Lexical transformations may be subdivided into formal and lexical semantic ones.

Formal transformations take place at the graphic and phonetic level and comprise
several kinds of transcoding and loan translation (calque):
Transcoding includes:
• transcription (SL word or word combination is transcribed in
TL), e.g.: file – файл, impeachment – імпічмент;
• transliteration (SL word or word combination is reproduced
in the TL by a letter-for-letter technique), e.g.: status quo – статус кво, fragment –
фрагмент, taxi – таксі;
• mixed transcoding (transcription with some elements of transliteration), e.g.:
determinism – детермінізм, transistor – транзистор;
• adaptive transcoding (adaptation of SL word to the phonetic or grammatical norms
of the TL), e.g.: American – американець,
Loan Translation (calque, verbal, literal, word-for-word translation) is the linear
substitution of elements of one language by elements of the other (as a rule noun
phrases); for example, the English soap opera appearing in Ukrainian as мильна
опера, or hot line as гаряча лінія.

Lexical semantic transformations comprise: concretization (substantiation) of

meaning, generalization of meaning, differentiation of meaning, modulation (logical
development of meaning).
• Concretization of meaning is the technique of providing in translation a word with
narrower semantics (hyponym) to substitute a ST word with wider semantics
(hyperonym), that is the SL generic name is substituted by the TL specific name
• Generalization of meaning is the process opposite to concretization. It involves
substitution of the SL specific name by the TL generic name.
• Differentiation of meaning is applied in the process of translation of polysemantic
words. This transformation is connected with the choice of a suitable word out of a
number of different dictionary meanings.
• Modulation (logical development of meaning) takes place when the word or word
combination of the TL is the contextual equivalent of the SL word or word
combination rather than its dictionary meaning, the two being connected logically
Lexical grammatical transformations are applied in the process of descriptive
translation, antonymic translation, compression (omission of words), decompression
(amplification, addition of words), permutation, compensation.
• Descriptive translation is resorted to when there is no lexical correspondence to
the SL lexeme in the TL.
Hispanic – іспаномовні американці будь-якої раси, terraced houses – низка
стандартних будинків вздовж вулиці.
• Antonymic translation consists in the change of meaning of SL word to its
opposite in TL. The transformation involves certain restructuring of the text fragment
• Compression consists in omission of certain (usually redundant) words or word
combinations of SL in the translation.
• Decompression (amplification) consists in addition of words or word
combinations in the translation.

•Permutation consists in the change of word order in a word combination.

For example: private aviation market – ринок приватної авіації; private jet service –
замовлення приватних літаків; return expenses – витрати на повернення; project
team – команда проекту; flight sales – продажі польотів.
• Compensation is a translation technique/strategy with the help of which the loss of
meaning of the source element is compensated by a different TL element with the
necessary replacement involved.

Grammatical transformations comprise: transposition (nominalization,

verbalization), replacement, partitioning (inner and outer), integration (inner and
outer).
• Transposition is the change of part of speech in the process of translation.
Transformation of verbalization is the process of transformation of the nominative
structures of the source language into verbal structures of the target language.
Verbalization is caused by peculiarities of grammatical forms and constructions of
the two languages.
• Transformation of nominalization is the process of transformation of the verbal
structure of the source language into nominative structures of the target language.
Nominalization is caused by synthetic structure of the Ukrainian language and
analytical structure of the English language.
• Replacement is the change of word-order in the translated sentence according to
the existing syntactic norms of the TL.
• Partitioning is a translation device which involves the change of the sentence
structure. Inner partitioning takes place within the limits of the same sentence: a
simple SL sentence is converted into a complex or compound TL sentence.
• Outer partitioning consists is division of one SL sentence into two or more TL
sentences.

• Integration is a device opposite to partitioning and consists in converting a

complex or compound SL sentence into a simple TL sentence (inner integration)

or in combining two or more SL sentences into one TL sentence (outer integration).

Stylistic transformations comprise neutralization (logization), expressivation,

modernization, archaization.
• Neutralization (logization) is a translation technique that involves substitution of
stylistically (poetic words, slang, jargon, professionalisms) or ethnically marked
(realias) SL unit by neutral TL equivalent.

• Expressivity (expressivation) is a translation technique opposite to neutralization in

the process of which the SL neutral lexical unit is substituted by a stylistically
marked TL unit.
• Modernization consists in translation of the SL archaic, obsolete and obsolescent
words by their TL modern equivalents.
• Archaization consists in translation of modern SL words by their archaic
equivalents in TL.