Topic 3:

Surface Energy Balance and Biogeophysical

Climate-Vegetation Interactions

‣ Readings: Bonan Ch.12, 27, 28

‣ Supplemental: Wallace & Hobbs Ch.10.3
 Global Energy Balance

[Bonan Fig. 3.2]

Incoming solar radiation + Atmospheric longwave radiation

=
Surface thermal emission + Sensible heat + Latent heat
 Land-Atmosphere Interactions
Biogeophysical
processes include
the exchange of
momentum, water
and energy (heat +
radiation) between
λE
H the surface (soil,
S εLL
vegetation, water
rS εσTs4 body) and
atmosphere.
Biogeochemical
processes include
G [Moorcroft] the exchange of
chemical
substances (e.g., C,
Biogeochemical Biogeophysical
N, S, P) between the
processes processes
surface and
atmosphere.
Resistance Model for Land-Atmosphere Exchange
r = ra + rb + rc
ra = aerodynamic resistance
(turbulent diffusivity, wind,
stability, roughness, …)
rb = boundary-layer
resistance (viscosity,
molecular diffusivity, …)
[Bonan Fig. 15.1]

Vegetated surface
/ canopy

rc = surface/canopy
resistance (surface
characteristics)
[Brasseur & Jacob 2014]
Momentum Exchange and Turbulent Fluxes
‣ Roughness of the surface (e.g.,
from vegetation) imposes a
frictional drag on the atmosphere,
which in turn imposes a stress (τ)
on the surface, shaping wind
velocities (u) in the boundary
layer and creating vertical wind
shear (gradient).
‣ Wind shear and surface
heating lead to dynamic
and static instability,
respectively, which
generates turbulence,
giving rise to aerodynamic
conductance for land-
atmosphere exchange.
Momentum Exchange and Turbulent Fluxes
‣ Turbulent mixing, which
determines aerodynamic
conductance, is an important driver
of land-atmosphere exchange of
heat, water and chemical
substances, shaping climate and
atmospheric composition at large.

‣ Taller vegetation (relative to

bare ground) has a larger
roughness length, thus larger
aerodynamic conductance and
stronger turbulent fluxes.
 Surface Energy Balance
‣ S = incoming
solar radiation
(shortwave, mostly
visible light)
‣ r = albedo (fraction
λE
of solar radiation
H reflected by
S εLL
surface)
rS εσTs4 ‣ L = incoming
longwave radiation
(mostly infrared from
the atmosphere)
[Moorcroft] G
‣ ε = absorptivity
‣ εσTs4 = outgoing longwave radiation (from (fraction of radiation
the surface with temperature Ts) absorbed)
‣ σ = Stefan-
‣ ε = emissivity (fraction of blackbody
Boltzmann constant
radiation emitted)
 Surface Energy Balance
‣ H = sensible heat
flux (heat transfer
by conduction and
convection, i.e.,
movement or air)

λE ‣ λE = latent heat
H S εLL flux (where E =
evapotranspiration
rS εσTs4
[mol m−2 s−1] and λ
= latent heat of
vaporization [J
mol−1])
[Moorcroft] G

‣ Rn = net radiation = (1 − r)S + εL − εσTs4 ‣ G = ground heat

flux or soil storage
(via conduction)
 Vegetation and Hydrology
Precipitation (P) ‣ Runoff includes streamflow and
groundwater outflow.
Evapotranspiration
(E)
‣ Water balance:
[Bonan Fig. 11.1]
• P−E=R
‣ Vegetation tends to retains
water and reduces runoff:
• Plants themselves store water
• Roots and organisms keep soil
porous, storing more water
• Litter and humus retard surface
outflow
• Suction by roots keeps soil water
near surface
Runoff
(R)
‣ Therefore, vegetation generally
increases evapotranspiration
and latent heat flux, other things
being constant.
Litter and humus
Bowen Ratio and Evapotranspiration
‣ Defined to be the ratio of sensible
heat flux to latent heat flux:

‣ With this definition, ET can be expressed as:

Over land, annual Typical values of Bowen ratio β

ET is ~60% of Rn, Land types Bowen ratio
and ~65% of annual
precipitation. Tropical rainforests 0.1−0.3
Temperate forests and
0.4−0.8
G is negligible on grasslands
annual timescales. Semiarid regions 2.0−6.0

Deserts >10
Sensible vs. Latent Heat Flux

Tropical rainforest in southern Amazonia [Bonan Fig.12.5]

Empirical relationships of λE and H with Rn [Bonan Fig.12.6]

Seasonality of Surface Energy Balance

Dependence on seasonality of both solar insolation and precipitation

 Which Are Dryer?

Semiarid
desert near
Tucson, AZ,
USA [Bonan
Fig.12.9]
 Albedo of Land Surface
‣ Vegetation is Albedo for shortwave radiation
generally less
reflective of solar
shortwave
radiation (i.e.,
lower albedo)
than bare lands → warming effect

[NASA]

Soil albedo decreases with increasing soil

moisture because radiation is trapped by
internal reflection.
 Net Radiation
‣ Albedo also varies diurnally (due to solar zenith angle) and
seasonally (due to amount of leaves, snow cover and soil
moisture).

‣ Net radiation:
‣ S = incoming solar radiation
‣ r = albedo
‣ L = incoming longwave radiation
‣ ε = absorptivity or emissivity
 Sensible Heat Flux
‣ Sensible heat flux (W m−2) can be represented as a function of
vertical temperature gradient:

• cp = molar specific heat of moist air ≈ 29.2 J mol−1 K−1

• Ta = air temperature at reference height (K)
• Ts = surface temperature (K)
• ga = aerodynamic conductance for heat and water vapor (mol m−2 s−1)

‣ Aerodynamic conductance (ga) is determined by turbulent mixing,

which depends on surface roughness and meteorological
conditions. Taller vegetation tends to lead to larger ga and thus
more efficient heat exchange. Typically, ga ~ 0.4–4 mol m−2 s−1.
Evapotranspiration and Latent Heat Flux
‣ Latent heat flux (W m−2) can be represented as a function of
vertical gradient in water vapor pressure:

• λ = latent heat of vaporization for water ≈ 4.444×104 J mol−1 at 15°C

• cp = molar specific heat of moist air ≈ 29.2 J mol−1 K−1
• γ = psychrometric constant = cpP/λ ≈ 66.5 Pa K−1
• ea = water vapor pressure in air at reference height (Pa)
• e∗(Ts) = saturation vapor pressure evaluated at Ts (Pa)
• g = total conductance for water vapor (mol H2O m−2 s−1)
‣ Total conductance for water vapor is a combination of aerodynamic
conductance (ga) and surface or canopy conductance (gc), added
in parallel:
gc depends on surface dryness, soil
moisture and plant physiology (e.g.,
stomatal conductance gs)
Evapotranspiration and Latent Heat Flux
‣ Latent heat flux (W m−2) can be represented as a function of
vertical gradient in water vapor pressure:

‣ Evapotranspiration rate and latent heat flux thus increase with:

• Increasing available energy (e.g., from solar radiation) and
higher temperature → higher e✽(Ts)
• Lower humidity in air → lower ea
• Higher wind speed and turbulence → lower ea and higher ga
• Wetter soil and more vegetation → higher gc
Determination of Surface Temperature
‣ Soil heat flux − heat transfer to or from soil with a temperature
Tg at a depth Δz (m) is:
κ = thermal conductivity [W m−1 K−1]

‣ Energy balance at the surface:

‣ We can thus solve for Ts. However, this equation is highly

nonlinear with respect to Ts and numerical methods are
often used.
‣ Penman-Monteith equation provides a simplified
calculation for λE and Ts.
Biogeophysical Effects of Vegetation on Climate
Incoming Longwave Surface Ignoring G…
solar back thermal Sensible
radiation radiation emission heat flux Latent heat flux

Vegetation
decreases Vegetation takes up Vegetation retains water
albedo (r) CO2 by photosynthesis and increases roughness,
(biogeochemical effect, thus increasing total
important on global conductance (g) and
Radiative scale only) evapotranspiration (E)
warming
Radiative cooling Evaporative cooling
Effects of vegetation on precipitation Surface roughness effect on
are complex, dependent on the turbulent exchange is usually small
interplay between temperature, on a large scale, but may be
convection and water vapor amount. important on a local scale.
 Feedback Mechanisms

Variable x increases → + positive feedback

(amplification)
Variable y changes →
Causes variable x to increase further

Variable x increases → − negative feedback

(damping)
Variable y changes →
Causes variable x to decrease

‣ Positive feedback amplifies the initial change, making the

climate system more sensitive to variable x.
‣ Negative feedback dampens the initial change, making it
less sensitive to variable x.
Stable, Unstable and Multiple Equilibria

‣ Stable: a small perturbation will be

dampened and the system returns to its
original state
‣ Unstable: a small perturbation will be
amplified and the system will diverge to a
new state (either to “explode” or to reach a
new equilibrium)
‣ A complex system with various positive and
negative feedback pathways can have
multiple equilibria.
 Feedback Diagram
‣ An arrow indicates a direct effect
‣ A plus (+) sign means a positive correlation (an increase in A
increases B); a minus (−) sign means a negative correlation
(an increase in A decreases B)
‣ Overall sign of a feedback loop is the product of the signs of
all individual arrows

A A
+ + + −
B B
Positive feedback Negative feedback
Biogeophysical Feedback Mechanisms
‣ Biogeophysical feedback:
T ↑ → photosynthesis ↑ → albedo ↓ → T ↑ (+)

T ↑ → plant damage → photosynthesis ↓ → albedo ↑ → T ↓ (−)

T ↑ → photosynthesis ↑ → ET ↑ → T ↓ (−)

T ↑ → plant damage → photosynthesis ↓ → ET ↓ → T ↑ (+)

• This is a very complex feedback mechanism

involving various ecosystem processes, further
complicated by changes in other atmospheric
conditions accompanying climate change.
Biogeophysical Feedback Mechanisms

Also: λE ↓, H ↑,
warmer, drier and
deeper boundary layer

[Bonan Fig. 27.1]

 Hypothetical Daisyworld
‣ Example: Daisyworld (see Wallace & Hobbs Ch.10.3)
• Imagine an atmosphere-less planet with only one type of plant,
white daisy; the surface is otherwise black; F0 = solar insolation
• Planetary albedo r = fractional coverage of daisy
• Daisy coverage first increases with T, and then decreases at
higher T beyond an optimum (red line).
(not in linear scale)
Energy balance (blue lines):
F0 ↑
At P: T ↑ → r ↑ → T ↓
Stable equilibrium
At P’: T ↑ → r ↓ → T ↑
Unstable equilibrium
At Q: Semi-stable equilibrium
TQ and T4 represent two
alternative equilibria
 Hypothetical Daisyworld
‣ Original climate-vegetation dynamics in the Daisyworld was modeled
more fully by Watson & Lovelock (1983), who considered two types
of daisies, black and white, on a neutral ground. Set of equations:

Population
dynamics:
x = fractional area of
Growth rate: uncolonized fertile ground
γ = death rate
Planetary albedo: Ag/w/b = fractional area
covered by bare
Surface energy ground/white/ black daisies
balance: rg/w/b = corresponding
albedo
‣ The model can also account for local vs. global energy balance by
taking horizontal energy transport into account. It can be solved for a
given set of parameters.
‣ Watson & Lovelock (1983) have examined how a gradual increase in
solar luminosity (and thus F0) may affect climate-vegetation dynamics.
Hypothetical Daisyworld
‣ Cool (warm) climate at low
(high) solar luminosity
favors black (white) daisy,
which keeps the planet
warmer (cooler) toward
the optimum.
‣ At very low or high
luminosity, no daisies can
exist, and temperature is
either very low or very
high.
‣ In between, the existence
of daisies has kept the
planet relatively stable
and close to the optimum
over a large range of
luminosity!
 Dryland Degradation
‣ Charney (1975) hypothesized that reduced vegetation due to
overgrazing and drought may activate a positive biogeophysical
climate feedback that further intensifies desertification.
‣ Lack of vegetation in the
Sahara and Sahel sustains
and reinforces their aridity.

Stronger subsiding
branch of Hadley cell
 Green Sahara 6,000 Years Ago
‣ Evidence shows that
6,000 years ago, North
Africa and the Sahara was
much wetter and more
densely vegetated than
today.
‣ Back then, Sun-Earth
orbital variation was such
that summertime
external solar forcing
was particularly strong
→ North Africa was more
heated → greater land-
sea temperature contrast
→ stronger African
monsoon and convection
→ higher precipitation
 Green Sahara 6,000 Years Ago
‣ Climate models show that
solar forcing alone cannot fully
account for the wet climate.
Climate-vegetation coupling
is needed to reinforce it:
Precipitation ↑

Monsoon and Vegetation and

convection ↑ soil moisture ↑

Water
vapor ↑ Bonan Fig. 27.4: Asynchronous
Albedo ↓ coupling of a climate and a
biogeographical model, starting
Evapotranspiration ↑
with 6 kya solar forcing but
present-day vegetation, until
Atmospheric equilibrium is reached
Net radiation ↑
heating ↑
Sensible heat ↑
From “Wet-Green” to “Dry-Yellow” Sahara
‣ Between 6,000 to 5,000
years ago, climate
abruptly went drier and
vegetation became
desert
‣ Gradual decline in
external solar forcing
weakened the summer
monsoon and reduced
precipitation.
‣ Abrupt transition was
likely induced by strong
climate-vegetation
feedbacks.
‣ Such regime change
suggests the existence of Bonan Fig. 27.5: Transient coupled climate-
two different stable vegetation simulation
climate states →
multiple equilibria
From “Wet-Green” to “Dry-Yellow” Sahara
‣ Under the same present-day forcing,
West Africa can have two different Forest initial
stable equilibria depending on initial conditions
conditions.
‣ Small perturbations: negative
feedbacks may lead to a full recovery
‣ Large perturbations: positive
feedbacks may lead to a new
equilibrium
‣ Can it occur in the future where
deforestation is intense? Desert initial
conditions

[Wang & Eltahir, 2000] Bonan Fig. 27.6: Equilibria under the same forcing
Biogeophysical Climate-Vegetation Interactions
Deforestation can also have complex and Localized perturbation
unexpected impacts on climate, and how
precipitation responds depends on the Precipitation ↑
spatial scale and pathways involved for a
given location.
Precipitation ↓ Convergence ↑

Vegetation ↓ Temperature ↑

Convergence ↓ Albedo ↑ Evapotranspiration ↓

Temperature ↓
Large-scale perturbation
Climate Effects of Boreal Needleleaf Forests
‣ Boreal forests (mostly conifers) mainly
have a warming effect, mainly due to their
low albedo in winter and spring, especially
in comparison with the otherwise snow-
covered tundra or bare ground.
‣ Transpiration from needleleaf trees is
limited due to their leaf properties.
Snowmelt [Bonan, Fig. 27.8]

Difference between climate simulation

with and without boreal forests
Feedback Effects of Boreal Forest Expansion
Present-day vegetation Vegetation following a doubling of CO2

Replacement of tundra
with boreal forests
following warming and CO2
fertilization, together with
ice-albedo feedback,
further amplifies warming
in the Arctic.

Change in temperature (°C)

[Chae et al.,
2014]
Climate Effects of Temperate Reforestation

Change in
Areas converted to annual mean T
broadleaf deciduous trees
[Swann et al. 2010]

‣ Lower albedo → T ↑
‣ Transpiration limited by soil water
availability → H ↑ → T ↑
‣ These effects may partly or completely
offset the effect of CO2 uptake.
‣ Ability of trees to cool by transpiration
is dependent on water availability.
Effects of Historical Land Use Change on Climate

‣ Land use change over the past century has been mostly
characterized by large-scale deforestation (i.e., conversion
of forests to croplands and pasturelands).
Effects of Historical Land Use Change on Climate

‣ Biogeophysical effect of land use change has mostly been cooling in

the northern hemisphere, reflecting the effect of increased albedo
dominating over that of decreased turbulent fluxes.
Climate Effects of Tropical Broadleaf Forests
‣ Tropical broadleaf trees:
transpiration usually not
constrained by water availability;
higher albedo than needleleaf
trees; very strong carbon uptake
‣ Reducing deforestation or
increasing
reforestation/afforestation in the
tropics → strong cooling effect
Biogeophysical vs. Biogeochemical Effects of Deforestation

Bonan Fig. 28.21: Change in

annual mean temperature due to
land cover change over the 20th
century. Reproduced from
Pongratz et al. [2010].

‣ Globally, biogeochemical warming of deforestation mostly outweighs

biogeophysical cooling, which can however be regionally important.
Biogeochemical and Biogeophysical Effects of Forests
(Conifer)
(Mixed)

(Broadleaf) Net
warming
Net
cooling

[Bonan et al., 2008]

 Benefits of Urban Greening
‣ Urban greening is usually on a
local scale. Associated carbon
uptake is unimportant for local
climate.
‣ If water supply is sufficient,
evaporative cooling can be
strong.
‣ Broadleaf trees absorb less
sunlight than needleleaf trees,
and may be better for cooling.
‣ But we should avoid
planting trees that
emit a lot of VOCs,
which can react with
NOx from vehicles to
cause more ozone air
pollution.