PREFACE 1

Introduction 1

Harappan Civilization 2

Early Historic period 4

 Residential Architecture 4
Vernacular Architecture 4
Elements of Space and Decoration 5
The Courtyard 5
The Threshold 6
The Hearth 6
 Religious Monuments 6
Gupta Architecture 6
Stupa Architecture 7
Rock cut Architecture 7
Temple Architecture 8
Nagar Style of Temple Architecture 8
Dravida Style of Temple Architecture 9
Vesara Style of Temple Architecture 9
Cave Architecture 10

Medieval Period of Architecture 11

 Indo-Islamic 11
 Mughal 12
 Sikh 13
 Dravidian 13

Colonial Period of Architecture and the Modern Period 14

GLOSSARY 15

BIBLIOGRAPHY 17

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

Art and architecture are authentic reflections of a society's thought and approach, and hence
are true expressions of its culture. It is here that a society's beliefs and skills are visually expressed. We
saw how artistic forms began to emerge and to what extent they reflected the culture of a period in
some of the early divisions. There were several works of art that were tied to work – everyday living
processes and were not primarily produced for a wealthy portion of society. They appear in the form of
rock murals, clay sculptures, and toys, among other things. Work became increasingly specialized over
time. This specialty is linked to the ready availability of a cheap excess that might be channeled into
more artistic endeavors (Mandal et. al., 2017).

The material employed in architectural structures has a significant impact on their availability. If
the material used in the construction is perishable, such as wood, the odds of long-term survival are
slim; however, if the material used is non-perishable, such as stone, it can remain for much longer.

The earliest architectural remnants in India may be found in the Harappa culture towns. In most
cases, baked bricks were utilized as a construction medium. We have a large collection of architectural
relics from the Vedic and Mauryan periods. Later periods, on the other hand, give a wealth of
architectural relics and styles.

A great deal is known about the material advancement of ancient Indian societies and their links
with ancient cultures in Iran and Turkmenistan because to an exceptional number of excavations since
independence. The cities and communities of the Indus or Harappan Civilization (c. 2500-1500 B.C.)
currently known to have spanned over an area of at least 2000 by 1100 kilometres are the only major
component so far discovered. From the Indus to Bombay's longitude, and as far north as the sub-
Himalayan Punjab and New Delhi's surrounds.

During the Mauryan period, architecture progressed to a mature state. The pillars of the
Ashokan, the animals, and the carving on the pillars are all mature art forms. Between 200 B.C. to 200
A.D., there was an era known as the Bronze Age. Between 600 A.D. and 600 A.D., art activities were
largely tied to religious practices, symbols, and units associated with them. Construction of stupas,
chaityas, and viharas, as well as temples, became popular at first. We also discover characteristics of
non-Indian art in the artistic creations of this period as a result of regular encounters with foreign
cultures (Smartprep, 2016).

The introduction of Islam, which offered a whole new technique for architectural works, caused
a huge shift in architectural styles.

1. Residential structures,
2. Religious architectures, and
3. Public works.

There are very few surviving monuments in the first category since they were made using
perishable materials such as wood in the beginning. However, a number of monuments have been
discovered during excavations, which fall under the second group. Some of the third-category works are
still in use. As a result, we'll examine this architectural activity in its historical context.

HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

Archaeologists refer to the Indus valley civilization as the Harapan culture, after the current
name of one of its two big towns, both of which are now in Pakistan (the other being Mohenjodaro).
Excavations have recently been carried out at a number of locations in India and Pakistan. Each
Harappan city was protected by a citadel. The mostly regular street planning and a certain uniformity in
such aspects as weights and measures, brick size, and even the layout of the big towns are prominent
traits of Harappan society (Smartprep, 2016).
 The extreme conservatism of this culture was probably the most noticeable trait. Nine
construction layers have been discovered at Mohenjodaro. As the earth's level rose due to the Indus'
annual flooding, new dwellings were erected almost identically on the same places as the old, with only
minor differences in ground plan; for nearly a millennium, the city's street design stayed the same.
There were no stone buildings in any city; the common building material was standardized charred
bricks of acceptable quality. The residences, which were frequently double-storied, all followed a similar
layout: a square courtyard surrounded by a number of rooms. The entrances were frequently placed
inside alleys, and there were no windows on the street sides.

The entrances were frequently found inside alleys, with no windows on the side of the building.
Excavations have also uncovered a variety of artefacts, including seals, urns, and pots, as well as jewelry,
statuettes, toys, and agricultural equipment. Inscriptions in an unknown script, as well as complex
intaglio drawings representing animals, vegetation, human figures, and geometric elements, are found
on the seals. Some statuettes feature the goddess of fertility, the mother goddess. The "priest-king" and
the "dancing girl" are two of the most well-known stone carvings. A steatite bust of a bearded person
with half-closed eyes that was formerly inlaid with shell serves as the "priest-king." With one hand on
her hip and her head leaned back streets, the slender "dancing girl" takes a daring pose (Smartprep,
2016).

The Indus Valley civilization appears to have been a conservative culture based on the architectural
evidence yet a sophisticated and homogeneous civilization governed by a centralized system It was a
booming business. Agriculture and internal and foreign trade are the foundations of the economy.

Figure 1. Site plan of Mohenjodaro, showing

the grid-iron pattern of its layout. The main
streets of the city, nearly 10 meters wide,
intersect one another at right angles, dividing
the city into rectangular blocks.
The cities had a unique sewage system, with drains in the bathrooms that went into sewers beneath the
main streets and into soak-pits. Large slabs covered the sewers all the way down their length. The Great
Bath and Granary were two more notable public utility structures.

Figure 2. The Great Bath, also called the “earliest

public water tank of the ancient world”. It was built
of fine brickwork and measures 897 square feet (83
square meters). It is 8 feet (2.5 meters) lower than
the surrounding pavement.

ANCIENT INDIA

• Residential Architecture

Residential architecture during this time is mostly connected with urban centers because non-
perishable materials were primarily used in cities. This claim is backed up by literary and archaeological
evidence. The Milind Panha, for example, depicts a city with moats, fortifications, gate houses, towers,
well-planned streets, markets, parks, lakes, and temples. There are allusions to multi-story buildings
with wagon-vaulted roofs and verandahs made mostly of wood (Thapar, 2004).

Vernacular Architecture

The variety of India has resulted in an equally diverse language of vernacular architecture. In the
same way that political and historic events shaped monumental structures in India in the past,
geography, social conventions, local materials, and, above all, the climate have played a role.
Personal living environments are influenced by a variety of factors.

Local artisan skills were used to create vernacular architecture in an organic way. On the basis of the
construction material utilized, it can be split into two main groups. The kachcha building is composed of
short-lived natural materials including mud, grass, bamboo, thatch, and twigs, and its shape is
determined by the material's practical restrictions. Structures constructed from these
Materials have a short lifespan and need to be maintained and replenished on a regular basis, not just in
bad weather but all year. They do, however, have the virtue of being inexpensive. Pukka structures are
composed of stone, burnt brick with plaster, seasoned wood, clay tiles, or any other material that is
resistant to wear and tear and does not require continual maintenance. While such structures are more
durable, they are also more expensive to construct. As villagers' incomes rise, vernacular construction,
which is mostly limited to rural areas, mixes these two forms to create the semi pukka structure. Despite
the kachcha, every villager's desire is to someday acquire a pukka home.
Structure has its own beauty, which comes from its pure, utilitarian shapes rather than from adornment
(which is popular due to religion or superstition) (Thapar, 2004).

Figure 3. The villagers of Banni in the Kutch peninsula of

Gujarat build circular houses of mud. A conical roof frame
is filled in with thatch tightly tied around it. There are
usually no windows. As families increase, new homes are
built, eventually clustering around a common open space
or internal courtyard.

Elements of Space and Decoration

According to Smartprep (2016), Modernity is one of many overlays that make up the intricate
canvas of Indian cultures, and architectural elements of structures in every region have strong cultural
resonances with earlier modes of existence. Traditional Indian dwellings contain some spatial and
aesthetic aspects that are universal, regardless of location. These elements may have different names
depending on the location, but their role and character are universally recognized as vital to domestic
architecture, just as the zenana (women's quarters) was necessary for purdah reasons and separate
from the mardana (spaces restricted to men).

The Courtyard

The focal point of any building, according to the Vaastu Shastra, is the point of equilibrium. The
courtyard is an enclosed private place exposed to the sky in a domestic house. The courtyard is a major
spatial element of homes in the plains, and it may be found in the earliest homes of the Indus valley
civilization. Tulsi (holy basil) is a sacred plant in Hindu households, revered for its healing properties. It's
frequently displayed on a plinth or in an elegant planter.

The Threshold
 The shift from public to private area is marked by the threshold. The threshold in traditional
houses is somewhat raised, both to prevent hostile invasions and to keep insects and reptiles out. At this
time, one removes their shoes and enters the house barefoot.

The Hearth

According to Smartprep (2016), The chulha, or cooking hearth, is the purest place in the traditional
dwelling. Before preparing the morning meal, the area around the chulha is ritually scrubbed, and
bathing is required before entering it. All of the cooking and serving is done by the ladies of the house.
The males are served first at all meals, sitting on low wooden chairs known as chowkis. A second chulha
was sometimes built in the courtyard to boil water and for other uses.

• Religious Monuments

Gupta Architecture

According to InsightIAS (2021), the Gupta period can be described as "classic" in terms of the
level of perfection it attained – something that had never been done before and has rarely been done
since – and in perfect balance and harmony of all elements in style and iconography, also known as "The
Golden Age of Indian Art." Gupta sculpture appears to be from a completely different world. The Gupta
artist appears to have a greater goal in mind. The desire to build a greater connection between art and
ideas, between the exterior forms and the interior intellectual and spiritual understanding of the people,
has resulted in a new orientation in the attitude toward art.

Images of Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Surya, and Durga saw a huge revival at this period. A massive
image of Lord Vishnu may be found in Madhya Pradesh's Udaigiri caves. A square sanctuary and pillared
porch emerged as the essential components of an Indian temple. Sculptures in temples were not always
religious. Many of them used secular themes and decorative motifs. The Parvati temple at Nachana, the
Bhitaragaon temple, the Tigawa Vishnu temple, the Bhumara Shiva temple, and the Dasavatara temple
at Deogarh are among the outstanding examples of Gupta temple building (Srivastava, 2019).

Stupa Architecture

The practice of burying the remains of a prominent figure beneath a mound of accumulated
earth had been around for a long time. This technique was adopted by Buddhists, and the structure built
over such a location was known as a stupa. The remains of Buddha's body were separated into eight
halves and put beneath the stupas, according to Buddhist scriptures. These were dug up and
redistributed during the period of Ashoka, leading to the creation of more stupas, or Buddhist sacred
sites. Stupas' veneration led to their embellishment and the development of a distinct form of
architecture for their construction (SmartPrep, 2016).

The stupas were shaped like bowls turned inside out. Its harmika, or dwelling of the Gods, used
to be at the top, which was a little flat. Urns bearing the remains of Buddha or a notable personality
associated with the religion were deposited in gold or silver caskets here. A wooden rod was inserted in
the stupa's centre, with the rod's bottom fastened to the stupa's top. Three little umbrella-like discs
were set on top of this pole, signifying respect, veneration, and magnanimity. Bodhgaya, Sanchi,
Bharhut, Amravati, and Nagarjunkoda are the main stupas in India (SmartPrep, 2016).

Rock cut Architecture

Chaityas and viharas were established by both Buddhists and Jains as places of worship. A shrine
cell with a votive stupa in the center is known as a chaitya. The following are the chaityas' general
characteristics:

 They have a long rectangular hall ending in a semi-circle at the rear end.
 This long hall is internally divided into a nave, an apse and two side aisles.
 The aisles are separated from the nave by two rows of pillars.
 The pillars come round the votive stupa placed in the center of the apsidal part of the nave.
 The hall has a barrel-vaulted ceiling.
 The doorway is usually placed facing the votive stupa.
 The façade has a horse-shoe shaped window called the chaitya window.

Viharas were primarily cut out of rocks for the residence of monks. The general features of viharas
are:

 They have a square or oblong hall in the center.

 This is preceded in front by a pillared veranda.
 They have a number of small square cells. The cells and halls are usually provided with
raised benches for the use of monks.

The earliest of the viharas of western India are located at such sites as Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajanta,
Pitalkhora, Nasik, and Karle.

Temple Architecture

During this time, images of Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Surya, and Durga saw a huge renaissance. The
Udaigiri caves in Madhya Pradesh include a large picture of Lord Vishnu. The main components of an
Indian temple were a square sanctuary and a pillared portico. Temple sculptures were not always
religious. Many of them included secular themes and decorative motifs into their designs. Gupta
temples include the Parvati temple at Nachana, the Bhitaragaon temple, the Tigawa Vishnu temple, the
Bhumara Shiva temple, and the Dasavatara temple in Deogarh.

The basic type of Hindu temple, which has existed since the 6th century and is similar to that of
the ancient Greeks, was not fundamentally different. The temple's center was a modest dark shrine
room (garbha griha), which housed the main icon. This led into the worshippers' hall (mandapa), which
was originally a distinct structure but was usually connected to the main structure by a tower, with
lesser towers rising from different areas of the structure. The whole was usually erected on a raised
platform in a rectangular courtyard (which might also house smaller shrines) (Facilitator, 2021).

Nagara Style of Temple Architecture

 The nagara style emerges as a separate temple style, which is often distinguished by its
distinctive sikhara, or superstructure or tower. The Nagara temple is a typical Hindu temple in northern
India, consisting of a small square-shaped sanctuary called the garbhagrha, which houses the principal
image, and one or more neighboring pillared porches or halls that are joined to the sanctum by an open
or closed vestibule. The sanctum's entrance doorway is typically ornately adorned with figures and
geometric embellishments. The superstructure (sikhara) rises above the main sanctuary, usually curved
in shape and with smaller rectilinear sikharas. The entire structure could be erected on a terrace
(jagati), with shrines at each corner (Meister, 1979). Early temples in Orissa, such as the beautiful 8th-
century Parasuramesvara Temple in Bhubaneswar, a city that was a prominent center of temple-building
activity, display a typical version of the North Indian architecture.

Dravida Style of Temple Architecture

The Rajarajesvara and Gangaikondacolapuram temples feature South Indian temple

architecture, or dravida, with its commanding gopuras (gateways). The pyramidal, or kutina-style, tower
superstructure distinguishes this style (Michell, 1979).

Within a rectangular court, a South Indian temple comprises primarily of a square-chambered

sanctuary capped by a superstructure, tower, and an adjoining pillared portico or hall (mandapa, or
mantapam). The temples outside walls are divided by pilasters and have niches for sculpture (Branfoot,
2002). The superstructure above the sanctuary is made up of a pyramidal arrangement of gradually
receding stories. A wall of small shrines, square at the corners and rectangle with barrel-vault roofs in
the center, defines each story. A dome-shaped cupola with a crowning pot and finial atop the tower. The
South Indian architecture got more intricate as the court's complex of temple structures became larger,
and a series of succeeding enclosures, each with its own doorway (gopura), were constructed.
in addition (Michell, 1977).

One of the characteristics that explains the artistic growth of Hindu temples is repetition. The wall
systems of the southern temples were produced by repeating projections that framed the recesses as
they worked their way up the wall, with pairs of pilasters indicating each change in the wall plane. The
dravida style created a complicated strategy of dividing up the plane of the wall into small straight parts
till the temple design resembled a circle (Michell, 1977). The choice of architectural forms and how
many of these aspects are still employed in ways other than their intended function are fundamental
characteristics of these temples. For example, the horseshoe formed for arched windows was popular in
northern (naraga) temples, but it may also be found on later temples superimposed into moldings or
superstructure ornaments.

The temple is immensely important in the life of ordinary Hindus. When one considers the
temple's different characteristics, such as its style and purpose.

Vesara Style of Temple Architecture

According to InsightIAS (2021), Vesara is a temple architecture style that combines Nagara and
Dravidian elements. Vesara is thought to be derived from the Sanskrit word vishra, which means "a
place to walk for a long time." The Vesara style is thought to have developed in what is now Karnataka,
according to many historians.

The trend was started by the Chalukyas of Badami (500-753 AD), who built temples in a style
that was essentially a mixture of the Nagara and Dravida styles, and refined by the Rashtrakutas of
Manyakheta (750-983 AD) in Ellora, Chalukyas of Kalyani (983-1195 AD) in Lakkundi, Dambal, Gadag, and
others, before being epitomized by (1000-1330 AD). This style can be seen in the Hoysala temples at
Belur, Halebidu, and Somnathpura.

Unique Features of Vesara Style of Temple Architecture

 Ornamentation: In case of ornamentation of temple walls and pillars, Chalukyan temple

shows indigenous quality.
 Transformation of Dravida tower: The Chalukyan builders altered the Dravida towers by
reducing the height of each story and placing them in descending order of height from
base to top, with a great deal of embellishment on each story.
 Transformation of Nagara tower: Instead of inclined storey here modification is seen in
the vertical shape of the tower
 Two special features of Chalukya temples – Mantapa and Pillars:
1. Mantapa: The mantapa features two types of roofs: domical ceilings (which have a
dome-like appearance and are supported by four pillars) and square ceilings (these
are vigorously ornamented with mythological pictures).
2. Pillars: the miniature decorative pillars of Chalukya temples stand with its own
artistic value.
 Famous temples built with this style include: Kallesvara temple, Kukkanur;
Ramalingesvara temple, Gudur; Mahadeva temple, Ittagi; Kasivisvesvara temple,
Lakkundi (and several other temples at Lakkundi); Brahmadeva temple, Savadi – notable
for being fully stellate; Mallikarjuna temple, Sudi (and Joda-kalasha temple)

Cave Architecture
 According to Bhatt, C. (2021), In India, cave architecture is thought to have started in ancient
times, when Buddhist and Jain monks used the caves for prayer and dwelling. Rock-cut patterns etched

Figure 4. Aljanta Caves, the caves, cut into the

face of a mountain, form a horseshoe shape
around the Wangorah River. All the walls and
pilasters are covered by overlapping figures,
brought to life with bright and contrasting
colors by the artists.

on overhanging rocks are an early example of architectural workmanship on such formations. Due to
their duration, caves excavated from enormous rocks grew over time, unlike caves excavated from other
structural materials such as wood. Ellora Caverns, Ajanta Caves, Badami Caves, Karla Caves, and
Elephanta Caves are some of India's most important caves. The UNESCO World Heritage Site Ellora
Caves are among the world's largest rock-cut caves. Over 100 caves with monasteries and temples may
be found on the site. It features art and architecture from 600 to 1000 CE from Buddhism, Hinduism,
and Jainism. Cave 16 of Ellora is the world's biggest monolithic rock excavation in the form of a chariot
called the Kailasha temple, carved out of volcanic basalt cliff rock in the Charanandri hills. The temple
was built in the eighth century by King Krishna I, who dedicated it to Lord Shiva. The cave has been
around for over a century and houses Shaktism and Vaishnavism deities and mythology.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD OF ARCHITECTURE

• Indo-Islamic Architecture

The Ghurid takeover of India at the end of the 12th century A.D. marks the beginning of Indo-
Islamic architecture. The Muslims, having inherited a plethora of different designs from the Sassanian
and Byzantine empires and possessing a natural flair for architecture, never failed to adapt the
indigenous architecture of practically every foreign country they conquered to their own needs (Bhatt,
2021).

With its emphasis on congregational prayer, the Islamic form of worship necessitates a big
courtyard with a large prayer hall facing Mecca, which is in the west of India. The middle of the prayer-
back hall's wall is filled by a recess or alcove called mihrab, which denotes the prayer direction (quibla).
The imam who leads the prayer has a pulpit (mimber) to his right. The initial purpose of a tower or
minaret was for the muazzin to call the devout to prayer, but it gradually became more of an
architectural feature. To accommodate the ladies who followed purdah, a gallery or compartment of the
prayer hall or some other area was screened off. The primary entrance to a mosque is on the east side,
and cloisters surround it on all sides (liwans). A tank is frequently given for ablutions in a mosque's
courtyard. The architectural style represented not only new forms and concepts, but also the religious
and social requirements of the Muslims. The Muslim architectural style was built on arches, vaults, and
domes, as well as columns and pyramidal towers or slender spires known as trabeated spires (InsightIAS,
2021).

Figure 5. Ala-ud-din Khilji enlarged the

Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque and built a gateway
to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway
is called the Alai Darwaza. He also built the
Hauz Khas in Delhi which was a hydraulic
structure.

• Mughal Architecture

Mughal architecture is a distinct Indo-Islamic architectural style that developed in Northern and
Central India under the patronage of Mughal monarchs from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It's a
symmetrical and ornamental form of Persian, Turkish, and Indian architecture that's stunning to look at.
During Akbar the Great's rule (1556-1605), and under Shah Jahan's vision, some of the most memorable
Mughal architecture was produced (1628-1658). Akbar the Great constructed numerous palaces,
mosques, gardens, and mausoleums. His buildings are known for their large-scale use of sandstone, as
well as massive enclosed courtyards and doomed shallow prayer chambers. The erection of his father
Humayun's tomb in Delhi was one of Akbar's crowning achievements. Humayun's Mausoleum was the
first garden tomb on the Indian subcontinent, and the first edifice to use red sandstone on such a vast
scale. It was commissioned by Humayun's wife in 1562 and designed by a Persian architect. It is the first
structure in India to incorporate a Persian double dome with an outer layer supporting a hitherto
unknown white marble facade. This ornate facade style would go on to influence Mughal architecture in
the future (Bhatt, 2021).

Figure 6. Humayun’s Tomb, the first garden

tomb on the Indian subcontinent and the first
building to use red sandstone on such a large
scale.
• Sikh Architecture

According to Facilitator, C. (2021), Another notable architectural style in India is Sikh

architecture. Sikh architecture is a globally recognized architectural style characterized by
progressiveness, elegance, intricacy, austere simplicity, and flowing lines. As a result of its
modern progressive approach, it is progressively branching out into new branches of new
contemporary styles. Sikh architecture was created 300 years ago inside Sikhism, but its beauty
has led to its application in many non-religious structures today. The Guru of the Sikhs is housed
in the gurdwara, a holy edifice in Sikh architecture. Sikh temples are colossal memorial
monuments dedicated to the ten Sikh Gurus, as well as historical landmarks and events.
Gurudwaras have entrances on all sides, showing that they are open to everyone, regardless of
religion. This attribute exemplifies the Sikh religion's central principle, which declares God to be
omnipresent.

Figure 7. Akal Takht, the white structure has a

dome plated with gold. It is located in an open
courtyard, just beyond the large gateway at
the main entrance.

 Dravidian Architecture

Dravidian architecture is a temple style that dates back to the ninth century in South
India. It was constructed by the Dravidian peoples and consists primarily of pyramid-shaped
temples known as Kovils. Kovils use finely carved stone to create a step pattern with several
sculptures of deities, warriors, kings, and dancers. Many temples in Tamil Nadu are steeped in
mythology and history, stretching back centuries to a time when a plethora of mighty kingdoms
ruled southern India and beyond. The Dravidian architectural style dates back to the Pallava
dynasty's rule. The rock-cut Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage
Site, is Pallava architecture's crowning achievement. Excavated pillared halls with no exterior
roof other than natural rock and monolithic shrines with natural rock totally cut away and
carved are included in this category. The monuments are a mix of faith, religion, history, and
mythology, and are made up of rocks or boulders that combine nature with sculpture
(Facilitator, 2021).
 Figure 8. Group of Monuments at
Mahabalipuram, this group includes
excavated pillared halls with no exterior
roof other than the natural rock and
monolithic shrines where the natural rock is
completely cut away and carved.

COLONIAL PERIOD

In India, you might witness colonial architecture in office buildings. Many churches and other
structures were built by Europeans who arrived in the sixteenth century AD. The Basilica Bom Jesus and
the Church of Saint Francis are two of the most notable Portuguese churches in Goa. The British also
constructed administrative and residential structures to commemorate their imperial power. The
colonnades and pillared buildings show some Greek and Roman influence. In Delhi, Parliament House
and Connaught Place are excellent examples. The churches bear the first architectural influences of
British colonial administration. The Gothic and neo-classical styles were popular at the time, and many
of the buildings in the Presidency of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay became symbols of the luxurious
architectural style. The Gothic style of colonial architecture may be seen in places like St. John's Church,
Fort William, Kolkata's Calcutta Cathedral, and Kanpur's Mutiny Memorial Church. Many cities have
been influenced by colonial architecture in some way. Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Agra, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Nagpur, and Bhopal, on the other hand, are architectural icons in British history (Facilitator,
2021).

GLOSSARY

Adisthana - plinth on which South Indian temple stands

Antarala - vestibule which leads to the garbha griha in the Nagara style

Bagh - garden

Bangaldar - curved roof derived from the shape of roofs in Bengali huts

Baradari - open pavilion with three attached openings on each side

Baramdah - verandah
Burj - tower with imposing superstructure

Cella - Latin term for the sanctum of a temple

Chaiti - sacred place

Chaitya - Buddhist Hall of worship, with apsidal ending

Gandi - curvilinear shikhara of the deul

Garbha griha - sanctum sanctorum, most sacred part of the Hindu temple

Ghat - riverbank or steps leading to water

Iwan - roofed or vaulted hall opening onto a courtyard

Liwan - Islamic pillared cloisters with many entrances

Mihrab - prayer niche, indicating the direction toward Mecca

Minar - tower in a mosque from where the muezzin calls for prayer

Mimbar - pulpit right of the mihrab on which the Koran is placed

Shikhara - tower of a temple (North India)
Stupi - rounded filial unit of a Dravidian temple

Vedika - fence/balustrade around a stupa

Vihara - Buddhist monastery

Vimana - tower of a temple (South India)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bhat, C. (2021). A Brief Introduction to Ancient Indian Architecture. Retrieved from

https://www.artshelp.net/an-introduction-to-ancient-indian-architecture/#:~:text=India
%20has%20seen%20a%20variety,Sikh%20architecture%2C%20and%20cave%20architecture.

Branfoot, C. (2002). 'Expanding Form': The Architectural Sculpture of the South Indian Temple, ca.1500-
170. Artibus Asiae, Vol. 62, No. 2., pp. 189-245.

Facilitator, C. (2021). Different Types of Architecture Styles Adopted in India. Retrieved from
https://www.constrofacilitator.com/different-types-of-architecture-styles-adopted-in-india/

Mandal et. al., (2017). Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research. Indian Architecture: With the
Special Reference of Mughals, Vol. 4, No. 5.
Michell, G. (1977). The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.

Meister, M. (1979). Matala and Practice in Nagara Architecture in North India. Journal of the American
Oriental Society, Vol. 99, No. 2, pp. 204-219.

SmartPrep, (2016). Indian Architecture and its Historical Evolution. Retrieved from
https://smartprep.in/2016/12/indian-architecture-historical-evolution-pdf/

Srivastava, S. (2019). Indian Architecture – The Ancient Period. Retrieved from

https://www.scribd.com/document/409037639/art-and-sculpture-pdf

Thapar, B. (2004). The History of Indian Architecture: From the Dawn of Civilization to the End of the Ral.
London: Architecture, Design, and Technology Press.