PROPELLERS

We can say that the propeller is the action end of an aircraft's reciprocating engine, because it converts the useful
energy of the engine into thrust as it spins around and around. The propeller has the general shape of a wing,
but the camber and chord (curvature and cross-sectional length) of each
section of the propeller are different, as shown in Figure 6-4 . The wing provides lift upward, while the
propeller provides lift forward.
The wing has only one motion which is forward, while the propeller has forward and rotary motion. The path of these
two motions is like a corkscrew as the propeller goes through the air (see figure 6-5 ).
Like a wing, a propeller blade has a thick leading edge and a thin trailing edge. The blade back is the curved portion and is
like the top of a wing. The blade face is comparatively flat and corresponds to the underside of a wing (see figure 6-6 for
definitions of blade back and blade face). The blade shank is thick for strength and fits into a hub which is attached to the
crankshaft directly or indirectly. The outer end of the blade is called the tip.
 Blade pitch is loosely defined as the angle made by the chord of the blade and its plane of rotation, as shown in Figure
6- 6. When the angle is great, the propeller is said to have high pitch. A high-pitch propeller will take a bigger bit of air
and move the aircraft farther forward in one rotation than will a low-pitch propeller.
Propellers may be classified as to whether the blade pitch is fixed or variable. The demands on the propeller
differ according to circumstances. For example, in takeoffs and climbs more power is needed, and this can best be
provided by low pitch. For speed at cruising altitude, high pitch will do the best job. A fixed-pitch propeller is a
compromise.

There are two types of variable-pitch propellers adjustable and controllable. The adjustable propeller's pitch can be changed
only by a mechanic to serve a particular purpose-speed or power. The controllable-pitch propeller permits pilots to change pitch
to more ideally fit their requirements at the moment. In different aircraft, this is done by electrical or hydraulic means. In
modern aircraft, it is done automatically, and the propellers are referred to as constant-speed propellers. As power requirements
vary, the pitch automatically changes, keeping the engine and the propeller operating at a constant rpm. If the rpm rate increases,
as in a dive, a governor on the hydraulic system changes the blade pitch to a higher angle. This acts as a brake on the crankshaft.
If the rpm rate decreases, as in a climb, the blade pitch is lowered and the crankshaft rpm can increase. The constant-speed
propeller thus ensures that the pitch is always set at the most efficient angle so that the engine can run at a desired constant rpm
regardless of altitude or forward speed.
The constant-speed propellers have a full-feathering capability. Feathering means to turn the blade approximately parallel with
the line of flight, thus equalizing the pressure on the face and back of the blade and stopping the propeller. Feathering is
necessary if for some reason the propeller is not being driven by the engine and is windmilling, a situation that can damage the
engine and increase drag on the aircraft.
Most controllable-pitch and constant-speed propellers also are capable of being reversed. This is done by rotating the blades
to a negative or reverse pitch. Reversible propellers push air forward, reducing the required landing distance as well as
reducing wear on tires and brakes.
Propellers
The propellers of the multiengine airplane may outwardly appear to be identical in operation to the constant-speed propellers of
many single-engine airplanes, but this is not the case. The propellers of multiengine airplanes are featherable, to minimize drag
in the event of an engine failure. Depending upon single-engine performance, this feature often permits continued flight to a
suitable airport following an engine failure. To feather a propeller is to stop engine rotation with the propeller blades
streamlined with the airplane’s relative wind, thus to minimize drag. [figure12-2]

figure12-2. Feathered propeller

Feathering is necessary because of the change in parasite drag with propeller blade angle. [figure12-3] When the propeller blade
angle is in the feathered position, the change in parasite drag is at a minimum and, in the case of a typical multiengine airplane,
the added parasite drag from a single feathered propeller is a relatively small contribution to the airplane total drag.

figure12-3. Propeller drag contribution.

At the smaller blade angles near the flat pitch position, the drag added by the propeller is very large. At
these small blade angles, the propeller windmilling at high r.p.m. can create such a tremendous amount
of drag that the airplane may be uncontrollable.
The propeller windmilling at high speed in the low range of blade angles can produce an increase in
parasite drag which may be as great as the parasite drag of the basic airplane.
As a review, the constant-speed propellers on almost all single-engine airplanes are of the non-
feathering, oil-pressure-to-increase-pitch design. In this design, increased oil pressure from the
propeller governor drives the blade angle towards high pitch, low r.p.m.
In contrast, the constant-speed propellers installed on most multiengine airplanes are full feathering,
counterweighted, oil-pressure-to-decrease-pitch designs. In this design, increased oil pressure from the
propeller governor drives the blade angle towards low pitch, high r.p.m.— away from the feather blade
angle. In effect, the only thing that keeps these propellers from feathering is a constant supply of high
pressure engine oil. This is a necessity to enable propeller feathering in the event of a loss of oil
pressure or a propeller governor failure.
The aerodynamic forces alone acting upon a windmilling propeller tend to drive the blades to low pitch,
high r.p.m. Counterweights attached to the shank of each blade tend to drive the blades to high pitch,
low r.p.m. Inertia, or apparent force called centrifugal force acting through the counterweights is
generally slightly greater than the aerodynamic forces. Oil pressure from the propeller governor is used
to counteract the counterweights and drives the blade angles to low pitch, high r.p.m. Areduction in oil
pressure causes the r.p.m. to be reduced from the influence of the counterweights. [figure12-4]
To feather the propeller, the propeller control is brought fully aft. All oil pressure is dumped from the
governor, and the counterweights drive the propeller blades towards feather. As centrifugal force acting
on the counterweights decays from decreasing r.p.m., additional forces are needed to completely feather
the blades. This additional force comes from either a spring or high pressure air stored in the propeller
dome, which forces the blades into the feathered position.
The entire process may take up to 10 seconds.
Feathering a propeller only alters blade angle and stops engine rotation. To completely secure the engine,
the pilot must still turn off the fuel (mixture, electric boost pump, and fuel selector), ignition,
alternator/generator, and close the cowl flaps. If the airplane is pressurized, there may also be an air bleed
to close for the failed engine. Some airplanes are equipped with firewall shutoff valves that secure several
of these systems with a single switch.

figure12-4. Pitch change forces.

Completely securing a failed engine may not be necessary or even desirable depending upon the failure mode, altitude, and time available.
The position of the fuel controls, ignition, and alternator/generator switches of the failed engine has no effect on aircraft performance. There is
always the distinct possibility of manipulating the incorrect switch under conditions of haste or pressure.
To unfeather a propeller, the engine must be rotated so that oil pressure can be generated to move the propeller blades from the feathered
position. The ignition is turned on prior to engine rotation with the throttle at low idle and the mixture rich. With the propeller control in a high
r.p.m. position, the starter is engaged. The engine will begin to windmill, start, and run as oil pressure moves the blades out of feather. As the
engine starts, the propeller r.p.m. should be immediately reduced until the engine has had several minutes to warm up; the pilot should monitor
cylinder head and oil temperatures.
Should the r.p.m. obtained with the starter be insufficient to unfeather the propeller, an increase in airspeed from a shallow dive will usually
help. In any event, the AFM/POH procedures should be followed for the exact unfeathering procedure. Both feathering and starting a feathered
reciprocating engine on the ground are strongly discouraged by manufacturers due to the excessive stress and vibrations generated.
As just described, a loss of oil pressure from the propeller governor allows the counterweights, spring and/or dome charge to drive the blades
to feather. Logically then, the propeller blades should feather every time an engine is shut down as oil pressure falls to zero. Yet, this does not
occur. Preventing this is a small pin in the pitch changing mechanism of the propeller hub that will not allow the propeller blades to feather
once r.p.m. drops below approximately 800. The pin senses a lack of centrifugal force from propeller rotation and falls into place, preventing
the blades from feathering. Therefore, if a propeller is to be feathered, it must be done before engine r.p.m. decays below approximately 800.
On one popular model of turboprop engine, the propeller blades do, in fact, feather with each shutdown. This propeller is not equipped with
such centrifugally-operated pins,due to a unique engine design.
An unfeathering accumulator is an optional device that permits starting a feathered engine in flight without the use of the electric starter. An
accumulator is any device that stores a reserve of high pressure. On multiengine airplanes, the unfeathering accumulator stores a small reserve
of engine oil under pressure from compressed air or nitrogen. To start a feathered engine in flight, the pilot moves the propeller control out of
the feather position to release the accumulator pressure. The oil flows under pressure to the propeller hub and drives the blades toward the high
r.p.m., low pitch position, whereupon the propeller will usually begin to windmill. (On some airplanes, an assist from the electric starter may
be necessary to initiate rotation and completely unfeather the propeller.) If fuel and ignition are present, the engine will start and run. For
airplanes used in training, this saves much electric starter and battery wear. High oil pressure from the propeller governor recharges the
accumulator just moments after engine rotation begins.
Propeller Synchronization
Many multiengine airplanes have a propeller synchronizer (prop sync) installed to eliminate the
annoying “drumming” or “beat” of propellers whose r.p.m. are close, but not precisely the same. To use
prop sync, the propeller r.p.m. are coarsely matched by the pilot and the system is engaged. The prop
sync adjusts the r.p.m. of the “slave” engine to precisely match the r.p.m. of the “master” engine, and
then maintains that relationship. The prop sync should be disengaged when the pilot selects a new
propeller r.p.m., then re-engaged after the new r.p.m. is set. The prop sync should always be off for
takeoff, landing, and single-engine operation. The AFM/POH should be consulted for system
description and limitations.
A variation on the propeller synchronizer is the propeller synchrophaser. Prop sychrophase acts much
like a synchronizer to precisely match r.p.m., but the synchrophaser goes one step further. It not only
matches r.p.m. but actually compares and adjusts the positions of the individual blades of the propellers
in their arcs. There can be significant propeller noise and vibration reductions with a propeller
synchrophaser. From the pilot’s perspective, operation of a propeller synchronizer and a propeller
syncrophaser are very similar. A synchrophaser is also commonly referred to as prop sync, although that
is not entirely correct nomenclature from a technical standpoint.
As a pilot aid to manually synchronizing the propellers, some twins have a small gauge mounted in or
by the tachometer(s) with a propeller symbol on a disk that spins. The pilot manually fine tunes the
engine r.p.m. so as to stop disk rotation, thereby synchronizing the propellers. This is a useful backup to
synchronizing engine r.p.m. using the audible propeller beat. This gauge is also found installed with
most propeller synchronizer and synchrophase systems. Some synchrophase systems use a knob for the
pilot to control the phase angle.
 Propeller Control

• basic requirement: For flight operation, an engine is demanded to deliver power within a relatively narrow
band of operating rotation speeds.
• During flight, the speed-sensitive governor of the propeller automatically controls the blade angle as required to
maintain a constant r.p.m. of the engine.

• Three factors tend to vary the r.p.m. of the engine during operation. These factors are power, airspeed, and
air density.
• If the r.p.m. is to maintain constant, the blade angle must vary directly with power, directly with airspeed, and
inversely with air density.
• The speed-sensitive governor provides the means by which the propeller can adjust itself automatically to
varying power and flight conditions while converting the power to thrust.

Fundamental Forces : Three fundamental forces are used to control blade angle . These forces are:
1. Centrifugal twisting moment, centrifugal force acting on a rotating blade which tends at all times to move
the blade into low pitch.
2. Oil at engine pressure on the outboard piston side, which supplements the centrifugal twisting moment
toward low pitch.
3. Propeller Governor oil on the inboard piston side, which balances the first two forces and move the blades
toward high pitch
Counterweight assembly (this is only for counterweight propeller) which attached to the blades , the
centrifugal forces of the counterweight will move the blades to high pitch setting

.
Constant Speed, Counterweight Propellers

• The Counterweight type propeller may be used to operate either as a

controllable or constant speed propeller. The hydraulic counterweight
propeller consists of a hub assembly, blade assembly, cylinder assembly,
and counterweight assembly.
• The counterweight assembly on the propeller is attached to the blades
and moves with them. The centrifugal forces obtained from rotating
counterweights move the blades to high angle setting.
• The centrifugal force of the counterweight assembly is depended on the
rotational speed of the propellers r.p.m.
• The propeller blades have a definite range of angular motion by an adjusting
for high and low angle on the counterweight brackets
 Controllable : the operator will select either low blade angle or high blade angle by two-way valve which
permits engine oil to flow into or drain from the propeller.

Constant Speed : If an engine driven governor is used, the propeller will operate as a constant speed. The
propeller and engine speed will be maintained constant at any r.p.m. setting within the operating range of the
propeller.
 Governor Operation (Constant speed with counterweight )
the Governor supplies and controls the flow of oil to and from the propeller. The engine driven governor
receives oil from the engine lubricating system and boost its pressure to that required to operate the pitch-
changing mechanism. It consists essentially of :

1. A gear pump to increase the pressure of the engine oil to the pressure required for propeller
operation.
2. A relief valve system which regulates the operating pressure in the governor.
3. A pilot valve actuated by flyweights which control the flow of oil through the governor
4. The speeder spring provides a mean by which the initial load on the pilot valve can be changed
through the rack and pulley arrangement which controlled by pilot.

The governor maintains the required balance between all three control forces by metering to, or drain
from, the inboard side of the propeller piston to maintain the propeller blade angle for constant speed
operation.

The governor operates by means of flyweights which control the position of a pilot valve.

When the propeller r.p.m. is below that for which the governor is set through the speeder spring by pilot ,
the governor flyweight move inward due to less centrifugal force act on flyweight than compression of
speeder spring.

If the propeller r.p.m. is higher than setting , the flyweight will move outward due to flyweight has more
centrifugal force than compression of speeder spring.

During the flyweight moving inward or outward , the pilot valve will move and directs engine oil pressure
to the propeller cylinder through the engine propeller shaft.
Principles of Operation (Constant Speed with Counterweight Propellers) The
changes in the blades angle of a typical constant speed with counterweight propellers
are accomplished by the action of two forces, one is hydraulic and the other is
mechanical.

1. The cylinder is moved by oil flowing into it and opposed by centrifugal force of
counterweight. This action moves the counterweight and the blades to rotate toward
the low angle position.
2. When the oil allowed to drain from the cylinder , the centrifugal force of counterweights
take effect and the blades are turned toward the high angle position.
3. The constant speed control of the propeller is an engine driven governor of the
flyweight type.
Governor Operation Condition

On-Speed Condition
The on-speed condition exists when the propeller operation speed are constant . In this condition, the force of the
flyweight (5) at the governor just balances the speeder spring (3) force on the pilot valve (10) and shutoff completely the
line (13) connecting to the propeller , thus preventing the flow of oil to or from the propeller.
The pressure oil from the pump is relieved through the relief valve (6). Because the propeller counterweight (15) force
toward high pitch is balanced by the oil force from cylinder (14) is prevented from moving, and the propeller does not
change pitch
Under-Speed Condition
The under-speed condition is the result of change in engine r.p.m. or propeller r.p.m.which the r.p.m. is tend to
lower than setting or governor control movement toward a high r.p.m. Since the force of the flyweight (5) is less than
the speeder spring (3) force , the pilot valve (10) is forced down.
Oil from the booster pump flows through the line (13) to the propeller. This forces the cylinder (14) move outward ,
and the blades (16) turn to lower pitch, less power is required to turn the propeller which inturn increase the engine
r.p.m. As the speed is increased, the flyweight force is increased also and becomes equal to the speeder spring force.
The pilot valve is move up, and the governor resumes its on-speed condition which keep the engine r.p.m. constant.
Over-Speed Condition
The over-speed condition which occurs when the aircraft altitude change or engine power is increased or engine r.p.m. is
tend to increase and the governor control is moved towards a lower r.p.m. In this condition, the force of the flyweight (5)
overcomes the speeder spring (3) force and raise the pilot valve (10) open the propeller line (13) to drain the oil from the
cylinder (14). The counterweight (15) force in the propeller to turn the blades towards a higher pitch. With a higher pitch,
more power is required to turn the propeller which inturn slow down the engine r.p.m. As the speed is reduced, the flyweight
force is reduced also and becomes equal to the speeder spring force. The pilot valve is lowered, and the governor resumes
its on-speed condition which keep the engine r.p.m. constant.

Flight Operation
This is just only guide line for understanding . The engine or aircraft manufacturers' operating manual should be consulted for each
particular aircrat.
Takeoff : Placing the governor control in the full forward position . This position is setting the propeller blades to low pitch angle
Engine r.p.m. will increase until it reaches the takeoff r.p.m. for which the governor has been set. From this setting , the r.p.m. will be
held constant by the governor, which means that full power is available during takeoff and climb.
Cruising : Once the crusing r.p.m. has been set , it will be held constant by the governor. All changes in attitude of the aircraft,
altitude, and the engine power can be made without affecting the r.p.m. as long as the blades do not contact the pitch limit stop.
 Power Descent : As the airspeed increase during descent, the governor will move the propeller blades to a higher pitch inorder to
hold the r.p.m. at the desired value.
Approach and Landing : Set the governor to its maximum cruising r.p.m. position during approach. During landing, the governor
control should be set in the high r.p.m. position and this move the blades to full low pitch angle.

Hydromatic Propellers

Basic Operation Principles :

The pitch changing mechanism of hydromatic propeller is a mechanical-hydraulic system in which hydraulic forces acting upon a
piston are transformed into mechanical forces acting upon the blades.

Piston movement causes rotation of cam which incorporates a bevel gear (Hamilton Standard Propeller) . The oil forces which act
upon the piston are controled by the governor

Single Acting Propeller: The governor directs its pump output against the inboard side of piston only, A single acting propeller
uses a single acting governor. This type of propeller makes use of three forces during constant speed operation , the blades
centrifugal twisting moment and this force tends at all times to move the blades toward low pitch , oil at engine pressure applied
against the outboard side of the propeller piston and this force to supplement the centrifugal twisting moment toward the low pitch
during constant speed operation., and oil from governor pressure applied against the inboard side of the piston .
 The oil pressure from governor was boosted from the engine oil supply by governor pump and the force is controlled by metering the
high pressure oil to or draining it from the inboard side of the propeller piston which balances centrifugal twisting moment and oil at
the engine pressure.

Double Acting Propeller: The governor directs its output either side of the piston as the operating condition required. Double
acting propeller uses double acting governor. This type of propeller , the governor pump output oil is directed by the governor to
either side of the propeller piston.

Principle Operation of Double Acting :

Overspeed Condition : When the engine speed increases above the r.p.m. for which the governor is set . Oil supply is boosted in
pressure by thr engine driven propeller governor , is directed against the inboard side of the propeller piston. The piston and the
attached rollers move outboard. As the piston moves outboard , cam and rollers move the propeller blades toward a higher angle ,
which inturn, decreases the engine r.p.m.
Underspeed Condition : When the engine speed drops below the r.p.m. for which the governor is set. Force at flyweight is
decrease and permit speeder spring to lower pilot valve, thereby open the oil passage allow the oil from inboard side of piston to drain
through the governor. As the oil from inboard side is drained , engine oil from engine flows through the propeller shaft into the outboard
piston end. With the aid of blade centrifugal twisting moment, The engine oil from outboard moves the piston inboard. The piston
motion is transmitted through the cam and rollers . Thus, the blades move to lower angle
 The Feathering System
Feathering : For some basic model consists of a feathering pump, reservoir, a feathering time-delay switch, and a propeller
feathering light. The propeller is feathered by moving the control in the cockpit against the low speed stop. This causes the pilot vave
lift rod in the governor to hold the pilot valve in the decrease r.p.m. position regardless of the action of the governor flyweights. This
causes the propeller blades to rotate through high pitch to the feathering position.

Some model is initiated by depressing the feathering button. This action, auxiliary pump, feather solinoid, which positions the
feathering valve to tranfer oil to feathering the propeller. When the propeller has been fully feathered, oil pressure will buildup and
operate a pressure cutout switch which will cause the auxiliary pump stop. Feathering may be also be accomplished by pulling the
engine emergency shutdown handle or switch to the shutdown position.

Unfeathering : Some model is accomblished by holding the feathering buttn switch in the out position for about 2 second . This
creates an artificial underspeed condition at the governor and causes high-pressure oil from the feathering pump to be directed to the
rear of the propeller piston. As soon as the piston has moved inward a short distance, the blades will have sufficient angle to start
rotation of the engine. When this occurs , the un-feathering switch can be released and the governor will resume control of the
propeller.
Propeller Aerodynamics
A propeller is an airfoil and like a wing it will generate an aerodynamic force much the same way. It has a leading and trailing
edge, camber and a chord line. The cambered side is called blade back and the flatter side the blade face. The angle which the
chord makes to the plane of rotation is the blade angle. The propeller is rotated by the engine and this creates thrust and moves
the aircraft forward.

Propeller Aerodynamics
As the propeller moves through the air the static pressure is reduced ahead of each blade and at the same time at the blade face
the flow is retarded resulting in an increase of static pressure. The changes in pressure around the rotating blades causes air to be
drawn into the propeller disc and this results in a rearward movement of a column of air. The result being a forward thrust pulling
the aircraft. All of this in accordance with Newton's Third Law.
The amount of thrust generated by a propeller depends on the mass of the air and its acceleration toward the rear.
Blade twist and pitch
The need for a changing blade angle from the hub to the tips stems from the fact
that angular speed varies also and is greatest at the tips. Combined with any
forward speed the propeller may have, the relative airflow is also different from
the hub to the tips. To keep thrust equal along the blade, they have a build in
twist. The design is such that the blade is thick at the hub with a large blade
angle and thin at the tip with a low blade angle.
During rotation and forward movement the propeller describes a rotational path, called a helix. If the propeller
would move forward without giving thrust the distance of one revolution is called experimental mean pitch (angle
between plane of rotation and the zero thrust angle of attack). The
actual advance is the difference between experimental mean pitch and slip. Slip is the angle between the zero thrust and the
actual angle of attack.
If the propeller rotates in a solid medium it would advance according to its pitch (angle between plane of rotation and the blade
face, chord line,) also called geometric pitch.
Propeller performance
If this was an ideal world the propeller would convert all power to thrust. But as this is not the case, losses occur in the slipstream,
aerodynamic drag. Under normal conditions the propeller is able to convert 85% of the brake horse power from the engine into thrust. Thus
propeller efficiency is the ratio between thrust horsepower and brake horsepower.
Remember that Power = Force x Distance / Time (rate of doing work), we can equate propeller efficiency as Thrust x TAS / Brake Horse
Power.
It follows that propeller efficiency is zero (0) under two conditions: when there is no forward speed (TAS) or when there is no thrust
generated. With the aircraft at standstill (beginning of takeoff roll or taxi) the propeller has zero efficiency until it reaches its optimum
forward speed for the propeller where maximum thrust is generated (max efficiency), increasing forward speed beyond that point will
decrease efficiency (propeller with fixed blade angle). You could say that there is a relation between RPM and airspeed for fixed pitch
propellers.
It is obvious that a controllable propeller has a wider range of airspeeds where efficiency is at its maximum, until the governor reaches a
position where the blades can no longer be adjusted, which is at the full fine and coarse pitch stops.
Blade forces
During rotation the blades generate lift and drag. But with propellers we talk about thrust (lift) and propeller torque (drag). Another one: with
a wing, drag must be overcome to provide lift but with a propeller it is propeller torque that must be overcome by engine torque. Increasing
power with the throttle increases engine torque, resulting in a higher RPM until propeller torque is equal to engine torque and RPM stabilizes.
If you would place an aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller into a shallow dive, as forward speed increases the relative airflow changes and
the angle of attack is reduced. Resulting in a reduced thrust and propeller torque and as engine torque remained the same (there was no
change in throttle setting) engine/propeller RPM will increase.
Blade effectiveness
A propeller blade is the most effective between station 60% and 90% with a peak at 75%. It is this point (station) where blade angle is
usually reported.
Asymmetric blade effect
This is most noticeable during high angles of attack of the airplane, take off rotation, tail wheel aircraft on take-off run. The cause is that the
propeller disc (normally at a right angle with the airflow) is tilted backwards and the relative airflow between the up going and down going
blades are different. The down going blades have a larger angle of attack (the distance travelled seems greater due to the forward movement
of the aircraft) and produce more thrust, pulling the aircraft with a higher force than the up going blades. With an engine rotating clockwise
(as seen from the cockpit) the aircraft wants to turn to the left.
Twin engine aircraft
On twin engined propeller driven aircraft and with both propellers rotating in the same direction the arm (or distance) of the downward
going blades towards the center of gravity are not the same. The engine where the distance is the smallest is called the critical engine. If that
one fails the other engine will yaw the aircraft with more force (thrust x arm) than if the critical engine had failed.
Propeller Twisting Forces
Large stresses are involved when the propeller rotates. Think of centrifugal force and twisting and aerodynamic twisting forces
acting on the blades, hub and pitch changing mechanism. Centrifugal force is opposed by centripetal force acting toward the hub
(if this was not the case the blade would be thrown away), this force is proportional to the mass of the blade times the square of
the rotational velocity.
Centrifugal twisting
During rotation centrifugal force acts from the hub spanwise along the blades outward (pulling on the blade) and also on the
leading and trailing edges along the blade. As the blade has a twist (blade angle) compared to the plane of rotation, the centrifugal
force will try to fine the propeller along the pitch change axis toward the plane of rotation.
This twisting force places a great demand on the pitch mechanism, counterweights are used to balance out this twisting toward
the fine pitch. The force will be greater on wide blade propellers compared to narrow blade types.
Aerodynamic twisting
This force develops when the total reaction force acts on a point ahead of the pitch axis of the blade. It tries to increase the
blade angle, coarsen the propeller. This only partially offsets the centrifugal twisting force.
With a windmilling propeller the total reaction force is opposite and acts in the same direction as the centrifugal twisting force
both trying to fine the propeller. During a steep dive these forces might become stronger than the pitch changing mechanism,
effectively locking the propeller into fine pitch and possibly overspeeding the engine. Despite the fact of having a constant speed
propeller.

Blade length
As the propeller rotates in a circle it becomes clear that with increasing engine/propeller RPM the propeller tip speed rises too.
When the tips come close or reach the sound barrier (Mach 1.0) they will become very noisy and propeller effectiveness (thrust)
is reduced.
But reducing the tip speed by reducing the RPM has one big disadvantage, propeller thrust will reduce also. Some propellers
solve this noise problem by curving leading edges to the rear near the tips. The trick is to keep the RPM high enough to generate
useful thrust but low enough to keep the propeller quiet. This maximum tip speed is between Mach .88 and .92 and the RPM
where that is reached depends on the propeller diameter.
Speed of sound
In the ISA atmosphere (15 °C) the speed of sound is 340,3 m/s (1225 km/h or 661,4 kts) and it varies with temperature. The formula to
calculate this is: 331,3 √ (1 + T / 273,15), where T is the outside air temperature in Celsius.
Calculating tip speed
The formula VTIP = π d n, were π is a constant (3,14159), d is diameter in meters and n is angular velocity (RPM) in revolutions
per minute. VTIP then results in meters/minute.
For example: a propeller of 72" diameter (1m83) with a RPM of 2600 gives a tip speed of: π * 1,83 * 2600 = 14947,7
meters/minute or 896,9 km/h.
Propeller tip mach speed
Divide the propeller tip speed by the actual speed of sound at standard ISA (15 °C) and our 72" propeller at 2600 RPM will
then have a tip mach number of 896,9 / 1225 = .73 Mach. Which is below mach .88 so we can increase RPM a bit or use
longer blades to increase thrust without generating a lot of extra noise.

Aircraft Propellers
Without a method of converting the power produced by the engine into useful thrust an aircraft would just be sitting still and
creating a lot of noise and not get anywhere.
In the past, all kinds of different propeller design were used: sometimes flat wooden blades, from one bladed to multiple blade
models rotated at various speeds. Until it was realised that a propeller is just like a wing but instead of carrying the aircraft it
displaces a volume of air backwards. Albeit slowly, compared to a pure JET engine, which displaces a small volume of air at
high speeds.
The same aerodynamic laws that apply to wings are valid for propellers too only not horizontal but in a vertical motion and so
thrust (lift) is created and the aircraft is able to move forward, after reaching liftoff speed it will get airborne.
Basic Propeller Design
Propellers are usually constructed of wood, aluminum alloy or a combination of composites and wood. The leading
edge is sometimes reinforced with nickel for protection against rain, sand and stones. They come in two, three or more
blades depending of the application. Some high end turbo prop aircraft even have six blades to absorb the power. But,
more blades means more weight and more propeller torque, the engine must be able to handle this.
The function of the propeller is to convert brake horse power from the engine into thrust. To do this there are two types
of propellers in use: fixed pitch (or ground adjustable, which remains a fixed pitch during flight) and the constant
speed propeller with some variations possible.
Blade angle
Looking at a propeller, its blade angle varies from the root to the tip. This is
because angular speed of the blade is at it highest at the tip (reaching the speed
of sound) and lowest at the root. If the blade angle would be constant then the
angle of attack (and thrust) of the relative airflow (result of forward speed and RPM) would vary across the propeller
disc, and the blade would probably be stalled. To make sure that the generated thrust is equal from root to tip, the blade
angle is high at the root (low angular speed) and low at the tip (high angular speed).
Propeller thrust
During propeller rotation the airflow past the propeller blade produces an aerodynamic reaction with can be resolved into thrust and propeller torque (called
lift with wings). To rotate the propeller the engine needs to create a torque. The resistance to this rotation is called propeller torque and when these two forces
are in balance or stabilized, engine/propeller RPM is constant. Thus power created by the engine is absorbed by the propeller and as a result thrust is generated.
Fixed pitch
With this propeller the blades are fixed and cannot move (except rotate), thus propeller blade angle is fixed (but the blade angle changes from the root to the
tip as explained above). It can be seen that there is also one RPM / airspeed combination where the propeller is operating at its optimum angle of attack and
produces its maximum thrust. On all other airspeeds (or conditions of flight) there is less thrust available from the propeller. In other words, its effective angle
of attack depends on RPM and airspeed.
To compensate, manufacturers sometimes have a climb and a cruise propeller available for the same model or type. Although convenient and simple to
operate, a fixed pitch propeller will always be a compromise between a number of factors as RPM, airspeed, relative airflow, angle of attack, two or three
blades, blade chord and length, emitted sound level etc...
Constant speed
To overcome all these disadvantages the constant speed (or variable
pitch) propeller is able to adjust its blade angle. Thereby operating closer
to or at its optimum angle of attack over a wide range of RPM and
airspeed combinations. The result is that the maximum amount of thrust is obtained from standstill to maximum speed (V NE) or from minimum to maximum
propeller pitch angle. A shorter takeoff roll and much better climb performance may be expected and a lower specific fuel consumption is also one of the
advantages.
Propeller control
With a fixed pitch propeller the pilot has only one control, throttle, to control power and RPM. With a constant speed propeller there are two controls:
power (throttle, black knob) and RPM (propeller, blue knob). In addition there should be a MAP indicator (manifold pressure) which relates to engine
power.
Moving the propeller control (pitch) changes the RPM at which the engine and propeller will rotate and moving the throttle changes the amount of power
delivered (MAP) to the propeller at the preset RPM held constant by the propeller governor.
An aircraft with a constant speed propeller is bit more complex and is not usually used for basic (ab initio) flight training. Those training for
higher licences (CPL, ATPL) will need to understand and properly operate these more complex aircraft.
Propeller Controls
Fixed pitch propellers are operated by changing the throttle only, thereby changing thrust and RPM at the same time. Constant speed
propellers are more complicated because the pitch can be set separately from the throttle and has a range from full fine to coarse during flight
and into feather and reverse for certain operations as emergency and ground maneuvers.
A full understanding of operating propellers is required of the pilot as overspeeding the engine or setting reverse in flight or on finals would
be nothing less than a real problem.
This focuses on preflight checks applicable for any propeller and the in-flight checks for constant speed propellers as the fixed pitch types
usually do not have controls in the cockpit to manipulate them during flight.

Propeller Operation
A substantial amount of aircraft have variable pitch propellers of some sort in use today, it is important that the pilot is very familiar with
the operation of the propeller in normal and emergency situations. Even the type of engine (gasoline, diesel or turboprop) will change
operating procedures for the propeller. Limitations on certain combinations of RPM and manifold pressures are not uncommon due to
frequency resonations with the engine/propeller combination.
Preflight checks
Check the propeller blades for damage, nicks and any oil leaks under the spinner. This would indicate an unserviceable aircraft as engine oil
is used to change the pitch of the blades. For optimum propeller performance do clean the blades after every flight, this gives you the chance
to check the blades properly.
Engine startup
Set the propeller control in the forward (full fine) position for piston engines. Free turbine turboprop aircraft usually leave the propeller
feathered until the engine is fired up and at idle N1 speed.
Pre-takeoff checks
During the runup, hydraulic operated propellers are are checked by changing the control from full fine to coarse (or a set RPM drop) two or
three times. This makes sure that any cold oil left in the propeller is run through the engine for warmup so that propeller operation will not be
sluggish.
Cruise checks
During cruise operate the engine RPM and manifold pressure according to the aircraft flight manual (read it thoroughly). Avoid overboosting by more
than the recommended values. Any change in power settings should be done per procedure described below.
To increase power at a higher RPM:
• Increase RPM with the PROPELLER control
• Increase MAP with the THROTTLE control
To decrease power for a lower RPM:
• Reduce MAP with the THROTTLE control
• Reduce RPM with the PROPELLER control
The procedure shown above discusses the correct way of changing power with a constant speed propeller without the possibility of overloading
the engine.
Oversquare
It is perfectly fine to operate the engine in a so called oversquare condition where the RPM divided by 100 is lower than MAP, for example: 2300 RPM
and 25" MAP, read here about running oversquare and in the aircraft/engine manuals. This will lower fuel consumption and increase the range of the
aircraft.
Emergencies
In case of engine failure place the constant speed propeller in the full coarse pitch (blue lever fully backward) as to reduce the drag from it and increase
glide range.
Pre-landing checks
During landing and go-around the propeller should be in the full fine position to assure the maximum power available should this be needed. Short final is
the place where this check can be done together with setting carb heat cold.

Constant speed propellers are driven by oil pressure or electric power and need a control unit (governor) to maintain the preset RPM by varying the blade
angle.

Propeller governors
To sense the engine RPM a mechanical or electrical device is used. In todays aviation this usually an oil or electrical operated governor. Some models are
able to set the propeller blades into feather or even in a reverse trust position (not during flight).
 Hydraulic propeller governors
Also called constant speed unit, it consists of a governor which regulates engine oil pressure to a hydraulic operated piston (in the propeller) and changes the
propeller blade angle in order to keep RPM constant. The governor contains flyweights which senses engine RPM and change position in relation to a change
in RPM, thus changing oil pressure to the propeller and regulating the blade pitch.
The blades themselves contain flyweights compensating for aerodynamic forces so that the oil pressure from the engine only needs a little bit of effort to
change the blade angle. This means that oil pressure remains almost constant and engine lubrication is guaranteed.
Electric propeller governors
Detection of propeller RPM can be done in several ways: by optical (light), magnetic (flux) or sensing the engine RPM by connecting to the ignition or
RPM indicator (Rotax). This signal is then fed to a controller which calculates any change in RPM and drives an electric motor inside the propeller to keep the
preset RPM constant.
Microprocessor
Thus with the flick of a switch the propeller can be set to any RPM, feather or even operate as a fixed pitch with sophisticated, sometimes even
microprocessor controlled electronics (Airmaster Propellor, NZ).
Responsive
Most modern constant speed propellers (hydraulically or electrical) have an accurate and responsive operation. Any change or tendency to change the RPM,
by the pilot, turbulence or change in aircraft attitude, is sensed quickly so blade angle is changed accordingly to keep the preset RPM constant and this
occurs almost unnoticeable by the pilot or passengers.
Preflight
With an hydraulic constant speed propeller you must verify that no oil leaks exist either at the propeller or near the governor. Any leak is reason not to fly as
engine lubrication is impaired and failure or seizure of the engine could result due to loss of oil.
In case of an engine failure the propeller should be positioned in the low drag setting. Thus with the blades perpendicular on the airflow thus full coarse, this
is called feathering the prop.

Special operations
Some types of variable pitch propellers have the option to select a feather or reverse thrust position. Its obvious that it must be impossible to select
reverse thrust during flight.
 Feather

This position is used when an engine has failed. The drag from a windmilling propeller/engine is very high and will reduce
aircraft performance. Feathering the propeller will stop the engine from rotating and this reduces drag. Some motor gliders use
this feature when, after climbing to altitude, they shutdown their engine and feather the propeller for much better glide
performance of their aircraft.
Feathering can be done manually of automatically. Large turboprop aircraft will have the latter. On aircraft without a feather
position it is important that the propeller be set in the full coarse position after engine failure and thus reducing drag and
increasing the glide distance.
Reverse Thrust
This is used to reduce the landing roll. The blades are first set to a negative pitch angle (20°) and then power is applied. Adding
power while the pitch angle is around 0° could result in an engine overspeed, mechanical devices are used to prevent this. It is
even possible to use this to back the aircraft out from a parking stand, although caution is required. The aid from a marshaller is
recommended as the pilot usually is unable to look backwards.
Overspeed condition
A constant speed propeller has two mechanical stops: one at the full fine pitch and one at the full coarse pitch. With each settings
there is a maximum airspeed the aircraft can reach. If the propeller overspeed fails then the propeller blades end up at the full
fine pitch setting due to aerodynamic forces and with an airspeed probably higher than is normally attainable with that setting.
With the application of power the engine will then overspeed and produces no thrust until the airspeed is reduced below the
maximum of the propeller at the fine pitch stops.
Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin
The FAA has issued a Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin CE-10-21 (SAIB) to alert operators, pilots, and aircraft
manufacturers of concerns for an optimum response to a propeller overspeed in piston engine aircraft with variable pitch
propellers. At this time, the FAA has concluded that the airworthiness concern is not an unsafe condition that would warrant
airworthiness directive (AD) action.
The appropriate emergency procedures should be followed to mitigate the emergency situation in the event of a propeller
overspeed; however, pilots should be aware that some reduction in airspeed may result in the ability for continued safe flight and
landing. The determination of an airspeed that is more suitable than engine out best glide speed should only be conducted at a
safe altitude when the pilot has time to determine an alternative course of action other than landing immediately.
AIRCRAFT PROPELLER
MAINTENANCE
 DESIGN DAMAGE AND FAILURES
PROPELLER MAJOR REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS. Major repairs or alterations are
only permitted when a propeller manufacturer’s data approves that major repair or alteration.
Only an appropriately rated repair station may accomplish major repairs or alterations. Refer to
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 43, Appendix A, for identification of
major alterations and repairs to propellers.
PROPELLER DESIGN AND CAUSES OF FAILURE.
a. A propeller is one of the most highly stressed components on an aircraft. During normal
operation, 10 to 25 tons of centrifugal force pull the blades from the hub while the blades are
bending and flexing due to thrust and torque loads and engine, aerodynamic and gyroscopic
vibratory loads. A properly maintained propeller is designed to perform normally under these
loads, but when propeller components are damaged by corrosion, stone nicks, ground strikes,
etc., an additional unintended stress concentration is imposed and the design margin of safety
may not be adequate. The result is excessive stress and the propeller may fail.
b. Additional causes of overstress conditions are exposure to overspeed conditions, other object
strikes, unauthorized alterations, engine problems, worn engine vibration dampers, lightning
strike, etc. Most mechanical damage takes the form of sharp-edged nicks and scratches created
by the displacement of material from the blade surface and corrosion that forms pits and other
defects in the blade surface. This small-scale damage tends to concentrate stress in the affected
area and eventually, these high-stress areas may develop cracks. As a crack propagates, the stress
becomes increasingly concentrated, increasing the crack growth rate. The growing crack may
result in blade failure.
• TYPES OF PROPELLER DAMAGE. Many types of damage cause propellers to fail or become unairworthy.
FAA data on propeller failures indicates that the majority of failures occur in the blade at the tip region, usually
within several inches from the tip and often due to a crack initiator such as a pit, nick, or gouge. However, a
blade failure can occur along any portion of a blade, including the mid-blade, shank, and hub, particularly when
nicks, scratches, corrosion, and cracks are present. Therefore, during propeller inspection and routine
maintenance, it is important to inspect the entire blade. The severity of the damage determines the type of repairs
required. Additional guidance on damage is given in manufacturers’ service documents, Chapter 2, paragraph
205, of this AC, and AC 43.13-1, current edition. The following paragraphs describe some of the types of
damage that may be found in propellers.
• a. Corrosion. One of the principal causes of loss of airworthiness in propellers is corrosion. External
corrosion on metal blades, hubs, and other components poses a serious problem. Internal corrosion may exist
where moisture may collect in internal cavities such as hubs, blade clamps, and pitch control mechanisms. This
threatens propeller structural integrity and performance without being noticed. The overhaul calendar time
periods for propellers are established so that the propeller can be disassembled to inspect internal surfaces.
Moreover, corrosion acts continuously, regardless of the actual time in operation. Corrosion on metal propeller
components can be classified into three distinct types.
 (1) Surface Corrosion. The loss of surface metal due to chemical or electro-chemical action with visible
oxidation products usually having a contrasting color and texture to the base metal. Surface corrosion, as shown in
Figures 1-1 and 1-2, generally results when the corrosion protection on a metal surface has been removed by
erosion or by polishing. Therefore, removing paint and corrosion protection, such as when polishing blades, is not
recommended.

FIGURE 1-1. FIGURE 1-2.

Hub Surface Corrosion Polished Blade Surface Corrosion

(2) Pitting. Pits consist of visible corrosion cavities extending inward from the metal surface. They can grow on the surface,
under decals, or under improperly installed de-ice boots. Pitting can appear to be relatively minor - 0.010 inches deep - and still cause
major problems since the pits could be a precursor to the initiation of cracks (see Figures 1-3 and 1-4).
FIGURE 1-3. FIGURE 1-4. Pitting on a Shot Peened Surface
Pitting

(3) Intergranular Corrosion. Occurs in grain boundaries. The presence of intergranular corrosion may be the
result of the continued presence of moisture such as under a decal, in a fastener hole, or where the anodize and paint
protective barriers have been lost. Exfoliation is a form of intergranular corrosion that occurs more often in forgings
or rolled
 sheets, and less often in castings. Exfoliation is sometimes visible as metal flaking and cracks on a blade leading edge
(see Figure 1-5).
FIGURE 1-5.
Exfoliation on the Blade Leading Edge

b. Face, Leading Edge, or Twist Misalignment. When propeller blades are bent, twisted, or cocked, they will not be properly
aligned with each other in operation. This will cause vibration and may cause a loss of thrust. The level of vibration can be severe and
depending on the severity of the misalignment, could lead to catastrophic failure (see Chapter 2,
paragraph 203a).

c. Nick. A sharp, notch-like displacement of metal usually found on leading and trailing edges. All nicks are potential crack
starters (see Figure 1-6).

d. Erosion. The loss of material from blade surface by the action of small particles such as sand or water and is usually present on
the leading edge close to the tip. This damage destroys the blades’ corrosion protection, which might lead to blade failure (see Figure
1-7).
 FIGURE 1-6.
Blade Nick FIGURE 1-7.
Erosion on a Metal Blade

e. Scratches, Gouges, Cuts, and Scoring. These terms describing surface damage are found in Appendix 1, Glossary of Common
Propeller Terms.
f. Cracks. When found anywhere in a propeller, cracks are cause for its immediate removal and detailed inspection. Cracks in propellers
will grow over time, perhaps very rapidly, and eventually lead to failure (see Figures 1-8 and 1-9).

FIGURE 1-8.
Hub Crack FIGURE 1-9. Blade Crack from a Nick

g. Dents. Dents can be harmful, depending on their size, location, and configuration. Dents cause local stress risers around their
perimeter and at the bottom under the surface. Removing material should repair dents. Filling dents with any material such as auto
body compound does nothing to correct the stress riser and is not approved. Failure may occur.
h. Lightning Strike. A lightning strike on a metal blade may be indicated by a small burned and melted area on the blade, a
trail of small pits along the blade, or may show no indication at
all (see Figure 1-10). However, the damage from a lightning strike may be severe, affecting the strength of the blade material itself,
damaging blade bearings or other internal components. Lightning always creates residual magnetism in steel parts. Inspection for
damage from a reported lightning strike may require specialized equipment, like a gauss meter, to check for magnetism in steel
components, and should be accomplished by an appropriately rated propeller repair station. A lightning strike on a composite blade
may be indicated by small burnt areas on the composite where the lightning may have attached or exited (see Figure 1-11 or 1-12).
Composite blades may suffer other damage as well. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance manual for diagnosis and
corrective action.

FIGURE 1-10.
Lightning Strike on a Metal Blade Tip

FIGURE 1-11.
Strong Lightning Strike on a Composite FIGURE 1-12.
Blade Tip Lightning Strike on a Composite Surface

i. Overspeed. A propeller may have been exposed to an overspeed condition and give no indication of the event. However,
the event may have severely damaged the propeller due to the dramatic increase in centrifugal loads. If the propeller is
suspected of having been operated in an overspeed condition, it should be removed and sent to a propeller repair station to be
inspected
for elongation of boltholes, dimension changes, or other signs of stress in accordance with the appropriate manufacturer’s
maintenance instructions. Sometimes excessive tolerances in engine or propeller governor settings can permit overspeed conditions
into restricted rotational speed ranges without the knowledge of the operator.
j. Foreign Object Strike. A foreign object strike can include a broad spectrum of damage, from no visible damage, to a small
nick, to severe ground impact damage. A conservative approach in evaluating the damage is required because of the possibility that
there may be hidden damage that is not readily apparent during a superficial, visual inspection (see Figure 1- 13). Refer to the
manufacturer’s maintenance instructions for damage limitations.

FIGURE 1-13.
Propeller Blade Struck by a Foreign Object

k. Fire Damage or Heat Damage. On rare occasions, propellers have been exposed to fire or heat damage such as a hangar or
engine fire. In the event of such an incident, an inspection is required before further flight. Such parts are normally retired. If there
is any indication or suspicion that aluminum propeller parts have been exposed to high temperatures (in excess of 200 °F (93 °C)),
then the parts must be assumed to be unairworthy, unless it can be proven that there have been no adverse affects from the incident.
Composite propeller blades may have a lower temperature threshold for potential damage. Refer to the manufacturer’s maintenance
instructions for this limitation. Confirmation of airworthiness requires complete disassembly and inspection of the propeller by an
appropriately rated propeller repair station in accordance with the propeller maintenance manual. Always advise the repair station
that the propeller may have been exposed to heat or fire when it is sent in for this type of inspection.
 MAINTENANCE AND OVERHAUL

REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE AND OVERHAUL.

a. Sources of Propeller Repair Information. Airworthiness Directives (AD), type certificate (TC) data sheets,
manufacturers’ manuals, service letters, and bulletins specify methods and limits for propeller maintenance, inspection, repair,
and removal from service. When a manufacturer’s data specifies that major repairs are permitted to a specific model blade or
other propeller component, only an appropriately rated repair facility may accomplish those repairs. An FAA-certificated
mechanic with at least a powerplant rating can accomplish all other propeller maintenance and minor repair by using the
practices and techniques specified by this advisory circular (AC) and in the propeller manufacturer’s service data. Some
maintenance and minor repairs in this category are the removal of minor nicks, scratches, small areas of surface corrosion,
painting, and minor deicer boot repairs. Because of the complexity of propeller damage and because damage tends to be hidden
or not obvious to untrained maintenance personnel, we recommend that propeller damage be referred to experienced repair
personnel whenever doubt exists regarding a condition that has been observed. We further recommend that owners/operators
follow the manufacturer’s maintenance and overhaul program.
b. Service Personnel Limitations and Responsibilities. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 65,
section 65.81, specifically excludes certificated and rated airframe and powerplant mechanics from performing major repairs
and/or major alterations on aircraft propellers. Title 14 CFR part 43, Appendix A, defines major alterations and repairs to
propellers. However, 14 CFR part 145, section 145.201, provides that an appropriately rated repair station may perform such
major repairs or alterations provided the work is done in accordance with technical data approved by the Administrator. Part 145
also specifies the personnel qualifications and other requirements applicable to propeller repair stations. When complying with
ADs, service personnel are required to review all applicable manufacturers’ service bulletins (SB), manuals, and other
information on the propeller being inspected, overhauled, or repaired, if included by reference.
c. Periodic Reconditioning of Aluminum Fixed-Pitch Propellers. A number of factors will require returning a propeller to
a propeller repair station for service, repair, or rework. All propeller manufacturers recommend a periodic reconditioning of
aluminum fixed-pitch models at specified service time intervals to prevent blade failure from surface damage that may not be
visible. This reconditioning requires the propeller to be returned to a repair station for removal of a thin layer of surface metal
to remove surface and subsurface damage such as nicks and corrosion. Fatigue cycles generated by some engine/propeller
combinations can require manufacturer-reconditioning intervals as often as every 500 hours of operation.
d. Periodic Overhaul and/or Inspection of Variable Pitch Propellers. Propeller manufacturers recommend a periodic
propeller overhaul or teardown inspection. Some propeller makes and models are required by ADs to be inspected, repaired, or
partially disassembled for evaluation. In most cases, such a requirement is a major repair or alteration and dictates that the
propeller is returned to a propeller repair station.
 e. Inspection and Maintenance by the Owner/Operator. Notwithstanding the other requirements stated herein, it is
incumbent on the owner/operator to inspect and conduct routine maintenance on his/her propeller. This document and
others cited in this AC provide guidelines for doing such maintenance.
f. Propeller Records. Maintenance records are a required part of aircraft maintenance. Propeller maintenance
recordkeeping responsibility is ultimately assigned to the owner/operator of aircraft operated under 14 CFR part 91 in
accordance with part 91, section 91.403. Section 91.417 requires a record of maintenance, including a record of total time
in service and time since last overhaul for propellers required to be overhauled on a specific time basis, for each propeller.
A propeller logbook is an appropriate document for recording total time in service and time since overhaul. In some cases,
lack of records may require premature maintenance activity, overhaul, or possible retirement since most ADs presume if
the time in service and time since overhaul is not known, the propeller requires compliance with the most restrictive level
called out in the AD. Propeller logbooks are available from various sources, including the propeller manufacturer.
Damage as well as details of maintenance to the propeller should be entered into the logbook. The total time in service
and time since the last overhaul recorded in the propeller logbook should be updated at minimum at the time of annual
inspection when reviewing the aircraft operating maintenance records.
CLEANING. Proper cleaning of the propeller is critical to maintaining its continued airworthiness. Care should be taken
in cleaning all propeller surfaces to prevent damaging the surface being cleaned. Many propeller surfaces have finish
requirements that can be damaged by harsh brushing, cleaning agents, and handling. Other surfaces have special finish
textures such as shot or glass bead peening that can be harmed by abrasion or polishing with steel wool or other abrasive
materials. In addition, special corrosion protection finishes such as lacquer, paint, or anodizing can be inadvertently
removed during cleaning. Use of high-pressure washers is not recommended to clean propellers because the high pressure
may drive water under seals and into the hub and other cavities in the propeller. Once the water enters the propeller, it can
establish a corrosive internal environment. Alkaline and acidic solutions and strippers for routine cleaning should also be
avoided.
NOTE: If any oil or grease is evident on the propeller, the source of the leak should be determined before
cleaning since the oil or grease may be leaking from a crack, seal, or lubrication fitting (see Figure 2-1).
 FIGURE 2-1.
Grease Leak Residues

a. Cleaning. Cleaning should be done with clean water and a non-alkaline cleaner.

b. Post-Cleaning. Rinse the propeller with clean water, dry with a soft cloth.

INSPECTION METHODS. The methods used in propeller inspection are versions of methods used in inspecting the entire aircraft. These methods
have precisely determined probabilities that, if a defect exists, it will be detected. This reliability of detection of defects permits inspection intervals to
be established. To ensure that a component will remain airworthy, it is necessary that the inspection used to detect defects in that component be
accurately and reliably accomplished. This process requires that all inspections of the same part on a propeller be performed in a uniform manner to
ensure the appropriate probability of detection of a defect. The inspector should be trained in the method and the inspection device used should be in
good condition and calibrated as required. A detailed procedure should be used. A more detailed discussion of the requirements for satisfactory
inspection may be contained in the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents. All inspections, other than visual, must be conducted in an
appropriately rated repair station.

a. Visual Inspection. The primary defense against early failure of propellers. When inspecting propellers, it is necessary to use touch and other
senses, as well as visual cues. Changes in surface roughness, unusual free play, and odd sounds give hints as to conditions that may affect airworthiness.
Feel for roughness and look for small variations in color, texture changes, waviness, and changes in reflection that may signal the removal of protective
coatings. Some areas may require the use of a 10x magnifying glass to identify small features or find cracking. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s
maintenance documents for specific instructions.

b. Penetrant Inspection. Fluorescent penetrant is far superior to non-fluorescing penetrant (visible die penetrant), particularly for detecting small
surface cracks on propeller blades. The use of visible die penetrant is not recommended. Cleaning is vital to ensure reliable detection and the absence of
false indications. Sometimes, manufacturers recommend specialized cleaning
procedures involving media blasting and etch. Such procedures, if called for, are beyond the capabilities of most maintenance personnel and maintenance
organizations not specifically FAA- certificated to accomplish them. Penetrant inspection on propellers is conducted in a rated repair station. Refer to the
propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for special instructions.

c. Ultrasonic Inspection. Ultrasonic inspection uses specialized equipment to send, receive, and process sound waves to detect flaws on or below the
surface of the component being tested. Appropriately certified inspectors conduct ultrasonic inspections. Ultrasonic inspections are very specific and
require specially designed probes and calibration standards to obtain reliable results. Ultrasonic inspections can be conducted on composites, wood,
ferrous, and non- ferrous metals. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for special instructions.

d. Eddy Current Inspection. Eddy current inspection uses specialized equipment to generate and measure an electric field that detects flaws at or
slightly below the surface of the component being inspected. Eddy current inspection is conducted by appropriately certificated inspectors. This type of
inspection is very specific and requires specially designed probes and calibration standards to obtain reliable results. Eddy current inspection is used on
ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for special instructions.

e. Magnetic Particle Inspection. Magnetic particle inspection is conducted at an appropriately rated repair station. It is useful for finding cracks,
inclusions, and imperfections at or near the surface of ferrous parts. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for special instructions.

TYPES OF INSPECTION. The paragraphs below describe non-destructive inspection and visual inspection techniques that have been adapted to, or
are unique to, the propeller.

a. Inspection After Suspected Impact. Propellers that have been involved in a known or suspected static or rotating impact with relatively solid
objects (e.g., ground, maintenance stands, runway lights, birds, etc.) or relatively yielding objects (e.g., snow banks, puddles of water, heavy accumulation
of slush, etc.) should be inspected for damage in accordance with the manufacturer’s maintenance manual before further flight. If the inspection reveals
one or more of the following listed indications, the propeller should be removed and sent to an appropriately rated repair station.

(1) A bent or twisted blade.

(2) A blade that tracks out of limits.

(3) A loose blade in the hub for blades that are not normally loose in the hub.

(4) Any noticeable or suspected damage to the pitch change mechanism.

(5) Any diameter reduction (tip damage).

 (6) A tracking alignment error.
(7) Visible major damage such as nicks, gouges, corrosion or cracks.
(8) Operating changes, such as vibration or oil or grease leak
b. Propeller Tracking Inspection.
(1) Evaluating propeller blade tracking can indicate much information about propeller condition. Accurate propeller
tracking requires securing the aircraft in a stationary position and ensuring that the engine propeller shaft is tight against the
thrust bearing. A blade-tracking datum can be made simply by placing a block on the ground in front of the aircraft in the
propeller arc. Raise the block as required to obtain a clearance between the blade tip (blade vertical) and the datum block
not exceeding 1/4-inch. Another method is to raise a block in front of the propeller with a small gap. A cowling fixture can
be used as well. In some aircraft, it may be necessary to relieve engine compression (loosen spark plugs) and seek a calm
day to eliminate outside disturbances that would cause an apparent tracking error. Draw a line on the block next to the blade
tip position. Move the blade in a fore-and-aft direction and mark the limits of such motion. Pull all the blades past the
drawn datum, checking fore-and-aft free play as before. No blade should deviate more than 1/16-inch from the plane of
rotation, as defined by the drawn marks, unless the manufacturer’s service manuals define greater limits. Record any
abnormal condition in the propeller log.
(2) It should be noted that some propeller blades require centrifugal load to seat properly in the hub so propellers of this
type will show a large amount of free play. Follow the manufacturer’s tracking inspection instructions for these propellers.
Blade-to-blade tracking difference could indicate a deformed blade. Free play differences on blades may indicate internal
blade bearing, preload system, or actuating pin problems. Safety practices, such as ensuring that switches are off, or
grounding the magnetos, are necessary to ensure that rotating the propeller does not cause the engine to start during the
tracking inspection (see Figure 2-2). A repair station should not return propeller blades that exhibit any looseness or out-of-
track conditions exceeding 1/16-inch (or the manufacturer’s specification) to service without inspection/repair.
 FIGURE 2-2.
Propeller Tracking (Wood Block or Cowling Fixture Shown)

c. Propeller Overspeed Inspection. Generally, propeller overspeed causes no visible external damage to the propeller.
In the event of an overspeed event, the manufacturer’s instructions should be followed. These instructions usually contain
permissible transient overspeed and overspeed limits above which the propeller must be removed and sent to a repair
station. The problem that caused the permissible transient overspeed condition should be corrected since the propeller is
not designed to be routinely operated at the transient overspeed limit.
d. Inspection for Corrosion. Corrosion may be present on the propeller in varying amounts. Prior to performing any
inspection process, maintenance personnel should determine the specific type and extent of the corrosion and become
familiar with the propeller manufacturer’s recommended corrosion removal limitations and practices.
 e. Inspection of Aluminum Blades. For aluminum blades, conduct a thorough visual inspection per the manufacturer’s maintenance
document. If blade damage is beyond that specified for field repair, the blade must either be retired or sent to a repair station for
evaluation before further flight.
f. Inspection of Composite (Including Wooden) Blades. For composite blades, a thorough visual inspection is recommended
together with a coin tap inspection of each composite blade, including the metal erosion shield on the leading edge (see AC 43-3,
Nondestructive Inspection for Aircraft, or follow the manufacturer’s instructions for coin tap test limits so as not to damage the blade).
Repair damage, delaminations, or debonds within the limits specified. If blade damage is beyond that specified by the manufacturer for
minor repair, the blade must either be retired or sent to a repair station for evaluation before further service.
g. Inspection for Lightning Strike on Composite Blades. Any composite blade suspected of lightning strike should be inspected and
may require overhaul. Lightning strikes usually enter a composite blade through the metal erosion shield. If the blade has a metallic
lightning screen or tip lightning strip, the lightning strike may enter the screen or through the tip instead of the erosion shield. If a
lightning strike is present, a darkened area and possible pitting, usually in the proximity of the tip, will be noticeable. If a lightning strike
is suspected or detected, follow the manufacturer’s service instructions before further flight.

INSPECTION LEVELS.
a. Three Levels of Inspection. To ensure airworthiness, propeller inspection may be accomplished at three levels:
(1) Preflight or walk-around inspection, detailed inspection (such as a 100-hour or annual inspection), and teardown inspection
(or overhaul).
(2) These levels correspond to three of the four inspection levels carried out on airframes. Regardless of the level of inspection,
the inspection should follow a standard procedure to be carried out in a similar fashion every time it is accomplished. The major
elements of any inspection include the following:

(a) Basis for the Inspection. Purpose, documents needed, inspection frequency, and
what is needed to accomplish the inspection.

(b) Preparation. Cleaning, surface preparation, equipment and calibration

requirements, etc.

(c) Implementation. Define what the inspection is and how it is to be carried out,
defect criteria, post-cleaning, etc.

(d) Evaluation. Accept/reject criteria, reporting.

 b. Preflight/Walk-Around Inspection. The propeller portion of the walk-around is an important element of the process of
airworthiness maintenance. It should not be merely a superficial look, but a studied review of the condition of everything that might
give trouble during the forthcoming flight.
(1) Blade. The blade and its surface should be carefully inspected for conditions affecting airworthiness as detailed below.

(a) Surface Damage. Look for surface damage on both sides of the blades such as
dents, nicks, scratches, and corrosion. Surface imperfections can also be felt by running your fingernail along the blade leading edge.
Damage should be repaired before flight. Whenever a noticeable dent, nick, corrosion pit, or bump is observed, an appropriately rated
mechanic should blend it out. The mechanic should remove all corrosion products and determine that the section thickness has not been
reduced below allowable limits. Allowable thickness limits should be obtained from the manufacturer’s maintenance manual, or other
FAA acceptable propeller inspection criteria.

(b) Erosion. Examine the blade for evidence of erosion. If metallic blades appear to
show erosion beyond limits, the propeller should be removed from service and evaluated by an appropriately rated repair station. Check
the condition of the paint on blades and spinners that have protective paint. Paint protects the surface of the blade from erosion, and the
blade should be repaired before the paint wears through and the blade structure begins to erode. Do not apply excessive paint and do not
paint propeller components unless it is in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions since improper painting may affect propeller
balance, operation, static electricity discharge, or have other unintended consequences.

(c) Composite or Wood Delaminations. Although not susceptible to corrosion like

metal propellers, wood or composite propellers have special problems that can lead to an unairworthy condition. Wood or composite
propellers are susceptible to internal damage from small stone strikes that can create delamination or microcracks and permit intrusion of
moisture. Moisture will cause expansion of existing cracks and delaminations. When moisture freezes within the blade, it causes
delamination. When inspecting wood or composite propeller blades, look for cracks or delamination on the blade surface and at blade
edges. In wooden propellers, check the gluelines for debonding; look for warp and loss of protective coating (paint or varnish). If drain
holes are present, it is imperative that they be inspected since they may become clogged with insects and debris. Clogged drain holes can
cause moisture retention.

(d) Straightness. Sight down the edges to find any deformation.

(e) Looseness. Feel the blades and move them to find unusual changes in looseness
and unusual play. Blade-to-blade differences indicate that an internal problem may exist. Some propeller blades are designed to be loose.
In this case, look for blade-to-blade differences to indicate unusual play.
 (f) De-Icing System. Check the de-ice or anti-ice boots, if installed, for good adhesion to the propeller. Examine the boots and
exposed wiring for breaks and burn through (see Figure 2-3).

FIGURE 2-3.
Heater Edge Debond

(g) Sheath Cracks and Debonds. Check the leading edge erosion sheath of wood
or composite blades, if installed, for cracks and debonds. If damaged, repair before further flight or follow the manufacturer’s recommendations
for permissible limits on cracked or debonded leading edge erosion sheaths (see Figure 2-4).

FIGURE 2-4.
Sheath Crack

(2) Oil and Grease Leakage. Look for oil or lubricant leaks in unusual places, like the outside surfaces and seals. Oil or
grease leakage may be due to a seal failure or a crack. The source of the oil or grease leak should be determined before flight.
During maintenance, wipe the surfaces of the propeller after this inspection, not before, since oil leaking from a crack may assist
in detecting it. Some manufacturers fill hubs with red oil that gives a positive warning of a crack in the hub.
 (3) Spinner and Bulkhead. Externally check the spinner and bulkhead for security, missing fasteners, damage, and cracks.
Cracks typically originate from the attachment screws. Cracks should be serviced in accordance with the manufacturer’s manuals.
Check for looseness of the bulkhead. This could be an indication that the mounting bolts are loose.

(4) General Condition. Look for loose wires, grease fittings, and debris.
(5) Control System. The control system (governor) of a controllable pitch propeller should be checked to determine whether
the system is operating properly and is not leaking.
(6) Maintenance Records. Note any indications in the logbook for future reference to determine whether a condition is getting
worse.
c. Detailed Inspection (Such as at a 100-Hour or Annual Inspection). A more rigorous visual inspection can detect some
conditions affecting airworthiness of propellers, particularly from external sources of damage, such as erosion, de-icing boot damage,
and blade tracking. Many locations encountering damage are hidden. For these areas, conducting a worthwhile inspection will require
some disassembly and special equipment. Such an inspection is a detailed inspection and may be accomplished in the field by
appropriately rated maintenance technicians. Generally speaking, a detailed inspection requires removal of the spinner and certain
other components as indicated below. Propellers suspected of more severe damage may require removal from the aircraft and the next
level of inspection - a teardown inspection.
(1) Inspection Interval. Most manufacturers require a periodic inspection at fixed intervals, usually between 1 and 2 years or
100 to 300 flight-hours, whichever is sooner. A detailed propeller inspection is done at each aircraft annual inspection, or as required in
the aircraft maintenance procedures. This inspection reduces the possibility that a propeller will be neglected and subjected to
unobserved corrosion and other damage.
(2) Fixed-Pitch Propeller. The detailed inspection uses a procedure similar to that used in the walk-around inspection, but more
time and closer scrutiny is required. Inspect the propeller section-by-section (if it is a large propeller, consider marking off sections to
ensure complete coverage). Use the best possible light and use a 10X magnifier for any questionable areas. Look for cracks and
corrosion pitting that may have escaped earlier scrutiny. The magnifier is a great help in determining whether a scratch is, in fact, a
crack. All applicable propeller ADs must be checked for compliance. The following detailed inspections are recommended.

(a) Propeller Blades. Visually inspect for excessive wear and erosion, damage,
nicks, cracks, corrosion, lightning strike, ground strike.

1 Check for distortion, security to the engine, and tip tracking. Check the
adequacy of protective coatings, paint, and plating.

2 Check the leading edge erosion shield for damage, debonding, and cracks.
 3 Check composite and wood blades for delaminations, surface cracks, and
exposed composite.

(b) Spinner and Bulkhead Assembly. Detailed inspection procedures require

removal of the propeller spinner for examination of the hub area. Inspect the spinner and spinner bulkhead for cracks and repairs such
as stopdrill holes and weldments. Spinner bulkhead attachment tabs frequently succumb to fatigue and should be checked. It is good
practice to remove the spinner after each 100 flight-hours to observe the propeller-to-engine attachment. If repairs are present, they
should conform to the manufacturer’s maintenance documents.

1 Visually inspect for cracks, wear and abrasion, loose or missing attachment
bolts or screws, large dents, excessive screw hole wear, and loose or missing retaining hardware.

2 Check cowl-to-spinner fit for damage and interference.

(c) Propeller Assembly.

1 Examine propeller attach bolts for looseness, missing safety wires, and cracks.
Cracked or broken bolts may be the result of overtorquing. Correct torquing procedures are given in the manufacturer’s service
instructions. The use of dry or lubricated bolt threads for torquing purposes is not standardized and may change from one engine to
another using the same propeller. Cracks may be present in the hub area between or adjacent to bolt holes and along the hub pilot bore.
Cracks in these areas cannot be repaired and require immediate removal of the propeller.

(aa) Visually inspect for cracks, corrosion, nicks, and damage.

(bb) Check the attaching bolt for improper torquing and improper safety. (cc) Check the condition of fasteners, tie-
wires, clips, and etc.

(dd) Check the adequacy of protective coatings, paint, and plating.

2 Conduct a functional check including revolutions per minute (RPM) control,

RPM limits, idle setting, responsiveness, and vibration.
(3) Controllable Pitch/Constant Speed. A complete detailed inspection of controllable pitch propellers requires removal of the
spinner for examination and servicing of the propeller hub and blade clamp area. All inspection and servicing of the pitch control
mechanism should follow the recommendations of the propeller, engine, and airframe manufacturer. All propeller ADs must be
checked for compliance.
 (a) Propeller Blades.

1 Visually inspect for excessive wear and erosion, damage, nicks, cracks, corrosion, lightning strike, and ground
strike.
2 Check for distortion, looseness, and pitch tip travel.
3 Check the adequacy of protective coatings, paint, and plating.
4 Check the leading edge erosion shield for damage, debonding, and cracks.
5 Check composite blades for delaminations, surface cracks, and exposed composite
6 Perform tip tracking procedures.
(b) Spinner and Bulkhead Assembly. Detailed inspection procedures require
removal of the propeller spinner for examination of the hub and blade retention area. Inspect the spinner and spinner bulkhead for
cracks and repairs, such as stopdrill holes and weldments. Spinner bulkhead attachment tabs and bolts frequently succumb to fatigue
and should be checked. It is good practice to remove the spinner every 100 hours to observe the hub and blade retention area. If
repairs are present, they should conform to the manufacturer’s maintenance documents.

1 Visually inspect for cracks, wear and abrasion, loose or missing attachment
bolts or screws, large dents, excessive screw hole wear, and loose or missing retaining hardware.

2 Check cowl-to-spinner fit for damage and interference that could affect
propeller operation.

3 Check the security of balance weights.

(c) Propeller Assembly. Propeller attach bolts should be examined for looseness,
missing safety wires, and cracks. Cracked or broken bolts are usually the result of overtorquing. Correct torquing procedures are given
in the manufacturer’s service instructions. The use of dry or lubricated bolt threads is not standardized and may change from one
engine to another that use the same propeller.

1 Visually inspect for cracks, corrosion, nicks, damage, oil and grease leaks.
2 Check attaching bolt for improper torquing and improper safety ties and tabs. 3 Check the condition of fasteners, tie
wires, clips, etc.

4 Check adequacy of protective coatings, paint, and plating.

 5 Conduct a functional check including RPM control, RPM limits, idle setting,
ability to feather, responsiveness, and vibration.

6 Check oil or grease for water and contamination with corrosion by products.

7 Examine the hub area for oil and grease leaks, missing lubrication fittings, and
missing lubrication covers.
(d) Hub, Piston, Cylinder, Dome, Blade Clamps. The hub and associated clamps,
as well as pitch change mechanisms, should be inspected for corrosion from all sources, including rain, snow, and bird droppings that
may have entered through spinner openings. On propeller models with blade clamps, when servicing the propeller thrust bearings
through lubrication fittings in the blade clamps, the rear lubrication fitting on each clamp must be removed to avoid extruding grease
past the bearing grease seal and damaging the seal. Look for water or discolored grease exiting the rear lubrication fitting. If clear or
discolored water is present, it may be a sign of corrosion in the hub. Protective covers should be pressed over the ends of all
lubrication fittings. Check the blade seals for leakage. Propeller domes, pistons, and cylinders should be checked for leaks at the seals
and on the gas fill valve (if so equipped). Cracks may be present in the hub and retention area. Cracks in these areas cannot be
repaired and require immediate removal of the propeller from further service.
(e) Pitch-Change Mechanisms. Fiber block pitch-change mechanisms should be
inspected for deterioration, fit, and the security of the pitch-clamp forks.

1 Check all connections and cable routings between propeller governor and
cockpit control.
2 Inspect for propeller operation, insecure mounting, binding, and restricted travel

(f) Feathering Mechanisms. Certain models of full-feathering propellers use

spring-loaded pins to retain the feathered blade position. Spring and pin units should be cleaned, inspected, and re-lubricated as per the
manufacturer’s recommendations and applicable ADs. Certain propeller models use an air charge for feathering. This should be
checked for proper air pressure.

(g) Counterweights. Pitch change counterweights on blades or blade clamps should

be inspected for security, cracks, corrosion, and to ensure that adequate counterweight clearance exists within the spinner.
(h) De-Icing and Anti-Icing Devices.

1 Check the condition of rubber boots for damage, erosion, and attachment.
 2 Check the condition of the slip ring and de-ice brushes for defects, excessive
wear and proper orientation.
3 Check the condition of components, wire harness, and alcohol feed mechanism. 4 Conduct a functional check.
d. Teardown Inspections. Teardown inspections may only be conducted at an appropriately rated repair station. The entire
propeller is disassembled and all components are inspected for wear, cracks, etc., in accordance with the manufacturer’s
specifications. Teardown inspections are needed when the walk-around or detailed inspection uncovers problems that require further
attention, or when required by ADs or the manufacturer’s service limitations. Teardown inspections are not considered within the
scope of field inspections and repairs and may only be performed in accordance with the requirements of the propeller manufacturer.
LIMITATIONS. Operational and service personnel should be familiar with the following limitations during any inspection.
a. Corrosion. Other than small areas of light surface corrosion with no evidence of pitting (if allowable corrosion is defined by
the manufacturer), the presence of corrosion may require propeller removal and reconditioning by an appropriately rated repair
station. Intergranular corrosion may be present when the corrosion protective coatings (paint, anodize, etc.) have been lost.
Corrosion pitting should be removed as described in the propeller manufacturer’s service documents and applicable ADs.
b. Unauthorized Straightening of Blades. A bent propeller cannot be straightened without special processing in an
appropriately rated repair station because bending may harden the aluminum and lead to catastrophic blade failure. Careful visual
inspection of the leading edges and the flat-faced portion of the blade may sometimes detect unapproved repairs. Any deformation of
the flat portion such as bows or kinks may indicate previous unauthorized straightening of the blade. Sighting along the leading edge
of a propeller blade for any signs of bending can also provide evidence of unapproved blade straightening. Blades should also be
examined for any discoloration that would indicate unauthorized heating. Aluminum blades that have been heated for any repair
must be removed from service, since only cold (room temperature) straightening by an approved repair station is authorized. All
blades showing evidence of unapproved repairs require removal of the entire propeller and proper assessment by a repair station.
Field service personnel should never straighten bent propellers to facilitate shipping when the propellers are being sent to a repair
station for inspection and repair. This procedure can conceal important information related to the severity of the damage.
c. Blade Shortening. Propeller tip damage will sometimes lead field maintenance personnel to consider removing damaged
material from the blade tips. However, propellers are often “tuned” to the aircraft engine and airframe resonant frequency by being
manufactured with a particular diameter to minimize vibration. Shortening of the blades without reference to approved data could
create an unairworthy condition, unless the manufacturer specifically
permits shortening of the blades on a particular propeller. With certain limitations, specific minor repairs may be accomplished.
The manufacture’s service documents or AC 43.13-1, current edition, shows the criteria for determining whether or not a minor
repair of a blade tip represents blade shortening. When conditions indicate, inspect the blade tips for evidence of shortening and, if
necessary, measure the propeller diameter to determine if an unauthorized repair has altered it.
d. Minor Blade Damage Limits. Aircraft maintenance personnel should limit all blade repairs (except those performed at an
appropriately rated repair facility) to those allowed by the manufacturer.
e. Blade Polishing. The FAA receives frequent inquiries from airplane owners and maintenance personnel asking whether it is
acceptable to polish propeller blades. It is almost always not acceptable. Corrosion protection such as paint and anodize should not
be removed from the surface of a propeller blade. Propeller blades must be maintained to the type design. If the original design had
corrosion protection and the instructions for continued airworthiness call for corrosion protection, then the corrosion protection
should be maintained to those instructions.
PROCEDURES FOR MAINTENANCE. Maintenance begins with the operator and includes inspection together with regular care.
Many maintenance tasks that may be accomplished at a minimum cost can extend the life of the propeller and reduce or prevent
costly repairs. The following is a listing of what operators of aircraft CAN and CANNOT DO.

a. Operators Can Do the Following:

(1) Perform a visual preflight inspection of the blades for nicks, scratches, dents, erosion, corrosion, cracks, etc. Apparent
damage found should be referred to an appropriately rated mechanic. A crack or bend is cause for removal of the propeller.
(2) Check the propeller spinner attaching screws for security and check the spinner for damage.

(3) Check the propeller for evidence of oil or grease leakage.

(4) Clean propeller blades periodically using fresh water, a non-alkaline cleaner and a soft cloth or soft brush. Dry with a soft
cloth.
(5) Ensure that the tachometer is appropriately marked for operational limitations of the propeller and that the tachometer
accuracy is checked at periodic inspection intervals.
(6) Make sure that the applicable installation, information, and warning decals are on the propeller. These decals may include
warnings against pushing or pulling on the propeller, the model number, the correct bolt torque, dynamic balancing information, and
any other manufacturer’s identification.

(7) Each propeller should have its own maintenance record.

 (8) The operator should recondition or overhaul the propeller when it reaches the manufacturer’s recommended service
time limits.
(9) For safety and glare reduction for conventional single-engine tractor type aircraft, keep the blade backs painted flat black
and the propeller tips painted with the appropriate colors to ensure good visibility. Repaint blades equally so that the balance of
the propeller is not disturbed. Pusher props may have unique paint color requirements for good visibility for ground personnel.
Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents.
(10) Leave two-bladed metal propellers in the one o’clock position to minimize bird droppings and water being retained in
the spinner. Wood propellers should be stored horizontal to prevent moisture accumulation in one blade, which would cause
unbalance.

b. Operators Cannot Do the Following:

(1) Do not operate any aircraft after a propeller has been subjected to an impact without a thorough inspection by an
appropriately rated person or repair station.
(2) Never straighten a damaged propeller. Even partial straightening of blades to ease shipment to a repair station may
result in hidden damage not being detected and an unairworthy propeller being returned to service.
(3) Never repair any blade defect by welding, heating, or peening. Propeller manufacturers do not permit this
because it can induce premature blade failure.
(4) Do not fill any damaged areas of metal blades with bulk-filler materials such as epoxy or auto body fillers. This prevents
areas of potential cracking from being inspected. Additionally, filling a damaged area will not correct the stress risers caused by
the dent or those caused by the loading that introduced the dent.
(5) Do not paint over areas of corrosion on blades. Corroded areas should be removed in accordance with approved
procedures prior to applying the approved protective finish.
(6) Do not run up engines in areas containing loose rocks, gravel, or debris. Avoid quartering rear winds during ground
run-up because this activity can cause damaging stresses.
(7) Do not push or pull on propeller blades when moving the aircraft by hand. Tow bars are specifically designed for this
operation.

(8) Do not polish blades unless specifically permitted by the manufacturer’s instructions.
 (9) Never install a propeller on an aircraft unless it is a model approved by the aircraft TC data sheet or an appropriate
supplemental type certificate (STC). The service history must be properly documented, and a pre-installation inspection must indicate
that the propeller is airworthy.
c. Minor Repairs of Aluminum Blades. Limited minor repairs may be made on propellers by appropriately rated maintenance
technicians either on the aircraft or when the propeller is removed. Minor dents, cuts, scars, scratches, and nicks may be removed
providing their removal does not weaken the blade, substantially change weight or balance, or otherwise impair its performance. The
following paragraphs give guidance on the methods for accomplishing minor repairs. Before attempting to repair a propeller blade,
determine whether the propeller manufacturer has published damage limits that govern repair procedures applicable to that part. Do not
attempt a repair without knowing exactly what minor repairs, if any, are permissible. For example, straightening or reforming a blade is
not considered a minor repair. Manufactures’ service documents and AC 43.13-1, current edition, provide additional repair instruction.
(1) Tools Required to Complete Minor Metal Blade Repairs Are:
(a) Fine-cut round and flat files.

(b) Ten-power loupe or magnifying glass.

(c) Emery cloth numbers 240, 320, and 600.

(d) Crocus cloth.

(2) Leading or Trailing Edge Damage. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for instructions on how to
repair this damage. However, if the manufacturer did not publish this information, the following repairs can be made. For nicks, dents,
pits, and cuts in the leading or trailing edges of blades, ensure that the bottom of the damage is removed first by rounding out and
fairing in the repair only slightly deeper than the damage. Initial removal of material should be done using a fine cut file. All traces of
file marks in the repaired area should be removed with number 240 emery cloth followed by polishing with number 320 emery cloth,
then finished with crocus cloth or 600 grit emery cloth, and then visually inspected. An individual edge repair should not exceed a
depth of 3/16-inch. The depth of repair should be greater than the depth of damage as given in Table 2-1. When repaired areas do not
overlap, more than one repair may be accomplished. The repair length should be 10 times longer than the depth of the repair as shown
in Figure 2-5, Techniques for Blade Repair. Refer to manufacturer’s instructions for repairs aft of the leading edge sections of the blade.
For damage exceeding depths shown in Table 2-1, use the specific propeller manufacturer’s repair manual limits.
 TABLE 2-1.
Blade Leading Edge Repair
When Leading Edge Damage Is: Finished Repair Depth Is:
1/32-inch 1/16-inch
1/16-inch 3/32-inch
3/32-inch 5/32-inch
1/8-inch 3/16-inch

(3) Blade Face Surface Damage. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for instructions on how to repair this damage.
However, if the manufacturer did not publish this information, the following repairs can be made. For gouges, cuts, and small dents on blade faces, ensure
that the bottom of the damage is removed first by rounding out and fairing in the repair to form a saucer-shaped depression only slightly deeper than the
damage. The initial repair should be accomplished by filing with a fine cut file parallel to the damage and finishing with 240 and 320 emery abrasive cloth,
as in the manner of damage removal from blade-leading edges. Final polishing of the repair should be done with crocus cloth or 600 grit emery cloth. An
individual repair should not exceed 1/16-inch in depth and the surface radius of curvature of the repair must not be less than 3/8-inch. Repair width should
be 30 times the repair depth as shown in Figure 2-5. More than one repair is permitted when repair areas do not overlap an identical blade radius.

(4) Blade Tip Damage. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for instructions on how to repair this damage. However, if
the manufacturer did not publish this information, the following repairs can be made. For nicks, dents, pits, and cuts in the tip of blades, repair in
accordance with the procedures used for leading and trailing edge repair. Any removal of the blade tip material that reduces the blade radius below the
minimum specified for the propeller manufacturer’s model designation and specific installation criteria is not permitted.

(5) Cracks. A crack in a blade may be discovered during the process of repair. Cracks found on a propeller CANNOT be repaired. The presence
of a crack indicates that blade failure is virtually certain at any time. Cracks on the leading and trailing edges are especially prone to propagation. Blend
outs or repairs should NEVER be attempted on these cracks. Propellers with cracks are unairworthy and MUST be removed from service and clearly
identified as unairworthy.

(6) Inspection. Refer to the propeller manufacturer’s maintenance documents for instructions on how to repair this damage. However, if the
manufacturer did not publish this information, the following inspection can be performed. Prior to return to service after minor repairs, the reworked
area should be inspected with a minimum 10x power lens to ensure that any sharp notches at the bottom of the damage have been removed.
Techniques for Blade Repair.
 d. Minor Maintenance of Composite Blades. Maintenance of composite blades is permitted under some conditions. Follow the
manufacturer’s instructions with regard to surface preparation and cleaning. According to manufacturer’s instructions, painting is
permitted. The painted surface of the blade should be maintained to prevent erosion damage to the composite material. Replacement
of expendable erosion strips or re-bonding peeled edges on de-ice boots is permitted in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. Figure 2-6 shows composite blade erosion.
NOTE: Erosion damage to the composite material may require extensive repair at a certificated propeller repair
station.
Composite Blade Erosion

e. Expendable Erosion Strips.

• When replaceable erosion strips are installed on propellers, they should be carefully inspected for wear during walk-
around inspections. If the strips lack adhesion or are otherwise damaged, they should be replaced according to the
manufacturer’s instructions.
• Addition of plastic strips without appropriate safeguards can affect propeller balance and otherwise degrade propeller
performance. Ensure that all protector strips are approved by the propeller manufacturer or by STC before adding them
to propellers. The application of an erosion strip on a propeller de-ice or anti-ice boot may change the ice shedding
performance of the boot, and such usage must be approved.
 ACCESSORIES AND BALANCING
PROPELLER BALANCING. This section describes only the general issues and types of propeller balancing. It is not
intended to provide instructions for maintenance personnel to perform static or dynamic propeller balancing.
a. Unbalance.
(1) Propellers can become unbalanced during operation from mishandling, wear, damage and a variety of other causes.
In some instances, the process of moving an aircraft by pushing or pulling on the propeller blades has bent or unseated the
blades to an out-of-track condition or damages the blade preload system. Propeller wear and damage - and the repair of that
damage - are also contributors to propeller imbalance. Unauthorized or improper repair of propeller spinners has also been
identified as a cause of propeller imbalance.
(2) Unbalance results when the mass of the propeller is not symmetrical around the center of rotation. When the mass is
unsymmetrical, a radial force and/or out-of-plane moment couple is formed. Static and common dynamic balance procedures
only correct the radial force unbalance by adding an equal force in the opposite direction with balance weights. Only trained,
specially equipped, and authorized maintenance personnel should accomplish the dynamic balance procedures.
b. Balancing Difficulties. Propellers that cannot be balanced or propellers that are difficult to balance on the aircraft
using approved dynamic balancing procedures may have latent problems that should be investigated. Loose components,
loose flange bolts, fractured components, such as hubs or blades, or blades that are out-of-track or angle, are some of the
more likely problems that will cause balancing difficulties. These are problems that need to be addressed prior to further
flight.
c. Balancing Methods. There are two methods of propeller balancing - static balancing and dynamic balancing. Neither
method can replace the other because they are used for different purposes.
(1) Static Balancing. A propeller can be statically balanced only by removing it from the aircraft and evaluating the
balance on a special fixture. Only appropriately certificated persons or organizations may adjust propeller static balance.
Static balance weights are added to or removed from the propeller to correct the measured imbalance, or material from the
blades is removed by special grinding techniques.
(2) Dynamic Balancing. Certain models of propellers may be dynamically balanced in place on the aircraft. Dynamic
balancing of a propeller is done to provide for the lowest level of vibration in its operating range. Although the propeller is
the focal point of the balancing procedure, it is the combination of the engine, engine mounting system, and the propeller
assem- bly that combine to provide the level of vibration.
(a) When balance weights are added or removed from the propeller assembly, it is to reduce the level of vibration
produced by the engine, engine mounting system, and the propeller as an operating assembly.
(b) When a propeller that has been balanced as part of a particular engine and engine mount system is removed
from that assembly, it cannot be assumed that the dynamic balance would remain the same for another engine or
engine mounting system.
(c) For aircraft or propeller manufacturers that provide procedures for dynamic balancing of the propeller in their
maintenance manuals or instructions for continued airworthiness, propeller balancing is not considered a major
airframe alteration.
(d) When approved aircraft or propeller manufacturer’s procedures are not available, there are other acceptable
dynamic propeller balancing procedures. These include, but are not limited to the Chadwick-Helmuth Publication
No. AW-9511-2, entitled “The Smooth Propeller”, and ACES Publication No. 100-OM-01, entitled “ACES
Systems Guide to Propeller Balancing”. Dynamic balancing of propellers using FAA-approved or -accepted
dynamic propeller balancing procedures is not considered a major propeller repair unless the propeller static
balance weights are altered or when using the Chadwick-Helmuth or ACES type documents on propeller
installations of 500 horsepower or more.
(e) Install a placard on the propeller hub or bulkhead stating that the propeller has been dynamically balanced and
the assembly of the power train rotating components is an indexed assembly. An entry will be made in the logbook
with the date, engine hours, final balance vibration, location of the dynamic balance weights, signature and
certificate number of the maintenance person.
(f) Remove any tape that is installed on the blades to conduct the dynamic balancing procedure upon completion of
the balancing procedure. The tape has been known to trap moisture causing corrosion and subsequent blade failure.
Dynamic balancing is done on wing and is not to be confused with static balancing. Static balancing is performed
by the manufacturer or an appropriately rated repair station (see Figure 3-1).
 Balance Tape that was not Removed

(g) Maintenance shall be performed in accordance with the performance rules of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
part 43, section 43.13(a).

(h) The dynamic balancing procedure and the propeller’s return to service must be accomplished by an appropriately rated
person, in accordance with the previously stated criteria.
TACHOMETER INSPECTION. Owing to the exceptionally high stresses that may be generated by particular propeller/engine
combinations at certain operating ranges, many propeller and aircraft manufacturers have established revolutions per minute (RPM)
restrictions and maximum RPM limits for some models. An improperly operating tachometer can cause an engine to exceed the
maximum RPM limits. Since there are no post-manufacture accuracy requirements for engine tachometers, tachometer inaccuracy
could be a direct cause of propeller failure, excessive vibration, or unscheduled maintenance. Proper tachometer operation and
accuracy should always be checked (using the manufacturer’s procedure, if available) during normal maintenance intervals. One
means of checking the tachometer’s accuracy is with a commercial strobe unit through which the rotating propeller is viewed. Strobe
unit controls can be adjusted until the propeller image stops in space. A reading on the face of the strobe instrument indicates the
propeller’s true RPM.
CAUTION: Be aware there may be multiple false RPM solutions if the instrument sees only one blade passage.
GOVERNORS, FEATHERING, AND REVERSING MECHANISMS. Always ensure proper operation of governors and other
propeller controls. Check governor control rods periodically to ensure that they are properly lubricated according to the manufacturer’s
instructions and that there are no worn parts, corrosion, or leaks. For reversible propellers, the functionality of the beta lockout system
somewhere on the aircraft or the cockpit should be verified before flight or in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendation. A
beta lockout system is intended to prevent the pilot from inadvertently using reverse thrust in flight. The functionality of the propeller
feathering system should also be verified before flight or in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendation.
PROPELLER DE-ICERS.

a. Propeller de-icing systems ensure safe propeller operation during icing conditions. Therefore, it is important to
periodically inspect de-icer or anti-ice boots to ensure they are in an airworthy condition. Check the condition of the bond
of the boot to the blade, looking for cracks and disbands. Look also for bumps, loose spots, or wrinkles in the boot.
Ensure the propeller can be moved through its entire operating pitch range without placing any tension on wire leads or
permitting them to interfere with or rub on nearby parts. Check for propeller resistance values between the de-icer leads
and ground.

b. When conducting a detailed inspection, remove the spinner. Check the wiring leads and harness for looseness and
wear. Ensure that wiring clamps are secure. Check slip rings and brushes for wear. Electrically isolate the de-icer circuits
from other aircraft wiring, and check for intermittent open circuits by moving the de-icer straps slightly. Repairs to
propeller de-icers should be made in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. If the ice protection system uses
liquid-based anti-ice boots, check the condition of the slinger-ring and the feed-tubes.
PROPELLER INSTALLATION.
• Propellers must be installed by an appropriately rated mechanic or an appropriately rated repair
station. Certain propellers are only partially assembled for shipping prior to installation on the
aircraft and must be assembled during installation.
• The propeller manufacturer will provide explicit instructions on assembly during installation that
must be carefully followed. Ensure that correct seals and o-rings are used during assembly. Only the
propeller manufacturer’s bolt or nut torque requirements should be used for the installation.
• On some propellers, the correct installation torques may be shown on a propeller hub decal.
Whether to use or not use lubrication during torquing is important, and the manufacturer’s
instructions must be carried out.
• When the propeller is correctly torqued, the blade track should be checked to the tolerances
specified by the manufacturer’s specifications.
• New or reconditioned propellers will be statically balanced by the manufacturer or propeller repair
facility. However, if after installation, the propeller/engine combination begins to immediately run
rough (vibration) on the ground or in flight, the propeller should be removed and rotated 180
degrees on the engine crankshaft (if not indexed), reinstalled, and the blade track should be checked
again.
• Certain propeller installations may require additional dynamic propeller balancing on the engine.
Proper pitch change action and RPM parameters must be checked during run-up and the installation
inspected for oil and grease leaks. Spinner assemblies should be inspected during installation in
accordance with the propeller or aircraft manufacturers’ guidelines.
• Inspect spinners and backplates for warping, cracks, looseness, missing parts, fasteners, improper
repairs, or unauthorized modifications (including addition of balance weights).
 Common Propeller Terms
Blade Angle. An angle between the chord line of a propeller blade section and a plane perpendicular to the axis of
propeller rotation.
Blade Station. See Stations.
Blade Track. The path established by the tip of each blade as it passes a fixed point in rotation. Blade. One arm of a
propeller from the hub to tip.
Chord Line. A straight line drawn between the leading and trailing edges of the blade. Chord. The distance from
the blade leading edge to the trailing edge.
Corrosion, Pitting. Visible cavities extending inward from the metal surface due to chemical or electro-chemical action.
Corrosion, Intergranular. Intergranular corrosion occurs in the grain boundaries of some alloys of aluminum. The
presence of intergranular corrosion may be the result of fatigue, stress, or the continued presence of moisture such as
under a decal, or in a fastener hole. Sometimes called exfoliation corrosion, when it occurs in forgings, extrusions or
rolled sheets.
Corrosion, Surface. Surface loss of metal due to chemical or electro-chemical action. On polished surfaces begins as a
dulling of surface, soon becoming frosted, followed by widespread pitting.
Corrosion. Deterioration of a metal because of reaction with its environment. For further references see AC 43-4,
Corrosion Control for Aircraft.
Crack. A physical opening or fissure within the body of a material. May be either internal within the material or at the
surface (surface breaking). On a propeller, cracks can be started by cuts, nicks, or corrosion.
Cut. A deep, long, narrow fissure usually caused by a sharp object.
Debond/Disbond. An adhesive or cohesive failure or separation along a bonded interface between two or more
surfaces.
Delamination. Separation between adjacent layers of a laminate.
Dent. A depression in the blade as the result of impact from a blunt object.
Depression. Concave surface deformation.
Diameter, Propeller. The diameter of the circle circumscribed by the blade tips.
Erosion. Surface removal of material by mechanical action of grit, sand, water, etc., usually present on the leading edge close to the tip.
Face Surface. Flat, or very slightly curved, side of the propeller blade against which the relatively higher pressure acts to produce
thrust when the propeller is rotated.

Gouge. A deep groove on a blade formed by a heavy pressure contact with a solid object.
Horizontal Balance. The blade balance process that locates the center of blade mass along the radial direction to reduce unbalance of an
assembled propeller.

Hub. Center section of the propeller that carries the blades and is attached to the engine shaft.
Impact Damage. Damage (visible or not) resulting from a blade striking or being struck, while in flight or on the ground, by an object
such as a snow bank, runway light, maintenance stand, birds, etc.

Inclusion. Material foreign to base metal but contained in it.

Leading Edge. The edge of the blade that leads the direction of rotation and first encounters the air.
Lightning Strikes. Damage to blades caused by lightning usually manifested by localized burning, discoloration, melted metal,
and/or pits.

Nick. A sharp notch-like displacement of metal usually found on leading and trailing edges.
Overhaul. Complete teardown and reassembly associated with major repair or maintenance. The terms overhaul and reconditioning
are synonymous for fixed pitch propellers.
Pitch. The theoretical distance that the propeller blade reference station would move forward if it were moving along a helix with an
angle equal to the blade section angle.
Pitting. Small irregularly shaped cavities from which material has been removed by erosion or corrosion. Corrosive pitting is usually
accompanied by a deposit such as rust, a corrosion byproduct, formed by a corrosive agent on the base metal.
Propeller, Constant Speed. A propeller in which a governor is used to automatically provide constant revolutions per minute as the
pilot selects the propeller pitch setting.
Propeller, Controllable Pitch. A propeller with blades that may be altered continuously to any desired angle during flight.
Propeller, Fixed-Pitch. A one-piece propeller with fixed blade angles.
Propeller, Full Feathering. A propeller with blades that can be rotated to a high positive blade angle to stop rotation
(windmilling). This feature is common on multi-engine aircraft, because it allows an engine to be shut down and rotation
stopped to reduce drag and asymmetric control forces.
Propeller, Reversing. A propeller in which blades can be rotated to a “negative” blade angle where they will provide a
rearward thrust to slow down, stop, or move the aircraft backward.
Propeller. A device for propelling an aircraft that has blades on an engine-driven shaft and that, when rotated, produces
by its action on the air, a thrust approximately perpendicular to its plane of rotation. It includes associated control
components normally supplied by its manufacturer.
Reconditioning. The repair of major or minor blade damage caused by erosion or striking small objects during normal
operation. Reconditioning consists of penetrant inspection, refinishing, and re-balancing. It is accomplished on an
irregular basis as necessary and required.
Repair. The correction, on an irregular basis as necessary, of minor or major damage caused by a physical mishap. The
amount, degree, and extent of damage determine whether or not the propeller can be repaired as a minor repair in the field
by a mechanic.
Score. Groove-like indentations from rubbing by a hard, rough surface. See gouge.
Shank. The portion of the blade from the butt face to the first blade station.
Stations. Locations perpendicular to the blade center line at which dimensions are checked. Tip. The portion of the
blade outermost from the axis of propeller rotation.
Tracking. See blade track.
Trailing Edge. The rear edge of the blade where the air leaves the blade.