UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS

MODULE 2

UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY THROUGH ITS

MEMBERSHIP AND ORGANIZATION

Since the dawning of the human civilization, human beings never failed to
associate themselves. From tribes, to villages and to community, socialization is
always part of the human survival. The patterns of communication and the
development of language breaks down the walls of isolation. Through this
constant association of social interaction, human beings have organized
themselves into groups, thereby forming their patterns of behaviors, ways of
living and the norms of doing things in their everyday lives. This close contact of
organization forms part to a more complicated structure known as the society.

We are all born in a society shaped by its culture and politics. Within this universal
truth is a social reality as Berger (1963) believed that it turned out to have many
layers of meaning because of human cultural variation, political identities and
social differences. Every discovery of each new layer changes our perception of
the whole society. But before proceeding any further, let’s have a look back of
what happened the previous meeting and what’s your take away.
 What did you learn best (Expound a little…)?
What do you need to understand more (Expound a little…)
How do you want to be helped? (Please specify… I’m here to help you.)

Just keep track on your goal. You can do it. And remember not to
hesitate to ask for help or assistance from your teacher. We’re in this
together. You can do it.

Essential to your success in learning the topics in this module, you need to anchor
yourself from the different standards and competencies where demonstrating
essential knowledge, skills, attitudes and values are evidences of your learning.
Content Standards: You as a learner will demonstrate an understanding how individuals learn
culture is a factor of becoming competent members of society as manifested by the set of
norms and patterns of behavior instituted by the different cultural, social and political
institutions contributory to major social interests.

Performance Standard: You as a learner will assess the rules of social interaction to maintain
stability through identifying norms and values to be observed in such interaction and the
consequences of ignoring these as aspects of social organization that propels innovation in
response to problems and challenges.

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

▪ Explain the context, content, processes, and consequences of socialization
▪ Analyze the forms and functions of social organizations

To scaffold you in this performance task, the following activities will be

undertaken in this module. Keep track of your own pacing, learning and
submission of these activities.
 But before going any further, please be reminded of this very important
document…

HONOR CODE

As a student of this school particularly in the Senior High School department, I am

fully knowledgeable about the academic honesty policy of the school. I
understand that the department in maintaining its highest academic integrity
takes seriously violations pertaining to academic dishonesty. Suspected violations
will be dealt with accordingly following guidelines and procedures of due process
for disciplinary actions.

Furthermore, I will exercise fairness, authenticity, and honesty in all my works and
perform it with utmost integrity in accordance to the school’s policy. I will neither
give nor receive unauthorized aid on any assignments, projects, quizzes or exams. I
also refrain myself from paying someone to do the school works in my behalf as
this is considered a violation to the school’s academic honesty policy. I also
understand that it is my obligation to report violations of this honor code as
mentioned above to any school authority. Any infringement of these standard can
possibly compromise my academic standing and will result to deduction of
scholastic points or no credit at all, failure in the subject, disciplinary probation,
suspension or worst, expulsion.

Thus, upon affixing my signature, I hereby affirm on my honor the commitment to

adhere and uphold the USJR-SHS Academic Honesty Policy.

NAME OF STUDENT AND GRADE LEVEL NAME OF PARENT/GUARDIAN/DATE

AND SECTION/DATE AND TIME SIGNED AND TIME SIGNED

NAME OF CLASS ADVISER /DATE AND NAME OF THE SHS PRINCIPAL/DATE

TIME SIGNED AND TIME SIGNED
 AS JOSENIANS STUDENTS AND FUNCTIONAL MEMBERS OF A

SOCIETY, YOU MUST UPHOLD ACADEMIC INTEGRITY.

EVERYTHING WE DO IS LARGELY PREDETERMINED BY

CERTAIN CONTEXTS (SOCIAL, POLITICAL, CULTURAL, ETC.)

EVEN THOSE USUAL TAKEN-FOR-GRANTED UNDERSTANDING

OF THINGS. WHATEVER WE EXPERIENCED, THESE ARE

INTERPRETED AND UNDERSTOOD BY THE CONSTRUCTS OF

THESE CONTEXTS AND CAN BE CHALLENGED OR SUBVERTED

(YOU CAN REVIEW THE ASPECTS OF CULTURE FROM THE

PREVIOUS LESSON). THUS, WE MUST NEED TO GATHER

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCES AND FRAMED OUR UNDERSTANDING

ON THE LENS OF SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES TO

ADDRESS AND PROVIDE SOLUTIONS TO ISSUES AND

PROBLEMS STEMMING FROM THESE EXPERIENCES AND

UNDERSTANDING. SO, WHY DON’T WE TAKE A SHORT

BACKTRACK OF WHAT HAPPENED THE PREVIOUS MEETING?

PROCESS QUESTIONS:

1. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THE DISCONNECTEDNESS OF

ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE?

___________________________________________________________

_____

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

______________________________________

2. WHAT IS THE RIGHT RESPONSE IN THE VARIATIONS OF CULTURE, SOCIAL

DIFFERENCES AND POLITICAL IDENTITIES IN A GIVEN SOCIETY?

___________________________________________________________

____

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

______________________________________

3. HOW DOES CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING HELP US BEHAVE IN A SOCIETY?

__________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

______________________________________
 What constitutes reality for us as individual humans is not just the by-products of our
embodiment and the physical environment in which we exist, but also the product of our
being social creatures with a wide variety of socially mediated experiences.
Every society has its own set of institutions like the family, marriage, church, school, kin
relationships, workplace, government, etc. These institutions serve as the structure of the
society which vary from sizes, systems, laws, cultures, etc. Such variation makes society a
more and more complex whole and governs the way people think, feel, act and behave that
will influence how they relate with other people within and outside of their group. As a result,
this may create issues that can either be personal, social, political, economical, cultural among
others. All societies as organized differently also differ in terms of responding to these issues.
Modern societies are expected to legislate laws in the equal protection of the people, to
maintain peace and order, provide security among the people and create a sense of
communal belonging. Understanding how societies are organized will help us understand the
different social groups, organizations and institutions running to keep these societies from
thriving and evolving.

Furthermore, these issues create

changes. Society and its people
have this natural inclination to
respond to these changes
whatever is its nature as the key
instinct of human beings is to
survive. Again, these changes vary
in its gravity, scope, causes and
impact. At the same time, our
response mechanisms also differ
from

society to society and people to people. Whether gradual or sudden, deliberate or simple, it is notable
to point out that these changes transform our societies. Such transformation is an issue in itself.
As the conflict theory postulates, the inequalities in the society cause pressure and tension among its
members. Nevertheless, as society is organized as structures, institutions and groups, it promotes the
idea of collective membership for mutual interests and benefits. This means that society is not a
monolithic arrangement for it is a
composition of meaningful parts working together to sustain such function of mutual benefits. Since
society is a complex whole, it is broken down into smaller groups of networks strengthening the
notion of “we” and “us” vs “me” and “I”. In our everyday life, we encounter people we barely know. For
this reason, we call them strangers simply because they are not part of our immediate group.

 BEFORE YOU LEAVE THIS PAGE, TWEET WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED SO FAR…

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

As members of the society, we need to

understand that our social interaction is
largely dependent on our thought processes
and patterns of behavior that are culturally,
socially and politically constructed. Since
society is always about uncertainty and
change, our social experience and frame of
thinking must always be anchored on the
lens of sociological perspective so as to help
us grip on the sudden illumination of the
new and unsuspected facets of human
existence in society.

Thus for this week, we will be exploring our social membership. Vital in this exploration and discovery is
your sense of awareness of these different Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC’s) which are…

▪ Explain the context, content, processes, and consequences of socialization

▪ Analyse the forms and functions of social organizations

These MELC’s will anchor you to what's expected to be covered and learned in this lesson. So to begin
exploring the Uncertain, Challenging, Stratified and Powerful (UCSP) world of humans, share your
thoughts on the activity below.

 Process Questions:
1. What issues or concepts are presented?
2. How do these things manifest rules of social interaction?
3. What are these rules of social interaction?
4. How are different institutions guided by these rules of social interaction?
5. Why is it important for individuals to learn about the culture of a society?

How we become the person we are comes from our capacity for self-consciousness or
understanding. However, such capacity is not an immediate occurrence but a product of our
experiences from our social interactions. Every social interaction has its own social
mechanism dependent on its context. And every social mechanism commands a particular
behavior or action. How we respond upon this is either a sign of obedience or disobedience.

Take a look at these statements below and position yourself on the extent of agreement or
disagreement

PROCESS QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT GOVERNS PEOPLE’S BEHAVIOR?

_________________________________________________________________________

2. IS SOCIALIZATION VOLUNTARY OR SOMETHING THAT IS IMPOSED UPON US?

__________________________

3. HOW DOES OUR MEMBERSHIP WITH A SOCIAL GROUP AFFECT US?

______________________________________________________________

4. WHY DO PEOPLE OBEY OR DISOBEY?

_________________________________________________________________________

______________

5. WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS?

______________________________________

_______________________________________________
 The social reality that we experienced being members of the
society is strongly shaped by the social world in which we are
raised and lived. A key to understanding who we are in relation
to others is understanding the process of socialization. As
socialization is a process, it composed of agents that will
facilitate our understanding of the roles in accordance with our
status that we need to perform to become an effective and
competent members of a social group or organization in
particular and the society in general.

From positioning yourself earlier to an extent of agreeing or

disagreeing on those statements provided, why don’t we take
such position quantitatively in this activity below?

PROCESS QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT INFLUENCE YOUR RESPONSE RATING?

_______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________

2. HOW DO THESE STATEMENTS REFLECTIVE OF THE GREATER TRUTH ABOUT

SOCIETY?

____________________________________________________________

3. HOW DO YOU ASSESS RULES OF SOCIAL INTERACTION?

___________________________________________

Society is an organized system of rules and regulations (e.g. cultural norms, values, roles, etc.) that
serve as a mechanism of social control. These are learned through the agents of socialization which
then develop our understanding of who (our social, political and cultural self) we are and what are
expected from us to do as members of the society. However, every society like Philippines is made
up of different social group and organizations. Thus in our membership to each of this, we undergo
different socialization process leading to learning different roles and functions and acting upon these
based from social expectations.

Apparently, questions like “When and how

do we become members of the society?”;
“How to sustain such membership?”; “Why
can we not seclude ourselves from social
groupings?”; and “How society is organized”
are demands profound answers. These
questions will be explored in our next
activity. Part of our basic need as
members of the society is belongingness.
The quote from Rollo May below justifies
this need to belong, to be part of a
community.

 Socialization is a process
that starts within the family
where individuals learn the
rudiments of right and wrong
(moral values) and introduces
them to social norms and
customs as they learn to
become members of a group,
community, or society. Family
members, teachers, religious
leaders, and peers all play
roles in a person's
socialization that help them
to function well in society
and, in turn, helps society run
smoothly.

This process not only accustoms people to social groups but also results in such groups
sustaining themselves. On a macro level, socialization ensures that we have a process through
which the norms and customs of society are transmitted. Socialization teaches people what is
expected of them in a particular group or situation; it is a form of social control. This also
helps individuals develop a conscience aligned with social norms and prepares them to
perform various roles.

Thus, socialization involves both social structure and interpersonal relations. It contains three
key parts: context (culture, language, social structures, social status and roles), content and
process (role execution, duration, those involved, methods and type of experience), and
results (outcomes of how one thinks and behaves) that forged our need for belongingness
and social acceptance.

Belonging means the acceptance to be part or member of a group or society. A sense of

belonging is a politically, socially and culturally structured need aside from being
psychological. Thus, when one does not feel welcomed and accepted in the group, he/she
feels rejected and discriminated. The feeling of belonging is crucial in seeing one’s own value
as a human being that can largely influenced on how to relate with other people (McCoy,
2017). The group we are in provides us the opportunity to share and contribute for the
development of our society and to strengthen that feeling of membership. Although, many
people are also facing several challenges in when it comes to being a member of the society.
Some even struggled to enjoy equal opportunities as other members do. Without this sense
of belonging, it creates social disintegration. Identifying ourselves to a group, we share the
same sympathy, beliefs, interests and the like that enable us to identify to the image the
group portrays.

 But in reality, that isn’t the case.

Issues about discrimination in
different forms still triggers in the
society. Even to our smallest circles
of friends, this social phenomenon
is still very evident. Our capacity to
communicate and interact fortify
that human impulse to socialize.
Central to how we give meaning to
our life is the idea of membership
to a group or society

Our sense of identity founded on social interactions show that belonging to a group or
society develops the value of sharing not only in resources but of values, ideals and practices.
As Bennett (2012) puts it, doing belonging is more crucial than the sense of belonging since
such feeling must be acted upon. This is a by-product of our social practices as we interact
with our group members and the other groups we aspire to be part of.

As individuals grow, they’re not

secluded within their respective
families but need to interact further
with other externally, thus increasing
their social circles and increases the
“looking glass self” or the sense of
self based on how one believed others
see and judged them. An agent of
socialization is an individual, group
or institution that contributes to
people's socialization. Agents of
socialization, such as parents, peers,
schools, religious groups,

media, and others, shape an

individual's self-concept, values,
and behavior. They serve to
teach and model expected
behavior and to transmit values
and beliefs and traditions.
But what does it take to be part
of the society? What ideas do
we have about social groupings
and those groups outside of
our own?

 Agents of socialization impart both

positive values and beliefs, such as
language and customs, and
negative values and beliefs, such as
racism and stereotypes.
Socialization is the lifelong process
through which people learn the
values, norms, beliefs, and
expectations of their society
instrumental in understanding how
to be members of their society by
behaving in a way society finds
appropriate. In turn, by learning
and internalizing their society's
culture, norms, values, and beliefs,
individuals maintain and pass on
the core characteristics of their
society and culture.

Are humans social at birth or born as blank slates? Classical sociologist like Emile Durkheim
believed that there was nothing innate about human behavior which another sociologist, Talcott
Parson referred birth of new generations as a recurrent barbarian invasion. For him, mental
categories that each individual possesses are in fact, collective representations through social
imprinting or internalization where the external (culture) becomes internal (categories of
thought) passed on to subsequent generations via social learning. However, several modern
researches like that of Bergesen (2004) cites several proofs like that of infant cognition where
these categories of understanding were present at birth but strengthened through the process
of socialization. Again, this starts at home with the caregivers (parents and other family
members).

 As socialization is a central process in social life, it primitively starts within smaller units called
home or family and then friends through enculturation as the process by which individuals
acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that enable them to become functioning
members of their societies that possesses a culture, an ordered way of life. The child possesses
certain possibilities for processing information and developing desires making it possible for that
ordered way of life to influence him. These enduring competencies and standards of judgment,
along with attitudes and motives, form the personality. The personality, in turn, influences the
culture.

Enculturation, says E. Adamson Hoebel,

Enculturation begins before birth and
continues until death. Thus, one learns
respect for the symbols of the nation
through reciting a pledge of allegiance and
singing the national anthem in school. A
person becomes aware of his rights and
is "both a conscious and an unconscious
conditioning process whereby man, as
child and adult, achieves competence in
his culture, internalizes his culture and
becomes thoroughly enculturated." One
internalizes the dreams and
expectations, the rules and
requirements not just for the larger
society seen as a whole, but also for
every specific demand within the whole.
Society does whatever is necessary to
aid any one of its members in learning
proper and appropriate behavior for any
given social setting and in meeting the
demands of any challenge.

obligations and privileges as well as the

rights of others.
Every social experience we have affects us
significantly. As this lifelong process
of defining ourselves and the appropriate
roles associated with our gender begins in
the family, this further fortified through our
peers where we learned how to form
relationships on our own.
This learning is also cemented in school through a wide range of knowledge and skills inculcated
upon us to shape correct attitudes about economic system/political system and issues. Then
these are portrayed in media where our opinions and standpoints about issues and concerns
(political, social, economic, cultural,environmental, etc.) and calls for appropriate response of
actions. Such actions are weighed by the influences morality, becoming a key component in
people's ideas of right and wrong as espoused by religion. Through these agents of socialization,
our personal and cultural identify, norms and values, status and roles are formed and sustained
or challenged.
Enculturation is not a result of socialization because both are processes of learning culture. The
difference lies on its scope. Enculturation is the process of being socialized to one’s own culture
while socialization is the general process of acquiring culture (acculturation and assimilation) but
both are learning experiences to behave in a way that is acceptable to the society. In short,
enculturation is the foundation learning particular cultural traits while socialization is the
extension of learning with the norms. Values, roles of the society. Both teach individuals to
conform on these norms and roles required for integration, an important process of becoming a
member of the society. The more individuals are integrated with other cultures or societies, the
lesser is the cultural shock and being ethnocentric and the more they become cultural
relative.

These processes of learning cultures enable individuals to develop a conforming behavior.

Conformity means aligning ones attitudes, beliefs and behaviors to what is generally
acceptable in order to “fit in” or “get along”. It’s a powerful force that can take the form of
overt social pressure or subtler unconscious influence. Whereas, deviance means any
behavior that is contrary to the dominant norms of society like crimes (against property,
persons or morality), and organized crimes (drug trafficking, illegal gambling, prostitution,
smuggling, money laundering, etc.). Whether a behavior is considered deviant or
conforming depends on the circumstances under which it occurs in a certain society.

 Societies are characterized

by both culture and social
structure. Culture
establishes goals for
people in society while
social structure provides
(or fails to provide) the
means for people to
achieve those goals.
According to Robert K.
Merton, in a well-
integrated society, people
use accepted and
appropriate means to
achieve the goals that
society establishes. In this
case, the goals and the
means of the society are in
balance. It is when the
goals and means are not in
balance with each other
that deviance is likely to
occur. This imbalance
between cultural goals and
structurally available
means can actually lead an
The fact that both deviance and individual into deviant
crime arouse negative social behavior.
reactions reminds us that every

society needs to ensure that its

members generally obey social
norms in their daily interaction.
Social control refers to the
mechanisms instituted by society to
maintain social order and cohesion
which can be informal (labelling,
gossip, social ostracism) or formal
(ordinances, executive orders, laws).
As social control is never perfect, this
presents opportunities for people to
see loopholes.
When human desires are
left unchecked and uncontrolled, it will likely result to social anomie. Under the
condition of anomie, however, society is unable to exert its regulatory and disciplining influences.
In contrast, Merton replaces Durkheim‘s anomic conception to the failure of society to regulate or
constrain the ends or goals of human desire with the assumption that human needs and desires are
primarily the product of a social process: i.e., cultural socialization.

 Merton, on the other hand, is more concerned with social regulation of the means people use to
obtain material goals like the structural blockages that limit access to legitimate means for many
members of a society. This chronic discrepancy between cultural promises and structural realities not
only undermines social support for institutional norms but also promotes violations of those norms.
These adaptations describe the kinds of social roles people adopt in response to cultural and
structural pressures.

A group is where people have the chance to interact with other people and think of themselves as
belonging together. The group exists as long as individuals are interested in belonging to it.
Wherever we go, there are people. These people are grouped into certain categories. Each society
is made up of smaller groups and associations that are built on social class, personal interest, or
common goals. This means that it’s impossible for us to be part of a single group since we are an
accumulation of groupings like religion, in the workplace, in school, in our community, civic
organizations and so on. These groups we voluntarily or involuntarily become member of is what
we call as social group. We have something in common with others in the same group, we identify
with the group and in return, the group can create a sense of belonging for us. This implies that
identification, interaction and communication are vital qualifiers for a group to be called a group.
It’s a form of security among members to continue their association with each other. Thus, people
in a grocery store or in a jeepney or in a movie house or those of the same age, gender and height
are not groups even if they are of the same category or in a place together because collection is
temporary and bears no deeper meaning.

 As society is a collection of
groups, institutions and
structures, the primary ethical
imperatives of these elements
are the maximization of its
members’ well-being and the
minimization of their suffering
within the context of a
responsibly managed social
environment. This means that
such membership must be
guarded by their leaders to
whom they put their trust. It’s an
unwritten social contract and as
such, the reciprocity of
obligations must be maintained.

MUZAFER SHERIFF, A WELL-KNOWN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGIST, PROPOSED TO

DEFINE A SOCIAL GROUP AS A NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS INTERACTING WITH

EACH OTHER WITH RESPECT TO:

1. COMMON MOTIVES AND GOALS

2. AN ACCEPTED DIVISION OF LABOR, I.E. ROLES

3. ESTABLISHED STATUS (SOCIAL RANK, DOMINANCE) RELATIONSHIPS

4. ACCEPTED NORMS AND VALUES WITH REFERENCE TO MATTERS RELEVANT TO

THE GROUP

5. DEVELOPMENT OF ACCEPTED SANCTIONS IF AND WHEN NORMS WERE

RESPECTED OR VIOLATED
 These people shaped and influence ones values, behavior, personality and outlook in life. It is
very crucial to carefully select the kind of groups we identify and attached ourselves with from
amongst the many social groups around. When we identify ourselves as part of a particular
group, we open up yourself to be influenced or to influence others. In that effect, we tend to be
more accepting and have a positive attitude towards people who resembles the same
inclinations as ours than those with people who are different.

While our choices of groups and the extent we identify ourselves to it can be personal based on
certain social categories or interpersonal interaction among members but our perceptual
processes of group identification can arbitrarily reached to its extremes like social stereotypes
and prejudices if not checked constantly. Our identification with the group and the part of
ourselves defined by such membership or social identity as what Tajfel and Turner (1979) as
mentioned by Vinney (2019) sometimes become more important than our identity as individuals.
In their study, they pointed out that group membership was so powerful that simply classifying
people into groups is enough to make people think of themselves in terms of that group
membership. Such self-conceptualization based on the social groups to which one belongs
enable people to maintain positive social identity by favorably comparing their social group to
other groups. However, such behavior does not always lead to hostility towards the other
groups especially if it is not institutional or systemic like racism or sexism. Common example of
this is cheering for your basketball team in an interschool competition where the strong
identification based on a social category is very strong especially if it is a tagged as a classic
rivalry.

Barkada is term that most Filipinos in their youth use to refer to a group who share the same
social inclinations. The fondest memories of one’s youth would often be of the experiences they
shared with their barkada. Every age group in every society creates and subscribes to a social
group. Individuals become aware of the positions they hold in the society through the process of
socialization and learn social roles by observing the people around them. Each of the statuses
and roles take place in a relationship with others. Everyone is born into various social groups
and spends most of the entire lives within groups. It is a basic part of human life because we are
social animals who are largely dependent upon others to satisfy our basic physical, emotional,
psychological and social needs. For instance, you have a family, you have friends at school and in
the community, and you belong to an athletic team, a choir, a theater group or a religious
organization. In your adolescent and adulthood years, you become a member of larger groups,
formal organizations, special interest groups and more. That is why in school aside from being a
member of a class, you have your own small groups and you are a member of some school
organizations. Such membership is attributable to certain factors and characteristics like
interests, hobbies, attitudes and values or even outlook in life. Human beings are likely drawn
closer to people similar to their kind. Membership in social groups give meaning to your day-to-
day life. What you are now is a reflection of the kind of groups you belong.

 As the cliché’ goes, no man is an island. Everyone

needs to belong. Belonging means acceptance as a
member or part of the group. Such is a simple word
for huge concept. A sense of belonging is a human
need just like the need for food and shelter. Feeling
that you belong is most important in seeing value in
life and in coping with intense painful emotions.
Some find belonging in a church, some with friends,
some with family, and some on twitter or other
social media. Some see themselves as connected to
only one or two people. Others believe and feel a
connection to all people the world over, to
humanity. Some struggle to find a sense of
belonging and their loneliness is physically painful
for them (Hall, 2004).

WHO OR WHAT GROUPS GIVE MEANING AND SUPPORT TO YOU WHEN YOU WERE A

CHILD UNTIL NOW THAT YOU ARE IN ADOLESCENT YEARS? WHY DO YOU CONSIDER

THEM IMPORTANT? HOW DO THESE PEOPLE AFFECT YOUR LIFE? AS SOCIETY IS

ORGANIZED WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS WHERE YOU

BELONG AND BUILD RELATIONSHIPS WITH, LET’S TAKE A CLOSER LOOK AT THESE

GROUPS. THE SUCCEEDING PAGES WILL BRING YOU TO A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING

OF THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL GROUPS.

THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL GROUP

A social group is a number of people who interact on

a regular basis, are bound together by roles and
statuses and a distinctive set of relationships, and
who feel a sense of unity and common identity. It
consists of individuals who are united by their similar
characteristics and these characteristics serve as the
bases of their constant interaction. Members of a
social group come into contact for a purpose. They
see each other frequently and consider themselves
part of the group.

 Membership in social group is crucial to human social life because it provides people with a
sense of belonging. Whereas some groups provide close relationships and personal
satisfaction, others do not but, still, are necessary for survival. Social groups affect everyone
and are organized in many different ways. It is thus important to know about the several types
of group that exist in society.

However, not all individuals who share characteristics interact with one another. Sociologically
speaking, not all collections of people are social groups. This phenomenon is observed in social
categories. Your family, for example, is a social group because you interact with them on a
regular basis and you have developed intimacy among the members. For example, your
barkada may be classified as a social group but students attending your senior high school are
within the context of a social category as you do not normally interact with them.

A “social category” refers to a collection of

people who share similar characteristics but
are not engaged in a patterned social
interaction and do not have common identity
of membership. Your relationship with your
fellow senior high school students will turn to
a social group once you recognize your ties
with one another as belonging to one group
and you interact with one another. Social
activities organized by your school can
promote the transformation of your relations
from being distant members of a social
category to interactive members of a social
group.

ON THE OTHER HAND, ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN GROUPING IS

A COLLECTION OF PEOPLE WHO JUST HAPPENED TO BE IN ONE PLACE AT

THE SAME TIME AND WHO ARE HARDLY UNAWARE OF EACH OTHER IS A

“SOCIAL AGGREGATE”, NOT A SOCIAL GROUP. IN THIS, INDIVIDUALS

GATHER IN THE SAME PLACE BUT ARE NEITHER INTERACTING NOR

SHARING SIMILAR CHARACTERISTICS. PEOPLE GATHERED IN A SHOPPING

MALL MAYBE CATEGORIZED IN THIS. THEIR INTERACTION IS SUPERFICIAL

AND NOT BASED ON COMMON INTERESTS. IN A NUTSHELL, THE ABSENCE

OF FREQUENT AND PATTERNED INTERACTION AND A DISTINCTIVE SET OF

RELATIONSHIPS MEAN THAT A MERE COLLECTION OF PEOPLE IS NOT A

GROUP. A SOCIAL GROUP NECESSARILY INVOLVES TWO OR MORE

PERSONS RELATING TO AND INFLUENCING ONE ANOTHER, DEVELOPING A

SENSE OF BELONGING AND A FEELING OF COMMON MEMBERSHIP WHERE

THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN INTERACTIONS WITHIN GROUPS IS

HIGHLIGHTED.
The sociological explanation for human behavior is that it is through interaction that people learn much
of their behavior as social animals. People join groups that reinforce their own attitudes, actions,
orientations, values, norms and self-concept. We become what we have based on how others relate to
us and what we have learned from them. Sociologists distinguish between different types of groups to
show how the various characteristics of groups such as size, goals, formality and relationships and
interaction patterns vary. No two groups are created equal. Each has its own purposes, culture, and
standards for behavior. Thus, groups are differentiated.

A. According to Social Ties

Primary Groups
Charles H. Cooley coined the concept
primary groups and pointed out that they
are a necessary part of social life because
they fulfill the basic human need for
intimacy. The nuclear family is an ideal
primary group because members typically
interact on a regular basis. The family is
an important source of socialization, love
and affection, security, and
companionship. A group of close friends
can be another example. Primary groups
such as the family and peer groups are
significant to a person and are effective in
developing and controlling a person’s
behavior.

According to Cooley, a primary group functions as a place where the individual can be a “whole
person”, a total personality. It is where a person can communicate his or her deepest feelings and
release all kinds of emotions. Primary groups are those which are close-knit, typically small in size,
and are usually long lasting because of intimate face-to-face primary relationships. The members
of primary groups feel a strong personal identity with the group. Members of primary groups give
the person a feeling of security, a feeling of protection.

Sociologist tell us that the very strength of society is dependent on the strengths of primary
groups. The ties are personal and involve many aspects of a person’s life experiences. The
relationship between parents and children is usually primary. Both parents and children have
specific roles to play – as parents and children.

Secondary groups have the opposite characteristics of primary

groups. They are usually large, short term, formal and
specialized, and are created to meet a specific need, fulfill a
particular function, or achieve a goal. Secondary groups are
characterized by secondary relationships, and members
interact in terms of specific contractual obligations. The ties are
impersonal and temporary, and involve limited aspects of a
person’s life.

 The relationship between a traffic enforcer and a citizen crossing the street is secondary. The traffic
enforcer is primarily concerned about the citizen following the traffic rules, and the citizen id
concerned about whether the traffic enforcer is fulfilling his or her role in managing traffic issues.
Both of them are not primarily interested on each other but on whether specific roles and functions
are fulfilled.

The distinction between primary and secondary is, however, not always absolute because there are
times when you meet people in secondary relationships that become a part of your primary group.
A member of your class group project, for instance, becomes one of your closest friends, even after
your high school or college years.

B. According to Social Identification

In- Groups

In a social system, there are criteria that differentiate

members from nonmembers.
An in-group is the social
group in which individual directly affiliates and expresses
loyalty to. People included in “we” are known as members of
the in-group. An in-group is any group to which a person
feels he/she belongs or identifies with. For example,
imagine you are a member of a band, a dance club, or a
choir. When you are talking to your group members,

you would use “we” like “We are going to win the contest.” while when you are talking about the group
that your team will be competing against you, you would say “they” like “They don’t stand a chance.” An
in-group is as small as a dyad or triad or a larger group. In-group favoritism or in-group bias refers to the
tendency to favor in-group members. Members of the in-group have a sense of camaraderie and feel a
sense of loyalty to each other, and they are antagonistic towards the other or the “they” group.

Its three primary characteristics reinforce the boundary that it creates between its members and those
coming from other groups. We shall take a look at each of the three primary characteristics of an in-
group.

a. Members use titles, external symbols, and dress to distinguish themselves from the out-group
(Shandra, 2007).

One of the most recent subcultural categories formed in our country is that of the jejemons. This group
is popular for their distinguishable dress code and language. Males would usually wear rainbow-colored
caps, loose shirts, and pants. In terms of language, their alteration of the spelling of words has given
them a form of exclusivity from those who are not part of the culture. Some phrases like “kumusta” and
“hello po” have been transformed to “mztaHhh” and “eowsszz powhh”.

Military groups can also be seen as having a very strong in-group culture. The bonds that military
personnel create with one another are enhanced by their shared ideals, practices, and experiences.
From a prescribed haircut that everyone shares, to the symbols that everyone upholds, this group is able
to detach themselves from the greater majority who are not part of their group. The rigorous training
that they had to pass and, for some, the combat experiences together also create a strong bond
between them that they do not share with those outside the military.

b. Members apply positive stereotypes to their in-group and negative stereotypes to the out-group
(Shandra, 2007).
Generally, the in-group consists of the majority who defines what is normal and acceptable. Those who
do not conform to the prescribed norms are considered part of the out-group. Just as deviance is often
punished by ostracism and discrimination, individuals who fail to meet the standards set by the in-
group are bound to experience being socially marginalized.

The phenomenon of individuals preferring members and behaviors practiced within an in-group as
opposed to those from the out-group is called in-group favoritism. This is crucial in reinforcing self-
esteem within the group by creating biases that make the in-group the superior over the out-group.

c. Members tend to clash or compete with members of the out-group. This competition with the other
group can also strengthen the unity within each group (Shandra, 2007). Rivalries among schools, which
are highlighted during competitions in sports, quiz bees, and rankings are prime examples of how
members from an in-group tend to compete with the out-group. School spirit is often intensified
through the common desire of individuals in a group to succeed against the opposing group.

In some cases, inter-group aggression takes place as members of the in-group harm individuals from
the out-group due to their undesirable traits that clash with the in-group’s prescribed norms. Bullying is
an example of intergroup aggression, as members of a dominant group inflict harm on an individual
who is perceived to be an outsider. Stereotypes and prejudices are often created by members of the in-
group against those from the out-group. This is due to the ethnocentric orientation of the members in
an in-group.

Out-Groups

This is the group that an individual not part of. People included in the “they” are known as members of
the out-group. An out-group is any group or collection of people to which a person feels he/she does
not belong or identifies with. An out-group then, is simply anyone who is not part of the in-group. Out-
group derogation or discrimination refers to the tendency to feel threatened by or hostile against the
out-group. Negative attributes are usually associated with individuals who are part of this group.
Individuals from an out-group are usually considered malevolent even if they are not. Because
members of the in-group perceive themselves as diverse and complex, members of the out-group are
described as a group without any differentiation.

Hence, these individuals are prone to being stereotyped

and worse, dehumanized, as members of the in-group
refer to them solely on the bases of their projected
characteristics. For example, an individual who is part of
an in-group of heterosexuals would consider those with
different genders as part of the out-group without
distinguishing what type of genders they have. In case of
wars, opposing groups tend to dehumanize each other
often leading to countless deaths.

In-groups and out-groups have no specific size limits. All

groups distinguished between “we” and “they”.

 Reference Groups

Both your in-groups and primary groups are

people who are especially important to you in
shaping your values, attitudes, and beliefs.
These are the people you look to for guidance
for evaluating your behavior, or the people
whose actions and behaviors you use as
standards for evaluation. They act as role
models to which you can compare yourself.
For example, when you aspire to be a good
basketball or volleyball player, you join a
group of known basketball or volleyball
players in your school, and you pattern your
behavior after them.

To some extent, and because you want to get the approval and be identified with your reference
group, you may begin to dress like them, think like them, be interested in what they have to say,
and you hang out at the same time place in or outside the campus. Sociologists say that two or
more reference groups affect one’s behavior at the same time; your family, peer group, or your
closest neighbors. In one way or the other, they exert an influence on your behavior, expectations,
outlook, and even style and physical appearance. An individual shifts reference groups at different
stages of his or her life.

Social Networks

A social networks consist of individuals who have

dyadic relationships that are interacting with other
relationships within a structure. Simply stated, a social
network is a social structure consisting of people who
have varying degrees of relations and
interrelationships. A sociogram is a visual
representation of the social networks present in one
group or more. This was developed by Jacob Moreno,
a psychotherapist in 1951 to understand the dynamics
of the intersections of social groups (e.g. individuals,
peers) within the structure (e.g. a school, church or
village).

 THIS FIGURE IS A SAMPLE OF A

SOCIOGRAM. IT DEPICTS THE

INTERRELATIONSHIPS, OR THE LACK

THEREOF, AMONG THE MEMBERS OF

THIS SOCIAL STRUCTURE. ONE CAN

NOTICE MULTIPLE ARRANGEMENTS

EXISTING HERE SUCH AS (1) CLIQUE,

AN EXCLUSIVE GROUP THAT IS

SEPARATE FROM THE ENTIRE UNIT;

(2) A ONE-WAY CHOICE, AN

INDIVIDUAL WHO RELATES TO

ANOTHER INDIVIDUAL WHO DOES

NOT RECIPROCATE THE AFFILIATION;

AND (3) AN ISOLATE, AN INDIVIDUAL

WHO HAS CHOSEN NO ONE AND IS

NOT CHOSEN BY ANYONE IN THE

STRUCTURE.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS and BUREAUCRACY

How do social organizations differ from small groups?

Social organizations are created by individuals to foster a more direct relationship in secondary
group setting. When a secondary group is directed by its goals, it is referred to as formal
organizations. Formal organizations exist in the modern society because they help to fulfill tasks in
the most efficient manner. In sociological terms, a formal organization is defined as a large and
complex secondary group that is deliberately created and organized to achieve specific goals. A
corporation, business enterprise, school, and government agencies are examples of formal or
social organizations. Unlike small groups, formal organizations are bureaucratic in nature. Max
Weber, a sociologist, developed a formalized structure called bureaucracy because he believed that
formal organizations must not be managed informally. Weber maintained that bureaucracies are
more rational and therefore, must be defined in terms of six characteristics:

1. Clear cut division of labor. This is to align employees with the organizational tasks of the office or
company. With division of labor and work specialization, one is required to focus and work o tasks
which he or she is assigned because of experience or expertise.

2. Formal written records. These are used to document all rules, regulations, procedures, decisions,
and actions taken by the organization and its members to preserve consistency and accountability.
A school manual or a standard operating procedure is a good example of formal records.

3. Hierarchy of authority and chain of command. A well-defined formal hierarchy and chain of
command distinguishes the level of authority within an organization. Individuals who hold higher
positions will supervise and direct lower positions within the hierarchy.

4. Well-stated rules and regulations. Management by rules and regulations provides a set of
standard operating procedures that facilitate consistency in both organizational and management
practices.

5. Impartiality. Managers should maintain an impersonal relationship with employees to promote

fair and equal treatment and to avoid unbiased decisions. In a bureaucracy, competence is the basis
for job appointment, not personality.

6. Assignment of roles and statuses based on technical qualifications. Competence not personality is
the basis for job appointment. An employee should be chosen, placed and promoted within an
organization based on their level of experience and competency to perform the job.

These are the basic characteristics that must be present for a group to be considered a formal
organization. Families and group of friends are not formal organizations because they do not have
these characteristics. However, churches, schools, hospitals, companies and offices are examples of
formal institutions because they meet all these features. For example, the school is a bureaucracy
because it has a division of labor among students. Faculty, personnel and administrators. Each has
defined roles, expectations, and responsibilities. The rules and regulations are defined by the school
administrators and Board of Trustees in accordance with the rules set by the Philippine Department
of Education or the Commission on Higher Education. Sanctions are given to those who violate the
rules or unable to meet expectations, or they are suspended or replaced by people who are equally
qualified for the position. In contemporary world, formal organizations allow people to accomplish
tasks in the most efficient way possible.

Imagine how the Philippine society would run without the government (political institution), business
(economic institution), schools (educational institution), hospitals and clinics (healthcare institutions),
and churches (religious institutions).

But these will discussed further on the next chapter. For the meantime, answer the following
questions on the next page.

Instructions: After reading the content in the module provided, try to answer these questions in accordance
to your level of understanding.

Process Questions:

1. How is culture of a society learned?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. Why is it imperative for individuals to understand the importance of learning the

culture of a society?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________

3. How to become competent members of the society?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________

4. Why do sets of norms, values, roles and functions are developed by different
institutions or social organizations to its members?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

5. In maintaining social stability, how are our interactions should be assessed?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

6. How would you analyze the forms and functions of social organization?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Insights and Reflections:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
 There are several types of groups and categorized according to social ties and social
identification for example. These groups influence you and shape your behavior and
personality. In the first part of your life, you are likely influenced fundamentally by primary
groups. Your family and friends are in this group. Your family shaped your basic values in life.
You feel a sense of belonging to your family. As you grow, you feel a sense of belonging
expanding to friends. Primary groups give you an identity and a strong sense of self (a feeling of
who you are) by providing more intimate and direct face-to-face interactions. They are primary
because they are very important in shaping who you are as a person. They also tend to be
close-knit groups that are mostly small and intimate and are normally long lasting, such as
family and friends.

A second type of social group is secondary group. Secondary groups are larger, more
anonymous, and impersonal compared to primary groups. They also tend to be more short-
term. Such groups are often based on shared interests, hobbies or activities. For example,
forming a temporary task group to plan a holiday party at work or organizing a reading group
before an exam. Oftentimes, secondary group members interact based on social statuses. If
you’re a worker, you may belong to a union; if you’re a student, you may be in a club or
organizations; if you’re a professor, you may belong to a professional association. As you
interact more with people in a larger secondary group, these groups may break down into
primary groups. Stronger group relationship and cohesion can be formed.

When you identify yourself as part of a social group, that group would be an in-group for you.
When you do not identify with that group, it would be in contrast, an out-group for you. Since
you identify more with an in-group, there is something called as in-group favoritism, where you
give more preferential treatment to those you perceive are part of your in-group. Aside from
our groups, we also identify to some organizations that are more formal in nature where we
build our social networks. Social networks are social ties that link us together with other people.
The strength of social ties is largely influenced by the similarity factors or what we call as
homophily or love of the same wherein individuals with similar traits are more likely to form
social ties. Indeed, similarities breed connections.

 ACTIVITY 5
ARTICLE READING AND PAPER
ANALYSIS

NAME: GRADE AND SECTION:

CLASS NAME: DATE SUBMITTED:

Instructions: You are going to read the paper entitled “In-group favoritism and out-group
discrimination in naturally occurring groups (Abbink & Harris, 2019)”. Then make an analysis
of the paper in any of the following style (reflective, critical, descriptive, comparative, etc.).
This will be a scaffold to their next activity in analysing the result of the survey conducted
previously.

1. How does the paper present about in-group bias?

2. How evident is in-group bias in the society? Provide proofs or examples.

3. How will you make use of your role identification in the group you belong in mitigating in-group bias?

4. How do social groups/ organizations influence social norms and patterns of behavior

 We deliberately choose the group we want to be part of. In as simple as groupings in class
activities, students would likely choose those classmates who are close to them or belonging in the
same in-group because of the notion that they can work well for having the same wavelengths.
Relations among these members of the group are more cohesive. But for Harold Kelley and John
Thibaut, this relationship is more often than not a function of the basis and outcome of
interpersonal exchanges. Thus, when we are in our in-group, we tend to be more interactive and
communicative than with the people we less likely know or of opposite traits.

People join groups that represent unique and sometimes powerful social categories. Members are
attracted to and influenced by the behaviors of such group. Both social influence and social
categories serve to create group identity. Group identity is part of how people feel themselves. It
permits one to be connected to a greater slice of the society. These connections may produce
feelings of ranging from pride to prejudice. In wars, between ethnic or religious groups, individuals
are prepared to die for the sake of their group identity. These powerful emotional reactions have
prompted some groups to attempt to manage group identity. An unfortunate example is the use of
suicide bombers by terrorist organizations.

In situations involving inter-group competition, members may distance themselves from a group
when it is performing less well than others. Alternatively, when a group receives threats from
factions external to the group, members may react by increasing identification to protect the value
of the group. Members manage threats to a group’s value by changing some aspect of how a
group is compared to other groups. These specific strategies a group uses are a function of how a
group is organized. The social context of the group is an important factor in the process of group
identification. Perceptions of similarity to other people in a given social context provide a basis for
construing oneself as being part of a group. This suggests that identification processes operate in
everyday life contexts. A group identity is one of the reasons people donate to charitable causes,
support friends and family and exhibit helping behaviors towards those with whom they identify.

For an in-depth understanding, look at the given dummy result of the survey you’ve answered
previously.

NAME: DATE:

SECTION: SCORE:

SURVEY RESULT
ACTIVITY 6 ANALYSIS

Instructions: Prior to the discussion of the topic, you were given a questionnaire
containing 10 statements measuring your level of agreement/ disagreement using a
Likert scale. Assuming the result below, make an analysis of the data.
 Process Question
1. What does the result is telling you?

2. What is your analysis and interpretation?

3. How representative is the result with what you have observed in the society?

4. Which from among the sociological perspective best explains the result?

5. Based from your analysis, what’s your most appropriate response?

 CONCLUSION:
A society is composed of individuals who also have needs to be satisfied by the society they
belong to. This chapter examined how people within a society are organized into many
different types of relationships, groups, organizations, structures and institutions and how the
understanding of social groups is of primary importance to the understanding of human
behavior.

Social life, whether small group or a large group, is governed by rules and policies that
reinforce prescribed norms within a society. The pressure to conform to group behavior is
stronger in small group settings, as opposed to large group settings where relationships are
indirect and noncohesive. Primary relationships have greater impact on human behavior and
conformity to social norms due to the interdependent roles that are experienced and
practiced in it. Empathy and conformity are more prominently observed in primary
relationship-based groups than in groups dominated by secondary relationships that promote
indirect communication and detachment. When individuals are confined in secondary groups,
they address alienation and detachment by creating informal groups where they could have
stronger bonds.

Groups are a fact of human existence and permeate virtually every facet of our lives. Group
size is important, as is the otherwise simple distinction between dyads and triads. Primary
groups form the basic building blocks of social interaction in society. Reference groups play a
major role in forming our attitudes and life goals, as do our relationships with in-groups and
out-groups. Social networks partly determine things such as whom we know and the kinds of
jobs we get. Networks based on race-ethnicity, social class, and other social factors are
extremely closely connected very dense.

Oftentimes, we choose people we associate or have relationship with, those having the same
characteristics with us. This tendency is called as homophily, which means the “love of the
same”, thus birds of the same feathers flock together. Social groups have a profound impact on
the lifestyles that individuals may lead and categorising people into social groups and can
cause gender labels and sort persons by race. In addition, they hold value-laden attitudes and
beliefs that differentiate between their own group and other groups. In-group bias refers to
individuals showing a preference for others perceived to be in the same social group (ingroup)
versus those from another group (outgroup). This bias can be a strategy for anchoring a
positive identity and there is evidence for in-group bi as to positively and causally affect the way
people feel about themselves. This is in line with the key premise of social identity theory (SIT).
SIT posits that an individual’s sense of identity is derived from social group memberships and
that identification with the in-group often leads to the formation of in-group bias as they place
greater importance on the group to which they belong. Concomitantly, prejudice against
outgroups (outgroup bias) may arise even if there is no history of rivalry or the distinctions
between groups are superficial, although it has long been established that even trivial
competition between groups can raise the levels of intergroup biases.

The insights learned along with the important concepts in this module are substantial in the
next module to be discussed.

REFERENCES:

Abbink, K. & Harris D. (2019). In-group favoritism and out-group discrimination in naturally
occurring groups. Retrieved from https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?
id=10.1371/journal.pone.0221616

Amper, Z. H., et.al. (2016). Knowing Our Social World. A Comprehensive Worktext in
Understanding Society, Culture and Politics for Senior High School. University of San Carlos Press.
Talamban, Cebu City, Philippines
Bennett, J.M. R. (2012). Doing Belonging: a sociological study of belonging in place as the outcome
of social practices. Retrieved from
https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/files/54528723/FULL_TEXT.PDF

Cole, Nicki Lisa, Ph.D. (2020, December 27). Understanding Socialization in Sociology. Retrieved
from https://www.thoughtco.com/socialization-in-sociology-4104466

Gonzalez, M.C. & Custodio, H. (2016). Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Diwa Learning
Systems Inc. Makati City, Philippines

McCoy, R.(2017). What Does It Mean To Belong To A Community. Retrieved from

http://www.migrationnavigator.org/mean-belong-community/

Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. (1979). An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict. The Social Psychology of
Intergroup Relations, edited by August, W.G. & Brooks/Cole, Worchel. 1979, pp.33-47. Retrieved
from https://www.thoughtco.com/social-identity-theory-4174315