SL. Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies
for Health and Well Being, 7th Ed. Burlington, MA:
Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2012: 46-60.
2. Stress (biology). Available from: http://
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/stress.
3. Khokhar PC. Stress Coping and Management, 1st Ed.
Meerut: Shalabh Publishing House, 2003: 56.
4. Darton K. How to manage stress. Mind (NAMH),
2012: 6.