Photovoltaic Laboratory Peter T. Parrish

Engineering – Electrical
“This book helps fill a shortage in modern support material for technical education
and training for the rapidly growing photovoltaics systems industry.”
—Richard Corkish, School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering,
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
“… a very well-written book that can be integrated into most solar photovoltaic
(PV) training applications. It covers concepts in a well-thought-out manner that
follows a logical progression that builds on basics and works upward from there.”
—Daniel M. Sherry, Alamo Colleges, St. Philip’s College, San Antonio, Texas, USA
Photovoltaic Laboratory: Safety, Code-Compliance, and Commercial

Off-the-Shelf Equipment is the only textbook that offers students the
opportunity to design, build, test, and troubleshoot practical PV systems
based on commercially available equipment. Complete with electrical
schematics, layouts, and step-by-step installation instructions, this
hands-on laboratory manual:
• Promotes “safety first” by covering working in extreme weather

conditions, personal protective equipment, working at heights,
electrical safety, and power tool safety
• Includes chapters on trade math, DC/AC electrical circuits, and
assessing a property for a photovoltaic system (e.g., surveying the
available space, shading, and solar harvest)
• Discusses aspects of mechanical and electric integration specific to
different roof types, and characterizing a PV module under different
levels of irradiation and ambient temperature
• Addresses the design, installation, and testing of off-grid PV systems
with DC-only loads and with DC and AC loads, as well as 2.4 kw DC
grid-tied PV systems with microinverters and string inverters
• Trains students on exactly the sort of equipment that they will
encounter in the field, so they gain valuable experience and skills
that translate directly to real-world applications

Off-the-Shelf Equipment provides in-depth, project-driven instruction on
everything from attaching brackets and flashing to modeling PV cells,
modules, and arrays. This textbook is ideal preparation for those seeking a
career in the PV industry—from system installers and designers to quality
assurance and sales/marketing personnel.
K23486
ISBN: 978-1-4822-4443-4
90000
9 781482 244434
Photovoltaic
Laboratory
Photovoltaic
Laboratory
Safety, Code-Compliance, and Commercial
Off-the-Shelf Equipment
Peter T. Parrish, PhD
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Peter T. Parrish

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20150807
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4444-1 (eBook - PDF)
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Contents
Preface................................................................................................................... xvii
Acknowledgments............................................................................................... xix
Introduction.......................................................................................................... xxi
How to Use This Textbook................................................................................. xxv
The Author......................................................................................................... xxvii
1 Safety.................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Student Learning Objectives................................................................ 1
1.3 Working in Extreme Weather Conditions.......................................... 2
1.3.1 The Hot, Dry Climate............................................................... 2
1.3.2 The Cold Climate......................................................................3
1.4 Understanding Heat Stress................................................................... 4
1.4.1 Heat Exhaustion—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses....5
1.4.2 Heat Stroke—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses....... 5
1.4.3 Dehydration—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses......6
1.4.4 Hypothermia—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses....7
1.4.5 Frostbite—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses............. 8
1.4.6 Preventing Heat or Cold Stress............................................... 8
1.5 General Safety Training........................................................................ 9
1.6 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)............................................... 10
1.6.1 Eye Protection and Gloves..................................................... 10
1.6.2 Protective Helmets (a/k/a Hard Hats)................................. 10
1.6.3 Aprons...................................................................................... 11
1.6.4 Footwear................................................................................... 11
1.7 Working at Heights.............................................................................. 11
1.7.1 Safety Barriers......................................................................... 12
1.7.2 Guardrail Systems.................................................................. 12
1.7.3 Safety Netting......................................................................... 12
1.7.4 Personal Fall Arrest: Body Harnesses................................. 13
1.7.5 Rescue Plan.............................................................................. 15
1.7.6 Ladders and Ladder Safety................................................... 16
1.8 Electrical Safety.................................................................................... 17
1.8.1 Overhead Power Lines........................................................... 17
1.8.2 Operating Electrical Equipment........................................... 17
1.9 Moving and Carrying Heavy Objects............................................... 18
1.10 Roofs and Attics................................................................................... 18
1.11 Lockout/Tagout.................................................................................... 19
1.12 Safety Posters........................................................................................ 21
Notes................................................................................................................. 31
v
vi Contents
2 Trade Math for PV—Measurements, Units, and Calculations............. 33

2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 33
2.2 Student Learning Objectives.............................................................. 33
2.3 The Decimal System of Notation.......................................................34
2.4 Scientific Notation (Exponential Notation [Base 10])......................34
2.5 Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, and Dividing in SN................ 35
2.5.1 Multiplication and Division.................................................. 35
2.5.2 Addition and Subtraction...................................................... 35
2.5.3 Metric System and Prefixes................................................... 35
2.5.4 Nonstandard Units of Measure............................................ 36
2.6 Rational Fractions, Decimal Fractions, Ratios, and Percentages......39
2.6.1 A–B Comparison..................................................................... 39
2.6.2 Change of a Value (over Time).............................................. 40
2.7 Student Exercises................................................................................. 40
2.7.1 A–B Comparison..................................................................... 40
2.8 Significant Digits and Precision......................................................... 41
2.9 Conversion from Metric Units to Imperial (English) Units
and Back................................................................................................ 41
2.10 Basic Algebra........................................................................................42
2.10.1 Ohm’s Law...............................................................................43
2.10.2 Watt’s Law................................................................................43
2.10.3 Order of Operations...............................................................44
2.11 Trigonometry of Right Triangles....................................................... 45
2.11.1 The Right Triangle.................................................................. 45
2.11.2 The Pythagorean Theorem.................................................... 46
2.11.3 Calculations Involving the Pythagorean Theorem............ 46
2.11.4 The Three Trigonometric Functions.................................... 46
2.11.5 Evaluating the Angle θ and Inverse Trigonometric
Functions.................................................................................. 47
2.11.6 Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions.................................... 47
2.12 Length, Area, and Volume.................................................................. 48
2.13 The Celestial Sphere............................................................................ 48
2.14 Analyzing Word Problems................................................................. 49
2.15 Mastering the Use of a Calculator..................................................... 50
2.15.1 Addition and Subtraction...................................................... 50
2.15.2 Multiplication and Division.................................................. 50
2.15.3 Trigonometry........................................................................... 50
3 Measurements of DC and AC Electrical Circuits................................... 53

3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 53
3.1.1 DC Electrical Circuits............................................................. 53
3.1.2 AC Electrical Circuits.............................................................54
3.2 Student Learning Objectives..............................................................54
3.3 Setup......................................................................................................54
3.3.1 The Calculator......................................................................... 55
Contents vii
3.3.2 Electrical Components........................................................... 55

3.3.3 Measurement Instruments.................................................... 56
3.3.4 Other Equipment.................................................................... 57
3.4 The DC Electrical Circuit—An Abstraction..................................... 59
3.5 Basic Electrical Concepts—Analogy with Water Flow................... 59
3.5.1 Charge...................................................................................... 59
3.5.2 Current..................................................................................... 60
3.5.3 Current Continuity................................................................. 60
3.5.4 Voltage...................................................................................... 60
3.5.5 Resistance................................................................................. 61
3.6 Additional Circuit Concepts—Power, Energy, Time, Frequency.....61
3.6.1 Power........................................................................................ 61
3.6.2 Energy....................................................................................... 62
3.6.3 Time and Frequency............................................................... 62
3.7 Summary of Circuit Concepts............................................................63
3.8 Nominal Specifications.......................................................................65
3.9 DMM Measurement Accuracy...........................................................65
3.10 Absolute Calibration of Measurement Instruments—Standards....67
3.11.1 Measuring the Voltage Standard.......................................... 67
3.12 Color Coding for Resistors.................................................................. 68
3.13 Measuring Resistance with the DMM.............................................. 69
3.14 Measuring DC Voltage with the DMM............................................. 70
3.14.1 Single Batteries........................................................................ 70
3.14.2 Multiple Batteries—In Series and in Parallel...................... 71
3.15 Bench Power Supply............................................................................ 72
3.16 Powering a 12 V LED........................................................................... 72
3.17 Powering a 10 Ω, 50 W Resistor.......................................................... 73
3.18 AC Circuit Theory................................................................................ 74
3.18.1 What Is a Sinusoidal Signal?................................................. 74
3.19 Electrical Utility Service...................................................................... 78
3.20 Measuring a 120/240 VAC 200A Split-Phase Service Panel........... 79
3.20.1 120 VAC Branch Circuit (L1 or L2)........................................ 81
3.20.2 240 VAC Branch Circuit (L1 and L2)..................................... 81
3.20.3 Measuring Current in a 120 VAC Branch Circuit............... 81
3.21 Measuring the Voltage, Current, Power, and Energy of a
120 VAC Outlet..................................................................................... 82
Notes.................................................................................................................84
4 The Site Survey.............................................................................................. 85

4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 85
4.2 Student Learning Objectives.............................................................. 85
4.3 Organization of This Lab.................................................................... 86
4.4 Prior Activities...................................................................................... 86
4.4.1 Preliminary Technical Sales Proposal................................. 86
viii Contents
4.4.2 Sample Module Rows............................................................. 87

4.4.3 Determination of All Authorities Having
Jurisdiction (AHJs).................................................................. 87
4.4.4 The Virtual Site Survey.......................................................... 88
4.5 Resources............................................................................................... 89
4.6 Example of a Site Survey..................................................................... 89
4.6.1 County Assessor’s Map.......................................................... 89
4.6.2 Sketch of the Property Including House............................. 89
4.6.3 Documentation of Roof Sections.......................................... 90
4.6.4 Site Survey Document............................................................ 91
4.7.1 Student Site Survey................................................................. 93
4.7.2 Rafter/Truss and Attic Details............................................. 95
4.7.3 Main Service Panel................................................................. 95
4.7.4 Use of a Subpanel.................................................................... 96
4.7.5 Locations for Other Major Components.............................. 96
4.7.6 Grounding of Electrical Service............................................ 96
4.7.7 Trenching................................................................................. 97
4.8 Shading Analysis................................................................................. 97
4.8.1 Performing a Manual Shading Analysis Using the
SolarPathfinder........................................................................ 97
4.8.2 Performing an Advanced Shading Analysis Using
the SolarPathfinder............................................................... 103
4.8.3 Performing a Shading Analysis Using the Solmetric
SunEye.................................................................................... 106
4.9 Summary............................................................................................. 108
Notes............................................................................................................... 108
5 Racking Systems—General Considerations.......................................... 109

5.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 109
5.2 Student Learning Objectives............................................................ 110
5.3 Setup.................................................................................................... 110
5.3.1 Portrait versus Landscape Layouts.................................... 110
5.4 Positioning the Rails and Brackets.................................................. 110
5.4.1 The 25% and 75% Rule......................................................... 110
5.4.2 Maximum Bracket Spacing................................................. 112
5.4.3 Standard Residential Rafter/Truss Spacing...................... 112
5.4.4 Constraints on Portrait Orientation................................... 112
5.4.5 Constraints on Landscape Orientation.............................. 112
5.4.6 Case Study: The 60-Cell, 156 mm Square Cell PV
Module.................................................................................... 112
5.5 Design of Layout for a Single PV Module...................................... 113
5.6 Small Mock Roof Details................................................................... 114
5.7 Locating the Rafters........................................................................... 114
5.8 Pull-Out Strength of Lag Bolts......................................................... 117
Contents ix
5.9 Wind Forces on Roofs........................................................................ 118

5.9.1 The “Simple” Approach....................................................... 119
5.10 Student Exercises............................................................................... 119
5.10.1 Model Structures.................................................................. 119
5.10.2 Roof-Specific Installation of Brackets................................. 122
Notes............................................................................................................... 122
Appendix 5A: Racking Systems on Asphalt Composition Shingle
Roofs.................................................................................................... 123
5A.1 Introduction........................................................................... 123
5A.2 Student Learning Objectives............................................... 123
5A.3 Components Comprising the Racking System
for Composition Shingle Roofs........................................... 123
5A.4 Setup....................................................................................... 124
5A.5 Tools Needed for This Lab.................................................. 125
5A.6 Student Exercises.................................................................. 125
5A.6.1 Design Layout for a Single PV Module.............. 125
5A.7 Locating the Rafters............................................................. 127
5A.7.1 Begin Layout.......................................................... 128
5A.7.2 Installing the Brackets.......................................... 129
5A.7.3 Choice of Post......................................................... 133
5A.7.4 Installing Flashing................................................ 133
5A.7.5 Dimensioning and Attaching the Rail............... 135
5A.7.6 Installing the PV Module..................................... 136
Appendix 5B: Racking Systems on Flat Concrete Tile Roofs................. 137
5B.1 Introduction........................................................................... 137
5B.2 Student Learning Objectives............................................... 138
5B.3 Components Comprising the Racking System for a
Flat Concrete Tile Roof......................................................... 139
5B.4 Setup....................................................................................... 139
5B.5 Tools Needed for This Lab.................................................. 140
5B.6 Student Exercises.................................................................. 140
5B.6.1 Locating the Rafters.............................................. 140
5B.7 The PV Module..................................................................... 146
6 Characterization of a PV Module............................................................. 149

6.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 149
6.3 Setup.................................................................................................... 150
6.3.1 The TiltAll Tripod................................................................. 150
6.3.2 Choice of PV Module—The Renogy RNG-100D.............. 151
6.4 Components and Instruments......................................................... 153
6.4.1 The Gnomon.......................................................................... 153
6.4.2 Digital Multimeter (DMM).................................................. 153
6.4.3 Bead Wire Thermocouple and Black Electrician’s Tape.....154
6.4.4 Clamp-On Ammeter............................................................ 154
x Contents
6.4.5 Digital Infrared Thermometer............................................ 155

6.4.6 Irradiance Meter.................................................................... 156
6.4.7 Tilt Meter................................................................................ 157
6.4.8 Torpedo Level........................................................................ 157
6.4.9 Thermometer......................................................................... 158
6.4.10 Calculator............................................................................... 158
6.5.1 The Measurements............................................................... 159
6.5.2 Other Minor Dependencies................................................. 172
7 Modeling the PV Cell, Module, and Array............................................ 173

7.1 Preface.................................................................................................. 173
7.1.1 The “Standard Methodology”............................................ 173
7.1.2 Universal Constants: Cell Voltage and Cell Current
Density................................................................................... 174
7.1.3 Partial Shading of PV Modules and Bypass Diodes........ 174
7.1.4 Overcurrent Protection in Three or More Strings........... 175
7.1.5 High-Performance PV Modules.......................................... 175
7.2 Unity in the Data?.............................................................................. 175
7.2.1 How Many Cells in a Module?........................................... 175
7.2.2 Commercial PV Module Electrical Characteristics.......... 175
7.3 Goals for This Laboratory................................................................. 177
7.4 Introduction........................................................................................ 178
7.6 Simple Component Models in PSpice............................................. 180
7.6.1 The Resistor Revisited.......................................................... 180
7.6.2 The Voltage Source............................................................... 180
7.6.3 The Current Source............................................................... 180
7.6.4 The Diode............................................................................... 181
7.6.5 Plotting the Diode I-V Characteristic................................. 183
7.7 Two-Element Model for the PV Cell................................................ 184
7.7.1 I-V Characteristic for the PV Cell....................................... 187
7.7.2 The Concept of Load Resistance......................................... 187
7.7.3 Separately Displaying the Source, Diode, and
External Load Currents........................................................ 188
7.7.4 Maximum Power Point (MPP)............................................ 188
7.8 Cell Efficiency..................................................................................... 190
7.9 I-V and P-V Characteristics for Different Irradiance Values........ 190
7.10 Equivalent Circuit for PV Cell Including Parasitic Resistances.....191
7.10.1 Temperature Dependence of PV Cell
Characteristics—Voc.............................................................. 192
7.10.2 Temperature Dependence of PV Cell
Characteristics—Isc............................................................... 194
7.12 The PSpice Simulation Program...................................................... 195
Contents xi
7.13 The Spice Netlist................................................................................. 195

7.13.1 Creating the Netlist Using MS Notepad........................... 196
7.13.2 Using MS Excel to Record and Plot Data........................... 199
7.14 Using the Power of PSpice................................................................ 202
7.14.1 Using the Voltage Source in Place of the Load Resistor.... 203
7.14.2 The New Netlist.................................................................... 203
7.15 Simulating a PV Module Composed of 36 Each of 6 in.
Cells—The Renogy RNG-100D........................................................ 206
7.15.1 Adding the Parasitic Resistances........................................ 209
7.15.2 Library Element “cell_1.lib”................................................. 209
7.16 The Effects of Shading at the Cell Level......................................... 214
7.17 Optional Exercises............................................................................. 218
8 Lead-Acid Absorbent Glass Mat Batteries............................................. 219

8.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 219
8.3 Overview of Lead-Acid Batteries..................................................... 219
8.4 Markets for Pb-Acid Batteries.......................................................... 220
8.4.1 The Automotive Market....................................................... 220
8.4.2 Conventional Traction Market............................................ 221
8.4.3 Energy Storage Market......................................................... 221
8.4.4 Lead Alloys............................................................................222
8.5 Comparison with Other Battery Technologies..............................223
8.6 Characterizing the Pb-Acid Battery................................................ 223
8.6.1 Nominal Battery Voltages....................................................223
8.6.2 Battery Capacity.................................................................... 224
8.6.3 State of Charge and Depth of Discharge........................... 224
8.6.4 More on Battery Capacity....................................................225
8.6.5 Expected Life Cycles............................................................225
8.6.6 Three-Stage Charging..........................................................225
8.7.1 Charging the PVX-840T....................................................... 227
8.8 Discharging the PVX-840T............................................................... 228
Notes............................................................................................................... 229
9 Off-Grid PV System with DC-Only Loads............................................ 231

9.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 231
9.3 Overall Design Philosophy............................................................... 232
9.4 The Load Profile................................................................................. 232
9.5 Days of Autonomy and Battery Energy Capacity......................... 232
9.5.1 Measuring the Depth of Discharge....................................234
9.6 PV System Rating...............................................................................234
9.7 System Calculations—The Role of Energy Conversion Efficiency.....235
9.7.1 Charge Controller Efficiency............................................... 235
xii Contents
9.7.2 Charging/Discharging Efficiency of AGM Battery......... 236

9.7.3 Depth of Discharge and Life Cycles.................................. 236
9.8.1 Load Profile Calculation...................................................... 237
9.9 Days of Autonomy............................................................................. 238
9.10 Total Energy Requirement................................................................ 238
9.11 Charging/Discharging Efficiency of AGM Battery...................... 238
9.12 Charging Efficiency of Charge Controller...................................... 238
9.13 Required Energy Storage in Battery................................................ 238
9.14 Required Energy Delivery by PV System....................................... 239
9.15 PV Subsystem Simulation................................................................. 240
9.16 Document Final System Configuration.......................................... 240
9.17 Balance of System Components and Conductor Sizing............... 241
9.18 Battery Current................................................................................... 241
9.19 PV Circuit Conductors...................................................................... 242
9.20 Electrical Schematic and System Layout........................................ 243
9.21 Layout.................................................................................................. 243
9.22 The Pick List........................................................................................ 243
9.23 Mounting the System Components................................................. 244
9.24 Documenting the Final System........................................................ 245
9.24.1 System Certification.............................................................. 245
9.24.2 Photographs........................................................................... 246
9.25 System Documentation..................................................................... 246
9.25.1 System Schematic.................................................................. 246
9.25.2 System Layout....................................................................... 248
9.25.3 System Certification Sheet................................................... 248
9.25.4 Photograph of Integrated System....................................... 250
Note................................................................................................................. 250
10 Off-Grid PV System with DC and AC Loads........................................ 251

10.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 251
10.3 Overall Design Philosophy............................................................... 252
10.3.1 AC Loads................................................................................ 252
10.3.2 DC Loads................................................................................ 252
10.3.3 DC-to-DC Converters........................................................... 252
10.3.4 The Load Profile.................................................................... 252
10.3.5 PV System Sizing.................................................................. 252
10.3.6 Days of Autonomy................................................................254
10.3.7 Number of Battery Cycles....................................................254
10.4 System Calculations...........................................................................254
10.5 Student Exercises...............................................................................254
10.5.1 Load Profile Calculations....................................................254
10.5.2 Days of Autonomy................................................................ 256
10.5.3 Total Energy Requirement................................................... 256
Contents xiii
10.5.4 Sizing the Battery Subsystem.............................................. 256

10.5.5 Sizing the PV Module and Charge Controller.................. 257
10.5.6 PV Subsystem Simulation.................................................... 257
10.5.7 Document the Final System Configuration...................... 258
10.5.8 Electrical Schematic and System Layout........................... 259
10.5.9 System Layout....................................................................... 259
10.5.10 Mounting System Components.......................................... 260
10.6 Documenting the Final System........................................................ 261
10.6.1 Electrical Schematic.............................................................. 261
10.6.2 Physical Layout..................................................................... 261
10.6.3 Certification Measurements................................................ 261
10.6.4 Photographs........................................................................... 261
10.7 Owner’s Manual................................................................................. 261
11 2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with Microinverters....................... 263

11.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 263
11.3 Setup.................................................................................................... 265
11.3.1 The Roof................................................................................. 265
11.3.2 Racking Equipment.............................................................. 266
11.3.3 Choice of PV Module............................................................ 267
11.3.4 Choice of Microinverter....................................................... 267
11.3.5 Simulation of PV Performance and Monitoring............... 268
11.3.6 Personal Protective Equipment........................................... 268
11.3.7 Materials and Tools.............................................................. 268
11.4 High-Level Design............................................................................. 269
11.4.1 Estimated Consumption Based on Electricity Bill
History.................................................................................... 270
11.4.2 Estimated Consumption Based on Square Footage
of Living Space...................................................................... 270
11.4.3 Estimated Consumption Based on Load Profile.............. 270
11.4.4 System Size for This Laboratory......................................... 274
11.5 Site Assessment.................................................................................. 275
11.5.1 Perform Shading Analysis................................................... 276
11.5.2 Final PV Module Layout...................................................... 276
11.6 Roof Loading Calculations............................................................... 276
11.7 Mechanical Loading—The Live and Dead Loads......................... 277
11.7.1 Live Loads.............................................................................. 277
11.7.2 Dead Loads—PV System and Roof.................................... 277
11.7.3 Dead Load of the Roof Material......................................... 279
11.7.4 The Total Dead Load............................................................ 279
11.7.5 Calculation of Maximum Horizontal Span of a
Roof Rafter............................................................................. 279
11.8 Wind Loading..................................................................................... 280
11.8.1 Design Wind Pressure for the Site..................................... 280
xiv Contents
11.8.2 The SolarMount Code-Compliant Installation

Manual 227.3.......................................................................... 280
11.8.3 Basic Equation for Design Wind Loading
for Components and Cladding........................................... 281
11.8.4 Total Design Load (Downforce and Uplift)...................... 289
11.8.5 Calculating Uplift Force on Each Standoff and
Comparing to Pullout Strength of Fasteners.................... 292
11.8.6 The Concept of Design (Safety) Margin............................ 292
11.9 Fire Marshal Setbacks........................................................................ 293
11.10 Layout of PV System.......................................................................... 294
11.11 Single-Line and Four-Line Diagrams............................................. 294
11.11.1 A Single-Line Diagram........................................................ 295
11.11.2 A Four-Line Diagram........................................................... 295
11.11.3 National Electrical Manufacturers Association............... 295
11.11.4 Underwriters Laboratory..................................................... 298
11.11.5 The Difference between Four-Line and Single-Line
Diagrams................................................................................ 299
11.12 Installing Mechanical Subsystems—Standoffs, Flashing,
and Rails.............................................................................................. 301
11.12.1 Sketch of Layout in Notebook............................................. 301
11.12.2 Transfer Sketch to Roof........................................................ 302
11.12.3 Attach Standoffs, Flashing, Rails, and AC Cable............. 302
11.12.4 Documenting the Mechanical Subsystem—
Standoffs, Flashing, and Rails Inputs from Roof
Details—Optional.................................................................304
11.13 Installing PV Modules, WEEB Grounding Clips,
Microinverters, and AC Cabling......................................................304
11.13.1 The First Row........................................................................304
11.14 The Installation Map Monitoring System....................................... 307
11.15 Installing Balance of System............................................................ 307
11.16 Lightning and Surge Protection......................................................309
11.17 Installing the Enphase Monitoring System.................................... 309
11.17.1 Connecting the Gateway to Enphase Internet Site.......... 309
11.18 Energizing the System....................................................................... 310
11.19 Activating the System........................................................................ 310
11.20 Certification Testing........................................................................... 310
11.21 Troubleshooting................................................................................. 312
11.21.1 Post-Start-Up LED Indications............................................ 312
Notes............................................................................................................... 312
12 2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with String Inverter....................... 315

12.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 315
12.3 High-Level Design Requirement..................................................... 316
12.4 Setup.................................................................................................... 317
Contents xv
12.5 String Sizing....................................................................................... 317

12.5.1 Resources for Weather Data for the Installation Site....... 317
12.5.2 Checking for Maximum System Voltage........................... 318
12.5.3 Checking for Maximum Operating Temperature
of Inverter............................................................................... 319
12.5.4 Checking for Minimum Start Voltage............................... 319
12.6 Monitoring.......................................................................................... 320
12.7 Four-Line and Single-Line Diagrams for the String Inverter
System.................................................................................................. 321
12.8 Modifying the Mechanical Subsystem........................................... 323
12.9 Attic Penetration................................................................................. 326
12.10 Installing Balance of System............................................................ 326
12.11 Lightning and Surge Protection...................................................... 327
12.12 Installing the TED Monitoring System........................................... 327
12.12.1 Preparing the Main Service Panel...................................... 327
12.12.2 Installing the MTU and Current Transformers................ 328
12.12.3 Installing the Gateway......................................................... 328
12.12.4 Remote Display..................................................................... 329
12.12.5 Footprints Software Setup................................................... 329
12.13 Certification Testing........................................................................... 330
12.14 Troubleshooting................................................................................. 330
Appendix I: Small Mock Roofs........................................................................ 333
Appendix II: Roll-Around Walls..................................................................... 337
Appendix III: 21 ft. by 18 ft. Roof.................................................................... 339
Preface
I have been involved in teaching courses on energy since 2010, principally at

the California community college level. Renewable energy and, in particular,
solar energy are becoming an important part of the science, engineering, and
technology curricula.
My goal in writing this particular book was to educate and train individu-
als seeking a career in the photovoltaics (PV) industry. However, I do not
presume that they would all want to become PV system installers. Therefore,
this book should also prepare those seeking to become system designers,
marketing and sales people, and even those managing engineering docu-
mentation, inventory, permits, and financial documents.
Given this mission, I have decided to present a significant amount of mate-
rial that explains how a PV cell works, how the PV system itself operates, some
solid-state physics, and the nitty-gritty of mechanical and electrical integra-
tion. I believe that achieving an optimum balance was my toughest task.
This laboratory sequence was designed and first offered at the College of
the Canyons in the spring 2012 semester as a one-semester course with 3
hours of lecture per week and 6 hours of laboratory per week. I found that
approach overly ambitious and do not recommend it. I believe that a two-
semester sequence, with approximately 100 contact hours of lecture and 200
contact hours of laboratory, is needed to cover this material.
Perhaps as importantly, this laboratory sequence is the product of 5 years
of my teaching photovoltaics in the California community college system,
including College of the Desert, Pierce College, and Santa Monica College. I
have encountered students of all ages and backgrounds, and I have tried to
keep that diversity in mind as I have developed this book—balancing chal-
lenges with reality.
xvii
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank a number of individuals without whom the spring

2012 course would not have been possible. First and foremost, I want to
thank Brian King, John Willard, and Joseph Ataei, who volunteered their
time and effort in 2011 and 2012. Brian King performed many of the detailed
measurements and calculations, made timely and cogent recommendations,
and proofread much of the work. Brian also spent countless hours offering
math tutoring to other students. John Willard is a computer-aided design
expert, who helped design the “mock roofs” and created Google SketchUp
files for each of the systems. Joseph Ataei is a jack of all trades with an abun-
dance of carpentry skills, general common sense, and good humor. It was
a pleasure to work with these gentlemen and I can only hope they felt the
same way about me.
Kristin Houser, dean of the Career Technical Education division at College
of the Canyons, was instrumental in supporting this PV laboratory develop-
ment with a Department of Energy grant, and Dr. Kathy Alfano’s NSF grant1
afforded me the opportunity to network with other Southern California
community college and high school instructors on a regular basis develop-
ing a renewable energy curriculum. I also benefitted from attending a 2-week
Sustainable Energy Education and Training (SEET) Technology Workshop
in June 2012 in Golden, Colorado. SEET is an annual summer professional
development workshop for energy technology educators and I benefitted not
only from the presentations but also from the opportunity to meet and speak
with other educators developing renewable energy curricula.
But perhaps the most important contributors have been the students them-
selves. From all walks of life—recent high school graduates, returning veter-
ans, architects, contractors, entertainment industry technicians—they took
the course and patiently worked through the kinks as they arose. They made
valuable suggestions and brought to the class valuable outside knowledge.
One case in point was advanced battery systems.
I also want to thank Brian Hurd of Hands-on Solar for his unending sup-
port for me and my educational endeavors. I was on his Industry Advisory
Committee when he taught a pioneering photovoltaics course at the East
Los Angeles Skill Center in 2007–2008, but he has returned that favor 10-fold
over the years.
My wife, Priscilla, demonstrated unusual patience, encouragement, and
fresh perspectives as I worked long hours putting this material together in
2013 and 2014.
xix
xx Acknowledgments
If students and instructors have any comments or suggestions, they can

address them to
Peter T. Parrish, PhD

petertor@pobox.com
1. NSF Award Number: 1002653

Introduction
This textbook comprises 12 chapters, each one representing a well-defined

sequence of measurements and analyses. The laboratory textbook is designed
to be a companion to the photovoltaics lecture sequence covering the sun as a
resource, photovoltaic components, systems, and applications. It is assumed
that the course of study for both sequences is organized into two 18-week
semesters with 3 hours of lecture per week and 6 hours of laboratory per
week. This text is the product of teaching photovoltaics in the California
community college system, including Santa Monica College, Pierce College,
College of the Desert, and College of the Canyons.
The goal is to educate and train individuals who want to make a career
in the photovoltaic industry. However, it is not presumed that they will all
become installers. This course can also prepare system designers, purchas-
ing and inventory managers, those managing permits and processing rebate
applications, and even marketing and sales personnel.
Regardless of the aspirations of those taking this course, I decided to be
guided by three principles
• The laboratory skills would focus on design and installation of code-

compliant systems.
• There would be an emphasis on safety.
• We would use only commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) equipment.
The first guiding principle means that we will refer not only to the elec-
trical codes, but also to fire codes and building codes. Safety includes per-
sonal protective equipment (PPE), power tool safety, and working at heights.
The last guiding principle means that our students will be ready for the real
world when they take their first job in that they will recognize and might
even have direct experience with the equipment they used in our lab. It also
means that they will not work with trainers, although these instruments
have their merits.
The first chapter is all about safety, including PPE and safe practices. Then
there are two chapters on trade math and on circuit theory and measure-
ment. A separate chapter is devoted to the site survey. Then there are two
chapters on mechanical integration and electrical integration. A very impor-
tant chapter deals with characterization of PV modules, including optional
material on a model for the PV cell.
The second half of the textbook is devoted to designing, installing, and
testing four different PV systems—two off-grid and two grid-tied. One of
the off-grid systems has only DC loads; the other is a mix of DC and AC
xxi
xxii Introduction
loads. The two grid-tied systems are based on the same PV array and roof
structure, but one system uses a string inverter and the other uses microin-
verters. Each employs different monitoring systems.
I require the students to use a field notebook to record the majority of their
measurements, observations, sketches, and calculations, and I recommend
the Ampad #22-156 notebook. This notebook is one of the most durable I have
been able to find. The paper is 100% rag, 8½ in. by 11 in., and quad ruled; it
has a sewn-in binding and a pressboard cover. I can testify that this note-
book will survive a drop into a swimming pool and, as long as the ink used
was indelible (I recommend pencil), it could be put back into service, or, at
the very least, the contents would be salvageable.
Students are also required to purchase a minimum of personal protective
equipment (PPE) prior to taking this course: work gloves and OSHA-approved
eye protection (glasses or goggles).
On the other hand, I made the decision to purchase protective helmets
as a class-furnished item. This was done to reduce the amount of material
students had to purchase, but also because I thought that this item might
not be used in the future beyond the course as frequently as gloves and
protective eyewear.
Finally, I also chose to standardize on the Casio fx-260 solar calculator for
the class, although there are other perfectly good calculators from Texas
Instruments, Hewlett Packard, and others. I have used Hewlett Packard cal-
culators with reverse polish notation for the past 30 years. This calculator
sells for $9 at many office stores or online. Here is what I tell my students: “I
recommend the Casio fx-260 solar calculator and if you purchase one for use
in this class (or a calculator with essentially the same interface), I will make
every attempt to help you master its use. If you are comfortable with another
style calculator, that is fine.”
Some administrators might object to the additional cost of $35 for these
items. I disagree.
Because this is a hands-on laboratory sequence, we have designed and
built three different types of mock roofs. These three roofs support composi-
tion asphalt shingle, flat concrete tile, and one-piece S-tile. I recommend that
two of each type be built. These three roof types cover 95% of the residential
roofs in Southern California and permit the student to work with racking
systems of the appropriate type. Appendix I covers the design and fabrica-
tion of these small mock roofs. A fourth roof—a full-up code-compliant 12
ft. by 22 ft. roof with a 3:12 pitch—was used in conjunction with the 2.4 kW
grid-tied system and is covered in Appendix III. Appendix II covers a “roll
around wall” that allows the integration of PV system components that are
normally hung on a wall, such as inverters and switches.
Appendices I, II, and III come with complete SketchUp files, photographs of
finished labs, and a short commentary describing the finer points of putting the
mockups together. Someone with basic carpentry skills and access to a lumber
supply house should be able to fabricate these mock roofs within 2 weeks.
Introduction xxiii
Although our spring 2012 laboratory included only a grid-tied system

using microinverters, a more complete laboratory sequence should also
include a grid-tied system using string inverters. I have included a chapter
on both.
One of the key components of this laboratory sequence is the training on
appropriate hardware and techniques for attaching brackets and flashing for
the three supported roof types. Another important roof type is raised-seam
metal roofing. Time did not permit us to develop training on standing-seam
metal roofs. The following is a list of the laboratory modules supported:
Chapter 1: Safety
Chapter 2: Trade math for photovoltaics
Chapter 3: Measurements of DC electrical circuits
Chapter 4: Site survey and shading analysis
Chapter 5: Asphalt shingle roofs, flat concrete tile, and one-piece S-tile
roofs
Chapter 6: Characterization of a PV module
Chapter 7: Modeling PV cells, modules, and arrays
Chapter 8: Characterization of an AGM lead-acid battery
Chapter 9: Off-grid system: DC loads only
Chapter 10: Off-grid system: DC and AC loads
Chapter 11: Grid-tied system: 2.4 kW DC with microinverters
Chapter 12: Grid-tied system: 2.4 kW DC with string inverters
To cover all 12 of these chapters in two standard 18-week semesters is the

second major challenge. Each of the 18 weeks needs to have a full 6 contact-
hours lab.
The third challenge has to do with class size. For a successful course, there
needs to be enough tools and instruments so that every student can have
an appropriate hands-on experience. To ensure that each student receives
a minimum level of individualized attention, I recommend that class size
should be limited to 16 students, organized into teams of 4 students each. A
total of 12 students might actually be ideal.
In most cases there needs to be one set of everything for each team.
However, there are exceptions. In Lab 6, only two mock roofs are needed for
each roof type (total of six), as the teams can rotate through the different roof
types within two 6-hour periods. The first time this chapter was taught, we
had only one of each roof type and this produced a significant bottleneck.
The first time we taught labs 8 and 9 we only had one setup each. This cre-
ated another bottleneck. I suggest that two setups be created for each of these
two labs and that the four teams rotate through the four sets.
xxiv Introduction
Considering all that has been discussed, I strongly recommend that the
instructor have an assistant present for every 6-hour laboratory and that this
assistant spend an additional 6 hours per week preparing for the weekly
laboratories. This level of effort does not include the building of mock roofs.
How to Use This Textbook
As mentioned in the preface, this laboratory textbook is designed to be used

in a two-semester sequence on photovoltaics. It is assumed that the lecture
portion of the course is contemporaneous with the laboratory, and that both
sequences span 18-week semesters with 3 hours of lecture and 6 hours of
laboratory per week.
Since much of the theory of photovoltaics will be covered in the lecture
sequence, the laboratory can focus on the practical side—understanding the
components that make up a PV system as well as the design, fabrication, test-
ing, and troubleshooting of these PV systems.
This laboratory textbook comprises 12 chapters, each one representing a
well-defined sequence of measurements, design exercises, and analyses.
In several chapters I have included advanced material. Indeed, the whole of
Chapter 7—“Modeling the PV Cell, Module, and Array”—may be consid-
ered advanced. These sections of several chapters and the whole of Chapter 7
may be omitted without affecting the continuity of the course. The advanced
material is designed for the student at a 4-year institution where a more in-
depth understanding of certain topics is desirable. Another good example
of this is the material at the end of Chapter 6, “Characterization of a PV
Module,” where I have included measurements that demonstrate nonideal
behavior of PV modules.
With the exception of the advanced material, I believe that most of the
other material needs to be covered. Specifically, some of the earlier chapters
on mechanical attachment and electrical interconnection are key to the later
chapters on design and installation.
Dealing with the large number of roof types is one of the challenges for this
laboratory sequence. The asphalt shingle roof is probably the most prevalent
roof in the United States, and this is a natural choice for the first exercise on
attaching PV systems to roofs. The prevalence of other roof types tends to be
regional, with one-piece S-tile and concrete tile roofs being very prevalent
throughout the entire Southwest. Low-slope roofs, which can be defined as
having a pitch of less than 1 in 12, tend to be avoided in regions with high
rates of precipitation (1 in. per hour) and high annual precipitation (more
than 30 in. per year). We have chosen three roof types: composition shingle,
one-piece S-tile, and flat concrete tile.
If some material must be cut, I would recommend that the sections on
attaching PV systems on different roof types be pared down to two types:
the asphalt composition shingle and either the one-piece S-tile or the flat
concrete tile.
Each chapter begins with its own short introduction, followed by a set of
student learning objectives. The needed tools and equipment are listed.
xxv
xxvi How to Use This Textbook
Completed examples are frequently discussed prior to the section detail-

ing the laboratory work required of the students.
Reading these prefatory sections should be assigned as homework in prep-
aration for the laboratory itself.
Many of the chapters contain work areas where the results of measure-
ments and computations can be recorded. However, in the more design-ori-
ented chapters, the students will be required to make sketches and record
observations in a field notebook.
As much as practical, actual student work is broken down into discrete
steps, with each step prefaced by a check box. Performing each step and
checking off the work when completed would seem a natural way of guid-
ing the student through the laboratory.
This book comes with four files that can be downloaded from the CRC
website [www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781482244434]. The first three
files are CAD files in Google SketchUp (.skp) format. The fourth file is a
spreadsheet that can be used to estimate energy consumption for a house-
hold. The following is a list of the four files and their functionality:
• Small_mock_roofs.skp. This CAD file describes the small roof sec-

tion, based on a single sheet of 3/4" 4' × 8' plywood and 6" × 6" “raf-
ters.” This small mock roof can be used to install a single 250 W-class
module or a couple of 120 W-class modules. See Appendix A for
more details.
• Roll-around_Walls.skp. This CAD file describes a vertical “roll-
around” 4' × 8' double sided platform. This roll-around is big enough
to mount an entire PV system (save for the PV modules). In fact,
the two PV systems in Chapters 9 through 11 can be mounted on a
roll-around.
• Roof_No_1_PV_no_dim.skp. This CAD file describes the full-up
18' × 21' mock roof on 15 casters. The roof has a 3/4" plywood under-
layment, and comes with a professional engineer’s report attesting
to its ability to support a typical 2,400 W PV system, with either a
string inverter or micro-inverters. It is the roof used in Chapters 12
and 13.
• load_profile_calc.xlsx. This file contains a list of the frequently
encountered appliances in a household: HVAC, refrigerator, stove,
microwave oven, computers/TVs, printers, fax machines lighting (all
types of wattages). There is a place in the spreadsheet for power con-
sumption and average number of hours the appliance is “on” during
a day. This spreadsheet is used in Chapters 9 through 12.
The Author
Peter Parrish is an adjunct professor in the Earth Science Department at

Santa Monica College. He is teaching an introductory course on photovol-
taics as well as a course on photovoltaics technical sales. He also teaches
a course in renewable energy at Cerritos College. For the past 6 years Dr.
Parrish has been deeply involved in the development of curricula and teach-
ing in the renewable energy field. He has taught courses at Pierce College,
Woodland Hills, California; College of the Desert, Palm Springs, California;
and College of the Canyons, Santa Clarita, California, where he developed
their solar programs and chaired the Alternative Energy and Transportation
Technology Department. He is an avid champion of “hands-on” laboratories
for renewable energy—in particular, photovoltaics.
He received his BS degree in physics, magna cum laude, from the
University of Colorado, and his PhD in solid-state physics from the University
of California, Berkeley. After receiving his PhD, he joined the faculty at the
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, helping develop ultra low-noise
receivers for 100 GHz radio astronomy. He also served as a consultant at
MIT Lincoln Laboratories, Lexington, Massachusetts, researching low-noise
detectors for 230 GHz applications. During that period of time, he also held
adjunct faculty positions at Northeastern University, Boston, and Drexel
University, Philadelphia. Dr. Parrish spent approximately 15 years develop-
ing high-frequency models for GaAs transistors and integrated circuits for
applications in the 10 to 230 GHz frequency range and another 5 years devel-
oping models for 10–100 GB/s fiber optic components and networks.
He is the author or coauthor of over 75 refereed and invited articles in
the fields of low-temperature physics, electrical engineering, astrophysics,
simulation science, and software development. Dr. Parrish is a member
of the IEEE, American Solar Energy Society, and California Solar Energy
Industries Association (CalSEIA). He is a certified PV professional (certifi-
cation #031806-26), through the North American Board of Certified Energy
Practitioners (NABCEP™).
xxvii
1
Safety1
1.1 Introduction
This laboratory will cover the aspects of working outdoors with emphasis
on extreme weather conditions, personal protective equipment (PPE), power
tool safety, working at heights, electrical safety, carrying and lifting, and
some other general safety guidelines. This chapter is NOT a substitute for
an Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 10 construction
safety course, and students are strongly advised to take an OSHA 10 course
as well as a first aid and CPR course offered by qualified providers. Students
are encouraged to download and review the OSHA safety publications cited
at the end of this chapter.
1.2 Student Learning Objectives

At the end of this lab the student will be able to
• Appraise a job situation and take appropriate measures to mitigate

adverse safety conditions related to heat stress, including dressing
appropriately for different outdoor environments
• Recognize symptoms of heat stress and respond appropriately
• Appraise working conditions at heights
• Demonstrate proper use of extension ladders
• Implement fall prevention and fall protection procedures employing
appropriate equipment
• Identify and understand electrical hazards and how to mitigate them
• Identify and properly use appropriate personal protective equipment
1
2 Photovoltaic Laboratory
1.3 Working in Extreme Weather Conditions

In California, we have the full gamut of extreme weather with the exception
of tropical storms. The tallest peak is Mt. Whitney, at 4,421 m (14,505 ft.),
and the lowest point is Badwater Basin in Death Valley at –82 m (–282 ft.).
Furthermore, Furnace Creek in Death Valley holds the record for the highest
recorded temperature on the face of the Earth at 56.7°C (134°F). I personally
find it remarkable that Mt. Whitney and Badwater Basin are only 210 km (131
mi.) apart.
More germane to the topic of extreme weather is the fact that some of the
best sites for photovoltaic (PV) systems in the United States are in the Mojave
Desert and neighboring “high desert” areas. The annual insolation for the
high desert is approximately 7.6 kWh/m2/day. The average high temperature
for Barstow, California in July is 41°C (105°F), while average daytime low tem-
perature is 3°C (37°F). In addition to these temperature extremes, the high des-
ert also has very low humidity and can experience wind gusts to 70 km/h
(43 mi./h) during summer afternoons. To prepare for temperature extremes,
low humidity, and occasional high winds is a significant safety challenge.
The first step in addressing this challenge is to employ appropriate cloth-
ing for the climate and time of year. The second step is to understand the
hazards associated with extreme heat and cold, and to mitigate them to a
point where the hazards are manageable. The third step is to recognize heat
stress symptoms and take appropriate action.
1.3.1 The Hot, Dry Climate

Appropriate clothing includes long-sleeved, light-colored shirts (Figure 1.1)
and long pants, headgear, and sunblock.
Since the mornings can be as cool as 5°C (50°F) in the summer, a second
layer of clothing, such as an insulated vest or a fleece jacket, is a good idea.
Hats with broad brims and a “cape” to cover the ears and neck are a good
choice. See Figure 1.2 as an example. In windy areas, a chin strap will keep
your hat on your head. Some installers who spend most of their time on the
roof like to use knee pads, which in addition to being comfortable provide
some insulation from the heat of the roof.
I recommend the use of sneakers, which provide ventilation and tend to
cause less damage to asphalt and tile roofs. The sneakers shown in Figure 1.3
have ventilation panels and a sturdy rubber front toe. The only drawback is
a slightly aggressive tread. Workers on the ground are advised to use work
boots, which provide some ankle support and protect the feet in rough ter-
rain. Steel-toed work boots are advisable if workers are involved in moving
or carrying heavy objects.
Safety 3
FIGURE 1.1
A lightweight, light-colored, long-sleeve shirt is the best choice for hot, dry climates.
FIGURE 1.2
A cap with a cape will protect the head, ears, and neck (Torrey Hat, courtesy of the Village Hat
Shop).
1.3.2 The Cold Climate

Appropriate clothing can start with the preceding choices, but should also
include a fully insulated top garment (e.g.,  parka); a rainproof, ventilated outer
garment with hood; wool cap; insulated gloves; and warm socks. Ventilation
is still important to make sure that body perspiration can be wicked away
from the body and vented and not condense on the inner garments.
One of the best places to purchase appropriate clothing for extreme climates
is—not surprisingly—a US outdoor retailer such a REI, L. L. Bean, or Big 5.
FIGURE 1.3
Sneakers designed for hiking and backpacking will provide ankle support and ventilation
and will outlast those designed for racquet sports or cross training.
1.4 Understanding Heat Stress

To begin, we need to understand risk factors and types of heat illness, which
include heat exhaustion, heat stroke, dehydration, hypothermia, and frostbite.
The causes of heat exhaustion and heat stroke are the following:
• High ambient temperatures

• Low wind speed
• Radiant heat sources (such as a roof)
• High humidity
• Strenuous physical activity
In the absence of illness causing fever, vomiting, or diarrhea the cause of

dehydration is quite simple:
• The body is using up more water through breathing, sweating, and

urination than water is being taken in.
The causes of hypothermia and frostbite are generally the same and include
the following
• Cold ambient temperatures, especially accompanied by wind

• Dampness and water
• Rain, sleet, or snow
• Wind
• Contact with cold surfaces
Safety 5
1.4.1 Heat Exhaustion—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses

It is important to be able to recognize heat exhaustion in yourself and in
your co-workers. The latter case is extremely important for supervisors. The
symptoms of heat exhaustion include the following:
• Headache, nausea, dizziness, weakness (self-diagnosis)

• Irritability, confusion, slow/slurred speech (supervisor responsibility)
• Heavy sweating
• Cramps
• Flushed face
• Heat rash
If you develop one or more of these symptoms or recognize them in a co-

worker, you should respond as follows:
• If on a roof, remove worker immediately to ground level.

• Move to a cool, shady area.
• Provide water to drink.
• Alert supervisor.
• Call 911 if symptoms do not improve or worsen.
• Do not return worker to work on that job site that day.
1.4.2 Heat Stroke—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses

Heat stroke is a much more severe condition than heat exhaustion and can
lead to death if not recognized and treated quickly. The symptoms of heat
stroke include the following:
• Sweating stops
• Confusion
• Loss of consciousness
• Seizures
If you recognize one or more of these symptoms in a co-worker, you should

respond as follows:
• Call 911 immediately.
• Move worker to cool, shady area.
• Remove extra clothing, loosen remaining clothing, remove shoes,
apply cold packs/cold water, provide water to drink.
1.4.3 Dehydration—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses

Moderate symptoms of dehydration include:
• Increased thirst
• Dry mouth, swollen tongue
• Decreased urine output
• Dry skin
• Headache
• Dizziness or lightheadedness
Severe symptoms of dehydration include:
• Extreme thirst
• Irritability and confusion
• Very dry mouth, skin, and mucous membranes
• Lack of sweating
• Little or no urination
• Sunken eyes
• Shriveled and dry skin that lacks elasticity
• Low blood pressure
• Rapid heartbeat
• Rapid breathing
• Fever
• Delirium or unconsciousness
If you recognize one or more of these symptoms in a co-worker, you should

respond as follows:
• If on a roof, remove worker immediately to ground level.

• Move to a cool, shady area.
• Provide cool water to drink.
• Sports drinks containing electrolytes, and a carbohydrate solution
also may be helpful.
• There is no need for salt tablets.
• Call 911, if symptoms do not improve or worsen.
• Do not return the worker to work on that job site that day.
Safety 7
1.4.4 Hypothermia—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses

Hypothermia symptoms include:
• Cold, pale/blue-gray skin

• Shivering
• Lack of interest, coordination, or concern (apathy)
• Poor judgment
• Mild unsteadiness in balance or walking
• Slurred speech
• Numb hands and fingers and problems performing tasks
If you recognize one or more of these hypothermia symptoms in a co-

worker, you should respond as follows:
• Move worker to a warm area.

• Keep worker active.
• Remove and replace any wet clothing.
Severe symptoms of hypothermia include:
• Trunk of the body cold to the touch

• Muscles becoming stiff
• Slow pulse
• Shallow, slow breathing
• Weakness or sleepiness
• Confusion
• Loss of consciousness
• Shivering, which may stop if body temperature drops below 90°F
• A body temperature of 85°F or less, which may render a worker
unconscious
• A body temperature of 78°F or less, which may result in death
If you recognize one or more of these severe hypothermia symptoms in a

co-worker, you should additionally respond as follows:
• Call 911 immediately.
1.4.5 Frostbite—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses

Frostbite is a serious condition and is better considered an injury rather than
an illness. Hypothermia may accompany frostbite. Frostbite typically affects
the smaller and more exposed body parts: nose, ears, fingers, and toes.
Frostbite occurs when the skin and body tissue directly beneath the skin
freeze and lose water. The skin color turns red, then purple, and then white
and is cold to the touch. If frostbite is not recognized and treated promptly
and appropriately, the result may be permanent damage to the affected body
parts. The symptoms of frostbite are as follows:
• Cold skin
• Numbness
• Pale skin
• Hardened skin
If you recognize one or more of these frostbite symptoms in yourself or a

co-worker, you should respond as follows:
• Remove worker to a warmer, less exposed area.

• Protect the affected skin from further exposure.
• Call supervisor.
• Call 911.
• Gradually warm the affected part using warm water (104°F–107°F).
• Tuck frostbitten fingers into the armpits.
• Cover affected areas with blankets or other insulating clothing.
• Do not use direct heat (e.g., heat lamps) and do not rub affected parts.
• Do not walk on frostbitten toes or use hands with frostbitten fingers.
Frostbite must be treated by a physician as soon as possible. If it is not

treated promptly and appropriately, the result may be permanent damage to
the affected body part and may require surgery or even amputation of por-
tions of toes and fingers in severe cases.
1.4.6 Preventing Heat or Cold Stress

The best course of action is to prevent heat or cold stress and this is facilitated
by training. Preventative training includes being made aware of the causes of
heat stress and how to reduce worker exposure to the risk factors. The gen-
eral techniques include the following:
Safety 9
• Avoid working in extreme weather; examples include:

• Start a forecasted hot day early in the morning (6:00 a.m.) and
quit early (2:00 p.m.).
• Do not work during heavy rain, sleet, or snow or high winds.
• During hot weather:
• Work in the shade, if possible.
• Wear light-colored clothing, long-sleeved shirts, and head gear.
• During cold weather:
• Wear layered clothing.
• Protect the head, ears, nose, fingers, and toes.
• Take work breaks every 2 hours.
• In all circumstances, provide fluids.
1.5 General Safety Training

According to estimates from the Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses
(SOII) conducted by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), each year there
are 3.4 cases of significant injury per 100 equivalent full-time workers.
The US BLS (2005) states that there were 12 fatal injuries a day in the con-
struction industry.
According to a BLS report (2009), the leading causes of death in construc-
tion are as follows:
• Falls (34%), of which 33% were from roofs and another 16% from
ladders
• Transportation injuries
• Being struck by objects and equipment
• Electrocution (9%) due principally to contact with overhead power
lines, contact with energized sources (e.g., live parts, damaged or
bare wires), and improper use of extension and flexible cords
It is highly recommended that anyone who plans to work outside on a

regular basis (whether an installer, supervisor, site surveyor, Q/A personnel,
or troubleshooter) or who works in a warehouse or similar environment
take an OSHA 10 training course and a combination of first aid and CPR
training. OSHA 10 training is offered by many organizations and can
be taken online for as little as $75. First aid/CPR is also offered by many
organizations, including the Red Cross and colleges, and is often highly
subsidized or is free.
The North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners (NABCEP™)
now requires OSHA 10 construction training for all of its installer and PV
technical sales certificates.
1.6 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

1.6.1 Eye Protection and Gloves
All members of this laboratory are required to purchase and use eyewear
and gloves. Eyewear, either glasses or goggles (for those wearing prescrip-
tion glasses), needs to be OSHA approved. OSHA-approved eyewear is avail-
able at Grangers and many other supply stores and can be purchased for as
little as $5 to $10. Gloves can be leather or synthetic fabric, with the latter
slightly more comfortable when using hand tools and assembling equip-
ment. Students should find a brand that is comfortable for them. Gloves can
be found at many stores, including The Home Depot, for as little as $6 or $7.
In addition, hard hats should be used to protect from head impact, pen-
etration injuries, and electrical injuries due to the following hazards:
• Falling or flying objects

• Fixed, sharp objects
• Contact with electrical conductors
1.6.2 Protective Helmets (a/k/a Hard Hats)

OSHA states that “employees shall wear protective helmets when working in
areas where there is a potential for injury to the head from falling objects” and
that “protective helmets designed to reduce electrical shock hazard shall be
worn by each such affected employee when near exposed electrical conductors
which could contact the head” (29 Code of Federal Regulations 1910.35 and
1926.100). The classifications for hard hats include “type” and “class”:
• Type I helmets provide protection from blows to the top of the head.
• Type II helmets provide protection from blows to both the top and
sides of the head.
• Class G (general) helmets are proof tested at 2,200 V.
• Class E (electrical) helmets are proof tested at 20,000 V.
• Class C (conductive) provide no electrical insulation.
Safety 11
Work on a roof involving the installation of PV modules in proximity to an

overhead electrical service feed of 2,200 V or less should use hard hats rated
type II and class G. The same applies to workers on the ground working
near or on live electrical circuits. Workers with no exposure to live electrical
circuits should use hard hats rated type II. Hard hats will be provided for the
students for all work in our PV installation laboratory.
1.6.3 Aprons
Aprons will be provided for students when hazardous liquids such as bat-
tery acid are used.
1.6.4 Footwear
As mentioned before, appropriate footwear depends on the working condi-
tions: sneakers on the roof, work boots on the ground. Work boots with steel
toes are strongly recommended when moving or carrying objects weighing
more than 11 kg (25 lb.)
1.7 Working at Heights

OSHA has very specific guidelines regarding working at heights:
Each employee on a walking/working surface (horizontal or vertical

surface) with an unprotected side or edge which is 1.8 m (6 feet) or more
above a lower level shall be protected from falling by the use of guard-
rail systems, safety net systems, or personal fall arrest systems. (OSHA
1926.501(b)(1,2,3,4)
In California, the height specification is 2.3 m (7.5 ft.).

There are two approaches to fall hazards: fall prevention and fall protec-
tion. Fall prevention prevents people from reaching the fall hazard by creating
a barrier (e.g., guardrail) between the person and the fall hazard. Fall protec-
tion includes customized personal protective equipment (safety harnesses,
lanyards, tie-off points, safety nets) that can prevent the worker from reaching
the hazard and thus arresting a fall in progress.
In our lab we will work at less than 1.8 m or we will employ ladders or
guardrail systems (see following).
Ladders represent the most frequent opportunity to work at heights. There
are a variety of ladder types, construction, and working loads. Setting up
and taking down a ladder is usually the responsibility of the person who is
going to use the ladder and, as such, ladders differ from guardrail systems,
scaffolding, safety nets, and safety barriers.
1.7.1 Safety Barriers

Safety barriers prevent a worker from reaching a hazardous area. They
should be complemented by signage that warns the worker about the hazard
and makes it clear that the worker should not approach the hazard.
1.7.2 Guardrail Systems

Guardrail systems are made up of vertical rails, top rails, mid rails, and
toe boards. See Figure 1.4. They are designed to keep workers from getting
too close to the leading edge of a roof. They must be 42 in. (±3 in.) above
the walking/working level and must be able to withstand a sideways force
of at least 200 lb. as applied 2 in. from its top edge. Additionally, it must
be able to withstand a downward force of 150 lb. or in any other direction.
Intermediate vertical members, between posts, must be no more than 19
in. apart.
1.7.3 Safety Netting

Safety netting is used to catch a fallen worker. See Figure 1.5. There are spe-
cific instructions as to the deployment of safety netting and testing condi-
tions. Information on safety netting is beyond the scope of this class, but can
be found in OSHA publications.
Top Rail: Shall be 42 inches

(plus or minus 3 inches) above walking/working
Posts: 8 feet level and support a 200 lb force.
centers (maximum)
Mid Rail: Shall be installed between the top rail
and walking/working surface (generally, 21
inches) and support a 150 lb force.
Toe Boards: Shall be 3 ½ inches high and

support a 50 lb force.
FIGURE 1.4
A guardrail must be designed to withstand considerable side and top forces.
Safety 13
FIGURE 1.5
Safety netting (Courtesy of University of California, San Diego).
1.7.4 Personal Fall Arrest: Body Harnesses

The use of body harnesses and related hardware is the standard approach
to arresting falls. See Figure 1.6. There are four components that make up a
fall arrest system based on body harnesses: anchor point or tie-off point, the
body harness itself, lifeline connecting the harness to the tie-off point, and
suspension trauma safety straps (stirrups).
The anchor point for pitched residential roofs is usually a plate with clear-
ance holes for attachment to the roof and a large “D-ring.” See Figure 1.7.
There is a companion D-ring on the harness and these two D-rings are
connected together by the lifeline. The lifeline should incorporate a shock-
absorbing lanyard, which tears out and reduces the maximum force experi-
enced during a fall.
After a fall the involved worker will experience “suspension trauma” due
to the pressure that straps at the bottom of the harness exert on the crotch.
Pressure on the femoral artery causes blood to be trapped in the legs, reduc-
ing the volume of blood circulating through the body. This trapped blood
rapidly loses oxygen and accumulates toxins, which need elimination by the
kidneys, and the heart and lungs may experience difficulty dealing with this
“dirty blood” once the pressure is relieved and the blood is circulated through
the rest of the body. I recommend the use of suspension trauma safety straps,
which are contained in pouches attached to the harness at the hips and can
FIGURE 1.6
A safety harness should be worn whenever there is risk of falling from heights (Courtesy of
University of California, San Diego).
FIGURE 1.7
The anchor plate needs to be fastened to a structural member such as a rafter, using the manu-
facturer’s installation instructions (Courtesy of Werner Company).
Safety 15
FIGURE 1.8
Strrups (a/k/a suspension trauma safety straps) are a simple addition to a body harness and
prevent the stress-related effects of a fall.
be deployed after a fall. Each of these straps usually has two loops that can
be stepped in, relieving pressure on the femoral artery while waiting to be
rescued. The student in Figure 1.8 can be seen using stirrups to good effect.
1.7.5 Rescue Plan

Even with a well-designed fall protection system employing a body harness
with suspension trauma safety straps, it is imperative to have a fall rescue
plan: You need to know how to rescue yourself or have someone else rescue
you promptly.
It is beyond the scope of this class to describe, let alone instruct in, the area
of rescues, self or assisted. There are “self-rescue” methods, including rap-
pelling and assisted general methods using pulleys and tackle. Included in
the handouts for this laboratory is an excellent article published by the state
of Washington, titled “Fall Protection, Responding to Emergencies” (F417-

208-000).2 A section on rescues includes six different rescue techniques.
Nonetheless, as part of studying this chapter, each student will be fitted
with a safety harness and will experience a “fall” by stepping off a step lad-
der. The student will deploy and use stirrups—technically called “suspen-
sion trauma safety straps”—to take the stress off the crotch. During class,
this stress will be discussed in some detail, including the maximum time
an individual can remain suspended by a harness without lanyards. We will
discuss the need for a rescue plan in addition to a safety plan.
1.7.6 Ladders and Ladder Safety

Falls from portable ladders (step, straight, combination, and extension) are
one of the leading causes of occupational fatalities and injuries. Figure 1.9
depicts two setup rules. The first rule requires that the ladder be tilted at
approximately 75°. At this angle, the ratio of the distance from the ground
to the top support to the distance of the setback of the ladder from vertical
should be 4:1. The second rule requires that the ladder extend 3 ft. above the
edge of the roof. Ladders with fiberglass rails have become the norm; they
generally weather well and are nonconductive. Other commonsense guide-
lines include the following:
3' min
h = Height to point
of support
h
I = Overhang
distance
I h/4
FIGURE 1.9
Proper setup for an extension ladder includes angle with respect to the ground and extension
above the roofline.
Safety 17
• Read the complete ladder manual.

• Do not exceed the maximum load rating of a ladder.
• Inspect ladder before use.
• Use a ladder only on a level and stable surface.
• Ladders should be tied-in to prevent their movement. This can be
done by attaching the ladder to the eaves using an eye-bolt, or some
sort of secure blocking where the ladder contacts the horizontal
surface.
Always maintain a “three-point contact” (two hands and a foot or two feet
and a hand) with the ladder when climbing a ladder. This rules out carrying
anything in your hand(s) while climbing a ladder. Gear can be hoisted up to the
roof using rope, or a small backpack can be used. Refer to the OSHA Portable
Ladder Quick Card for more information.3
1.8 Electrical Safety

Almost all of the work in this laboratory will be performed on unenergized
circuits. We will, however, use electrical tools and there will be times when
live circuits are present. In addition, in the construction industry, overhead
power lines and energized circuits are the norm, so it is extremely important
that students be trained in the recognition of electrical hazards and power
tool safety. There are three general types of electrical hazards: burns, shock,
and electrocution (death).
1.8.1 Overhead Power Lines

Assume at all times that overhead power lines are energized. Stay at least
3 m (10 ft.) from a power line, especially on a roof.
1.8.2 Operating Electrical Equipment

Before using, make sure that all electrical equipment is in good working
order. Look for frayed power cords and extension cords and damaged strain
relief fittings. All cords should be of the three-wire type and designated for
“hard usage” or greater). Use ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) on 120
V, single phase 15 and 20A receptacles, and when working in damp locations.
Use double-insulated tools wherever possible.
Electrical equipment must be repaired by a qualified and authorized indi-
vidual. Never operate electrical equipment while standing in water.
When installing or servicing equipment with live circuits it is recom-

mended that a full face shield be considered, as this type of protection
mitigates the hazards of arc-flash to a greater degree than safety glasses or
goggles. In addition, specialized rubber gloves should be used as well as
insulated tools such as screwdrivers and pliers. These gloves, rated for elec-
trical work, are mandatory when working around live electrical circuits with
voltages exceeding 50 V. They should be purchased from a reputable electri-
cal distributor such as CED and should be clearly marked as rated to 1000
V. Look for markings to indicate that these gloves meet ASTM D 120, IEC
EN60903, NFPA 70E1 standards. The gloves will cost in the neighborhood of
$100. They should be stored in a cool place away from sunlight and should be
replaced as often as once a year or when showing any wear, a tear, or a hole.
If there is any concern about live circuits, the best technique is to de-ener-
gize the circuit by means of disconnection accompanied by lockout and
tag-out mechanisms (see following). One can also use a noncontacting alter-
nating current (AC) voltage sensor.
1.9 Moving and Carrying Heavy Objects

Generally speaking, workers moving heavy objects should use specialized
equipment such as dollies, hand trucks, wheelbarrows, and carts. A single
worker should avoid lifting or carrying objects weighing more than 23 kg
(50 lb.). When lifting a heavy object, a worker should bend his or her knees,
keep his or her back upright, and lift the object straight up from directly in
front of or between the feet.
1.10 Roofs and Attics

Roofs can be 15°C hotter than ambient temperature due to heating from
sunlight. The roof then reradiates in the infrared, adding to the direct solar
radiation experienced by a worker.
Perhaps the most extreme environment regularly encountered is an unventi-
lated attic space. I have personally recorded an attic temperature of 60°C (140°F)
in a 7:12 Tudor-style roof on a sunny summer day in Los Angeles. I was in the
process of installing three solar-powered attic fans. I restricted my working
time to 30 minutes at a time. After 4 hours in this attic space, all of my clothes
were completely soaked and my tennis shoes were filled with sweat.
Students should be particularly careful when working on rooftops or in
attics, monitoring each other and making sure that everyone is hydrated.
Safety 19
1.11 Lockout/Tagout
Lockout/tagout (LOTO) is an important safety procedure to ensure that dan-
gerous equipment is turned off and not activated until work is completed.
Specifically, LOTO is followed when installing, repairing, or replacing PV sys-
tems. It is also applied generally to electrical systems and dangerous machinery.
It is a less well known fact that LOTO is also a recommended practice in the
plumbing industry and when securing equipment such as backhoes and graders.
The kit shown in Figure 1.10 includes scissors clamps with multiple padlock
holes, four padlocks, tags, and specialty items such as lockouts for electrical
breakers. All affected parties place their own padlocks on the hasp and keep
the key. Only when all parties agree that the work has been completed are all
of the locks removed. This procedure is usually accompanied by a written log
including a clear recitation of the procedures involved and the entities involved.
The scissors clamp shown in Figure 1.11 has room for six padlocks. It can
be attached directly to the hasp on a piece of equipment or it can be used to
secure a cable.
The LOTO device shown in Figure 1.12 is locking out a single breaker in a
service panel while work is being performed on the branch circuit.
The LOTO device shown in Figure 1.13 is locking out a disconnect switch.
FIGURE 1.10
LOTO kit (Courtesy of Lockout Tagout Safety).
FIGURE 1.11
LOTO scissors clamp (Courtesy of Lockout Tagout Safety).
FIGURE 1.12
LOTO circuit breaker lockout (Courtesy of Lockout Tagout Safety).
Safety 21
FIGURE 1.13
LTO disconnect lockout (Courtesy of Lockout Tagout Safety).
1.12 Safety Posters

We have prominently displayed a total of eight safety posters on the walls of
the solar laboratory. See Figure 1.14. Each of them covers an important topic
regarding photovoltaic installation. They include the following:
• Code of Safe Practices—Figure 1.15

• Heat Stress—Protecting Yourself in the Sun—Figure 1.16
• Safe Lifting Practices, Slips, Trips and Falls—Figure 1.17
• Emergency First Aid—Figure 1.18
• Lockout/Tagout—Figure 1.19
• Forklift (Federal or California)—Figure 1.20
• Personal Protective Equipment—Figure 1.21
• Portable Power Tools Safety and Use—Figure 1.22
FIGURE 1.14
Wall-mounted safety posters (From the All in One Poster Company, Buena Park, CA, sales@
allinoneposters.com).
These posters are reproduced in the following pages. The following OSHA
and NIOSH sources should be printed out and maintained as references:
• OSHA occupational heat exposure

• http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/heatstress/heat_illnesses.html
• Heat exposure worksite posters
• http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/heatstress/heat_illnesses.html
• OSHA Quick Card
• http://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3154.pdf
• NIOSH heat stress
• http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/heatstress/
• Heat stroke
• http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/first-aid-heatstroke/FA00019
• Cold stress
• http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/emergencypreparedness/guides/
cold.html
Safety 23
FIGURE 1.15
Code of safe practices (From the All in One Poster Company, Buena Park, CA, sales@allinone
posters.com).
FIGURE 1.16
Heat stress—protecting yourself in the sun (From the All in One Poster Company, Buena Park,
CA, sales@allinoneposters.com).
Safety 25
FIGURE 1.17
Safe lifting practices; slips, trips, and falls (From the All in One Poster Company, Buena Park,
CA, sales@allinoneposters.com).
FIGURE 1.18
Emergency first aid (From the All in One Poster Company, Buena Park, CA, sales@allinone
posters.com).
Safety 27
FIGURE 1.19
Lockout/tagout (From the All in One Poster Company, Buena Park, CA, sales@allinoneposters
.com).
FIGURE 1.20
Forklift (federal or California) (From the All in One Poster Company, Buena Park, CA, sales@
Safety 29
FIGURE 1.21
Personal protective equipment (From the All in One Poster Company, Buena Park, CA, sales@
FIGURE 1.22
Portable power tools: safety and use (From the All in One Poster Company, Buena Park, CA,
sales@allinoneposters.com).
Safety 31
Notes
1. This information is not intended to replace the advice of a doctor. The author
and Taylor & Francis Group disclaim any liability for the decisions you make
based on this information.
2. FallProtectionEmergencies.pdf
3. www.osha.gov/Publications/portable_ladder_qc.html
2
Trade Math for PV—Measurements,
Units, and Calculations
2.1 Introduction
Students taking a lecture/laboratory sequence in photovoltaics need basic
measurement skills and an understanding of the metric system (a/k/a
International System of Units [SI]). Measurements found in PV vary from
physical (e.g., length, area, and weight) and electrical (e.g., voltage, charge,
current, power, and energy) to solar (e.g., irradiance and insolation). Students
should also understand exponential notation, powers of ten, simple algebraic
equations in a single unknown, and trigonometry of right triangles.
In this course we will cover these topical areas in the context of the tasks
that solar design and installation require. These tasks include customer load
profiling, working with the sun as an energy resource, PV system design
documentation, site surveys, system sizing calculations, and reading manu-
facturers’ data sheets.

• Understand and employ the decimal system, exponential notation

(base 10), the metric system of units, and decimal prefixes
• Understand and employ rational fractions, decimal fractions, and
percentages
• Perform basic algebraic operations in one unknown (including under-
standing order of operations), including solutions for the unknown
quantity
33
• Perform trigonometric (trig) and inverse trigonometric calculations

based on right triangles
• Calculate length; area for triangles, parallelograms, rectangles,
circles; volume of rectangular and triangular prisms, right circular
cylinders
• Understand and be able to locate the elevation and azimuth of a posi-
tion of the sun on the celestial sphere
• Convert from English units to metric units and back
• Analyze word problems and reduce them to a mathematical expression
• Use a calculator, with the four arithmetic functions, trigonometric
and inverse trigonometric functions, logarithms and exponential
functions (base 10), square/square root functions, and cube/cube
root functions
2.3 The Decimal System of Notation

Most students are already familiar with the decimal system. We talk about
“ten” and express it as “10.” We talk about “one hundred” and express it as
“100.” We talk about “one-tenth” and we express it as “0.1.” Every “place-
holder” is a factor of ten larger than the one to its right—so we have hun-
dredths, hundreds, thousands, thousandths, millions, millionths, etc. One
million, four hundred thousand, twenty-five is written as 1,400,025. A comma
is commonly used to separate every three factors (powers) of ten.
2.4 Scientific Notation (Exponential Notation [Base 10])

A compact and convenient way of expressing very large or very small num-
bers is to use scientific notation (SN) based on decimal fractions and expo-
nential notation using powers of ten. In SN, all numbers are expressed as
a × 10 N
in which a (the coefficient) is a decimal fraction and must be greater than or

equal to one and less than ten. This also means that the coefficient has one
integer before the decimal point and no limit on the number of digits after
the decimal point (e.g., 3.128). N (the exponent) is an integer (e.g., 5).
Trade Math for PV—Measurements, Units, and Calculations 35
10N is shorthand for 10 multiplied by itself N times. For example,
105 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 100,000
When the exponent is negative,
(
10− N = 1 10 N )
For example,
( )
10−3 = 1 103 = (1 1,000) = 0.001
So, instead of writing 1,930,000,000, we may write 1.93 × 109 and, rather

than writing 0.0000018, we may write instead 1.8 × 10 –6.
2.5 Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, and Dividing in SN

2.5.1 Multiplication and Division
Although it is a compact method of displaying very large and very small
numbers, SN is really useful in performing multiplication and division. To
perform multiplication one multiplies the coefficients and adds the expo-
nents. For example,
When performing multiplication or division, one may have to readjust the
coefficient to lie in the range of 1 ≤ a < 10. The coefficient may require round-
ing off, to keep the same number of significant figures.
2.5.2 Addition and Subtraction

This is little bit harder. One brute force solution is to convert back into deci-
mal fractions, do the math, and then convert back into SN. Another way is
to adjust the smaller exponent to be equal to the larger exponent (adjusting
the coefficient accordingly) and do the addition or subtraction with the coef-
ficients. Afterward, there may be a need to readjust the coefficient to lie in the
range of 1 ≤ a < 10 and to round off the coefficient.
2.5.3 Metric System and Prefixes

The decimal system and the metric system are intertwined in that the metric
system of measurements is mathematically expressed in the decimal system.
The metric system was developed in the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
turies to establish a universal set of measurements. Starting with the units
of length and mass—meter (m) and kilogram (kg)—this system has been
expanded to include time, charge, electromotive force (voltage), and a host of
derived units including power, energy, and force.
To give an example of how chaotic things were before the adoption of
the metric system, a measure of length or distance could be expressed in
terms of inches, hands (4 inches [in.]), feet (12 inches), yards (3 feet [ft.]), rods
(5 1/2 yards [yd.]), furlongs (one-eighth mile [mi.]), chains (66 feet), miles
(5,280 feet), and leagues (3 miles). The league, for example, was defined (in
one instance) as the distance that a man could walk in 1 hour!
As different scientific and engineering disciplines evolved, they frequently
defined new sets of units requiring conversion tables when going from one
discipline to another (e.g., thermodynamics and electrical engineering).
In the metric system, there is just one basic unit of measure for length or
distance: the meter. In order to accommodate the measurement of very large
and very small objects, we use prefixes and/or powers of ten. For example,
1 centimeter (cm) is 0.01 meter or 10 –2 meter.
The metric system is used in every country in the world except the United
States, Liberia, and Myanmar. These latter two countries continue to use the
British or imperial system of units, which includes inches/feet/miles, ounces
(oz.)/pounds (lb.)/tons, and teaspoons/tablespoons/cups/gallons. Because
metric measurements are expressed in the decimal system, this makes cal-
culations such as area and volume from linear dimensions straightforward.
Try calculating the area of a rectangle in the imperial system versus the met-
ric system:
Imperial system: the area of a rectangle 5 feet, 2 7/16 inches on one side
by 3 feet, 7 1/2 inches on the other side equals 18 7/8 square feet (to
the nearest 1/16 of a square foot).
Metric system: 5.203 meters on one side by 3.625 meters on the other
side equals 18.861 square meters.
In the metric system, prefixes are widely used. For example, we are familiar
with the prefix “kilo” which means “one thousand.” One thousand meters
equal 103 meters equals 1 kilometer (km). “Centi” means “one hundredth.”
One hundredth of a meter equals 0.01 meter equals 1 centimeter. The full list
of prefixes is in Table 2.1.
2.5.4 Nonstandard Units of Measure

In this course we will use the metric system as much as possible, employing
prefixes or exponential notation as needed. Occasionally, we will encoun-
ter an imperial unit of measure that is in widespread use, and we defer
TABLE 2.1
Prefixes Used in the Metric System
Prefix Symbol Exp Word Example
Atto a 10–18 Quintillionth Attofarad
Femto f 10–15 Quadrillionth Femtosecond
Pico p 10–12 Trillionth Picofarad
Nano n 10–9 Billionth Nanometer
Micro μ 10–6 Millionth Microhenry
Milli m 10–3 Thousandth Milliliter
Centi c 10–2 Hundredth Centimeter
Deci d 10–1 Tenth Decibel
Deca da 10 Ten Decaliter
Hecto h 102 Hundred Hectare
Kilo k 103 Thousand Kilowatt
Mega M 106 Million Megabit
Giga G 109 Billion Gigajoule
Tera T 1012 Trillion Terahertz
Peta P 1015 Quadrillion Petabyte
Exa E 1018 Quintillion Exajoule
to fashion. The following subsections give a few examples of nonstandard

units of measure.
2.5.4.1 The British Thermal Unit (BTU)

The first known use of the British thermal unit was in 1876; it is defined as the
amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water
1°F at 3.89°C (39.164°F). This reference temperature was chosen because it is
the temperature at which water is most dense. The BTU is still used when
talking about heat content, conversion from other energy types to heat, and
in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) and water heating
business sectors, not to mention other business areas such as cooking stoves,
steam turbines, and the like.
In the metric system, the concept of (specific) heat capacity is defined and
through this definition we can dispense with the BTU in favor of the joule (J).
Different materials can then be characterized by their (specific) heat capac-
ity—including water.
We define the specific heat capacity c by the following equation:
1 ΔQ
c=
M ΔT
Imagine the following experiment:
• Take an object of mass M

• Measure the initial temperature
• Transfer an amount of heat ΔQ into the object
• Observe and record the temperature rise ΔT
• Use the preceding equation to calculate the specific heat capacity of
the material
The term “specific” means that we have factored out the mass of the object
so that specific heat capacity has the units joules/kilogram-°C.
2.5.4.2 The Kilowatt Hour (kWh)

The watt (W) is a legitimate unit of power, but the meter/kilogram/second
(MKS) unit of time is the second; therefore,
1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 × 60 seconds = 3,600 seconds
1 kWh = 103 × watts × 3.6 × 103 seconds = 3.6 × 106 Ws = 3.6 × 106 joules. The

rationale for using the kilowatt-hour is that households and small businesses
use a few tens of kilowatt-hours per day and electric utility companies pub-
lish their rates in terms of kilowatt-hours (e.g, $0.16 per kilowatt-hour).
2.5.4.3 The BTU—A Diversion

The British thermal unit is one of the oddest of all units. Besides being a totally
nonmetric unit, the definition of the BTU immediately raises the question of
whether there should be a German thermal unit, being the amount of energy
needed to raise 1 pound of motor oil 1°F, or even a French thermal unit, being
the amount of heat needed to raise 1 pound of Sauvignon Blanc 1°F!
One BTU is equal to 3,693 joules (the metric unit of energy).
The fundamental problem with the BTU is that it comingles the concept
defining a measure of heat energy (why not stick with the joule?) with the
thermal properties of a particular material (e.g., water).
There are some subtleties in terms of exactly how the heat capacity mea-
surement is carried out, including the temperature at which the heat capacity
measurement is taken, but they are beyond the scope of this class.
By normalizing with respect to mass, we can compare the specific heat
capacity of various materials, such as water, glass (SiO2), aluminum, and vari-
ous oils.
It is remarkable that liquid water has one of the highest heat capacities
of any known compound: 4,182 joules/kilogram-°C (at 20°C). Metals and
plastics have much lower values. The only common materials that have
higher values are the liquefied gases hydrogen, helium, and ammonia.
2.6 Rational Fractions, Decimal Fractions,

Ratios, and Percentages
All four of these terms are interrelated. A rational fraction is the ratio of two
whole numbers, such as 7/8. If there is a common divisor, it may be divided
out, so 4/8 can be expressed as 1/2. The numerator is the quantity on the
top of the fraction and the denominator is the quantity on the bottom of the
fraction.
A special case of a rational fraction is a percentage. “Percent” literally means
“per 100.” So a percentage is a rational fraction with a common denominator
of 100.
A decimal is the same quantity expressed in the decimal system:
7 8 = 0.87500, 9 32 = 0.28125, 3 10 = 0.3 and 1 3 = 0.333
Ratio is another term for fraction, and we can express any ratio as a deci-
mal fraction. For example, the pitch of a roof is typically expressed as the
“rise over run,” with the run conventionally being 12 feet. A typically
encountered roof pitch is 5:12 (pronounced “5 in 12”). As a decimal fraction,
5 12 = 0.41666
Percentages can be confusing. They are sometimes used as an “A–B” com-
parison, but at other times they are used to indicate a change in value of “A”
over time.
Let us do two examples.
2.6.1 A–B Comparison

Compare the annual energy consumption of Canada to that of the United
States, as a percentage. In 2010 the energy consumption in Canada was 10.5
exajoules compared with 92.8 exajoules in the United States.
For the A–B comparison, multiply the decimal fraction by 100 and express
the result as a percentage:
Percentage = (Value A Value B ) × 100%
In this example,
Percentage = (10.5 exajoules 92.8 exajoules ) × 100% = 11.3%

Expressed in words, “The 2010 energy consumption in Canada was 11.3%

of that of the United States for the same period.”
2.6.2 Change of a Value (over Time)

Compare the energy consumed in the United States in 2010 to that consumed
in 2004. In 2004 US energy consumption was 97.4 exajoules and in 2010 it was
92.8 exajoules.
For the change of a value, subtract 1 from the decimal fraction and multi-
ply the result by 100; express the result as a percentage:
Percentage Change = ⎡⎣(Value A,time 2 Value A,time 1) − 1 ⎤⎦ × 100%
In this example,
Percentage Change = ⎡⎣( 92.8 exajoules 97.4 exajoules ) − 1 ⎤⎦ × 100% = −4.7%
Expressed in words, “US energy consumption decreased by 4.7% from 2004

to 2010.”
As intuitive as percentages are, students frequently have difficulty con-
verting from a percentage to a decimal fraction (and back). The key is repeti-
tion! Let us have you do a few exercises now.
2.7 Student Exercises

2.7.1 A–B Comparison
Compare the area of the Renogy 100D 100 W monocrystalline PV module to
that of the SunWize SW110 110 W monocrystalline module.
□ Use a tape measure to measure the width (W) _______ (inch) and

length (L) _______ (inch) for the Renogy 100D.
□ Use a tape measure to measure the width (W) _______ (inch) and
length (L) _______ (inch) for the SunWize SW110.
□ Convert the measured dimensions in inches to centimeters, and
from centimeters to meters.
□ Calculate the area A of each module using the formula A = L × W.
□ Area (Renogy 100D): _______ m2.
□ Area (SunWize SW110): _______ m2.

□ Calculate the ratio of the two areas and express the result as a per-
centage to three significant digits.
( )
Percentage ( Area Renogy Area SunWize ) = ___ m2 ___ m2 × 100% = ___ %
Expressed in words, “The area of the Renogy 100D 100 W module is ____ %
of the area of the SunWize module.”
Or we could express the ratio another way:
( )
Percentage ( Area SunWize Area Renogy ) = ___ m2 ___ m2 × 100% = ___ %
2.8 Significant Digits and Precision

In the preceding examples I have expressed the decimal fractions using
three and five digits. In this class, we will usually express decimal fractions
with three digits unless the number begins with a “1,” in which case we will
use four digits. We may make an exception for some specific reason.
Significant digits define the precision of the number. Just as we might mea-
sure and express the measurement to the closest 1/16 of an inch, we could
also do so to the closest 0.1 cm, which would result in roughly the same
precision.
2.9 Conversion from Metric Units to Imperial

(English) Units and Back
Although it is important to recognize the different units of measurement
for the same quantity (e.g., feet vs. meters, joules vs. kilowatt-hours) and to
perform a few “hand calculations” using conversion tables, it may be easier
to use a dedicated calculator as a day-to-day conversion tool. The computer
application convert.exe allows you to convert from just about any unit you
might encounter into any other. It is a free download from the web; just type
“converte.exe” into your browser. There are versions for smart phones. See
Figure 2.1 to see the convert.exe interface.
FIGURE 2.1
Converte.exe program.
Having said that, let us look at a few of the more commonly encountered
conversions from imperial units to metric units:
Quantity Imperial unit Abbreviation Quantity Metric unit Abbreviation
Length 1 Inch in. 2.5400 Centimeter cm
Length 1 Foot ft. 0.3048 Meter m
Length 1 Mile mi. 1.6093 Kilometer km
Volume 1 Gallon gal. 3.7854 Liter l
Mass 1 Pound lb. 0.4536 Kilogram kg
Pressure 1 Pound per Psig 6.8948 Kilopascal kPa
square inch
Force 1 Poundal Pdl 0.1383 Newton N
2.10 Basic Algebra

We will often need to solve relatively simple algebraic expressions for an
unknown quantity in terms of other known quantities. Two examples of fre-
quently encountered algebraic equations are Ohm’s law and Watt’s law.
2.10.1 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law is an expression relating voltage, current, and resistance:
V (volts) = I (amps) × R (ohms)
If we have measured the current I (expressed in amps) flowing through a

resistor R (expressed in ohms), the product of the two quantities is the volt-
age V (expressed in volts).
If, on the other hand, we knew the voltage and the current, we could cal-
culate the resistance. In order to do this, we need to isolate the resistance on
one side of the equation. This requires moving the current over to the other
side of the equation. In doing so, the current that was in the numerator on
the right-hand side (RHS) of the equation is placed in the denominator of the
left-hand side (LHS) of the equation:
V(volts) I(amps) = R(ohms)
Finally, if we knew the voltage and the resistance, we could calculate the
current:
V(volts) R(ohms) = I(amps)
By convention, we put the single unknown quantity on the LHS of the equa-
tion, but this is not necessary:
I(amps) = V(amps) R(ohms)
2.10.2 Watt’s Law

Watt’s law is an expression relating power, current, and voltage.
P(watts) = I(amps) × V(volts)
As it stands, this version of Watt’s law can be used to calculate the power
flowing in a circuit if we know the voltage and current. As in the case of
Ohm’s law, we can write this expression in two other ways:
V(volts) = P(watts) I(amps)
I(amps) = P(watts) V(volts)
In some cases we know the current and resistance (but not the voltage); we
can use Ohm’s law to substitute current for voltage and the expression for
power can be written as
P(watts) = I 2 (amps) × R(ohms)
In cases in which we know the voltage and resistance (but not the current),
the expression for power can be written as
P(watts) = V 2 (volts)/R(ohms)
2.10.3 Order of Operations

When an algebraic expression involves more than the simple addition, sub-
traction, division, and multiplication of two quantities, we need to under-
stand the order in which operations are performed.
The first step involves converting any quantities expressed as percentages
into decimals. For example, the temperature coefficient of Voc, the open-circuit
voltage of a PV module, may be listed as
ΔVoc ΔT = −0.35% °C
This can be written as
ΔVoc ΔT = −0.0035 °C
Next, you may wish to convert exponential notation or prefix notation into
decimal fractions using the fundamental unit of measure (meter, kilogram,
second, volt, amp, etc.):
430 kilohms = 430,000 ohms

3.82 × 10−3 amps = 0.00382 amps
Finally, we will use nested brackets to indicate the order of operation: ( . . . )
brackets, then [ . . . ] brackets, and finally { . . . } curly brackets, if need be. To
illustrate this notation, we will use the equation for the temperature depen-
dent open circuit voltage of a PV module:
Voc (T) = Voc (25°C) × ⎡⎣1 + (Cv ) × (T − 25°C) ⎤⎦
In this equation, Cv is expressed initially as a percentage per degree centi-

grade, −0.38% °C . The value of Voc (25°C) = 22.5 V. If the value of the tempera-
ture for which we wish to calculate the temperature-corrected open circuit
voltage is –6.1°C (21°F), then we have
Voc (−6.1°C) = 22.5V × ⎡⎣1 + (−0.38%/°C) × (−6.1°C − 25°C) ⎤⎦
Voc (−6.1°C) = 22.5V × ⎡⎣1 + (−0.0038) × (−31.1) ⎤⎦

Voc (−6.1°C) = 22.5V × ⎡⎣1 + 0.118 ⎤⎦
Voc (−6.1°C) = 22.5V × 1.118 = 25.16V
2.11 Trigonometry of Right Triangles

In this lab, we will use trigonometry for a number of reasons, but perhaps
the most important is that of understanding the sun’s path through the sky
and how to design a PV system that harvests the greatest possible amount
of the sun’s energy. We will confine ourselves to right triangles, which will
simplify the relationships we will use.
2.11.1 The Right Triangle

The triangle in Figure 2.2 has sides marked A, B, and C. There are three inter-
nal angles, of which two are marked: Θ and the 90° (marked with a square).
A 90° angle is also referred to as a “right angle,” and a triangle with an inter-
nal right angle is referred to as a “right triangle.” The assignment of Θ to one
of the two remaining internal angles is completely arbitrary.
The sum of the internal angles of a triangle is 180°. This means that the
third, unmarked internal angle is 90° – Θ.
The three sides of the triangle also have a naming convention. The side
opposite the right angle, C, is referred to as the “hypotenuse.” The other two
sides are referred to as “legs.” The leg opposite the angle Θ is referred to as the
“opposite side” (A) and the other side is referred to as the “adjacent side” (B).
C
A
Θ
B
FIGURE 2.2
Right triangle.
2.11.2 The Pythagorean Theorem

The Pythagorean theorem is an equation that relates the three sides of a right
triangle:
C 2 = A 2 + B2
2.11.3 Calculations Involving the Pythagorean Theorem

If we know two sides of a right triangle, we have completely determined its
dimensions. For example, if side A = 3 m and side B = 4 m, then the hypot-
enuse can be calculated as follows:
C 2 = 3 2 m 2 + 4 2 m 2 = 9m 2 + 16m 2 = 25m 2

C = 5m
□ Given the side A = 4 m and side B = 8 m, what is the length of side C,
the hypotenuse? ____ m.
□ Given the side A = 2.5 m and hypotenuse C = 14.8 m, what is the
length of the other side B? ____ m. (Give your answer to the closest
tenth of a meter.)
2.11.4 The Three Trigonometric Functions

There are three commonly encountered trigonometric functions: sinθ, cosθ,
and tanθ. These three functions are located prominently as keys on your
calculator and are ratios of the sides of the right triangle:
sin θ = A C
cosθ = B C
tanθ = A B
For example, if side A = 6 m and side B = 2 m, then
tanθ = 6 2 = 3
As another example, if side B = 6 m and θ = 30°, and cos30° = 0.866, then
cos30° = 6m C = 0.866

C = 6m 0.866 = 6.93m
□ If the hypotenuse C = 12 m and θ = 74°, what is the length of side A?

____ m.
□ What is the length of side B? ____ m.
2.11.5 Evaluating the Angle θ and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If we know one of the trigonometric functions, how do we “work backward”
and calculate the actual angle? The answer is that we use the inverse trig
functions:
θ = sin −1 (A C)
θ = cos−1 (B C)
θ = tan −1 (A B)
These inverse functions are accessed on your calculator by hitting first the
SHIFT key and then the trigonometric function in question.
When we speak of these inverse functions, we use the following phrase:
“The angle whose sine is A divided by C is . . .”
−1
For example, if we know side A and side C, then we use the sin (A C)
function. For example, if we know A = 2.5 m and C = 6.9 m,
θ = sin −1 (2.5m 6.9m) = sin −1 (0.362) = 21.2°
□ If we know that A = 24.7 m and B = 16.9 m, what is the angle θ? ____°.
2.11.6 Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions

When one of these functions is used in a mathematical expression, we may
find that one of three other functions—cosecant (csc), secant (sec), and cotan-
gent (cot)—is employed. These three functions are just reciprocals of the nor-
mal trigonometric functions:
cscθ = 1 sin θ , secθ = 1 cosθ, and cot θ = 1 tanθ
The actual utility of employing these reciprocal functions in this labora-

tory sequence is marginal and we will not use them. However, you may see
them employed in other publications, so you do at least know what they
mean and can convert them into the regular three trigonometric functions,
if need be.
2.12 Length, Area, and Volume

We will frequently need to perform calculations involving length, area, and
volume. Assuming that we know the lengths of various shapes, the follow-
ing expressions give us the areas:
Rectangle: A = L × W, where L is the length and W is the width of the

rectangle.
Triangle: A = (0.5)L × H, where L is the length of the base and H is the
height of the triangle.
Parallelogram: A = L × H, where L is the length of the base and H is the
height of the parallelogram.
Circle: A = πR 2, where R is the radius of the circle and π = 3.1425926 . . .
(accessed by a key on your calculator, “shift exp”).
2.13 The Celestial Sphere

If you wish to locate the sun or any other celestial object, we need two angles
to do so. By convention in the solar world, the two angles are elevation (or
altitude) and azimuth. Figure 2.3 depicts the celestial sphere.
The elevation angle is measured from the horizon upward. The horizon has
an elevation angle of 0° and the zenith (directly overhead) has an elevation
Zenith
an
idi
er
M
Sun
al
sti
le
Ce
Altitude
Observer N
Horizon
th
mu
Azi
FIGURE 2.3
Altitude and azimuth angles.
angle of 90°. If the sun is below the horizon (not a circumstance of relative
importance), its elevation angle would be negative.
The azimuth angle is directly related to true bearings. In almost all
cases, north is taken to be 0° (or 360°), east 90°, south 180°, and west 270°.
Unfortunately, some authors/tools define 0° to be south, with positive azi-
muth angles to the west, and negative azimuth angles to the east. North
would then be ±180°. Go figure!
2.14 Analyzing Word Problems

The following problems illustrate the use of trigonometry.
OSHA recommends that an extension ladder be adjusted so that the base
of the ladder be a distance 1/4 of the vertical extent of the ladder, as shown
in Figure 2.4.
□ What is the angle of the ladder with respect to the horizontal? ______

□ If the ladder must extend a distance of 3 feet above the point of contact
with the roof, what is the minimum total length of the ladder? ______
(Hint: First calculate the length of the ladder from the ground to the
point of support.)
3' min
h = Height to point
of support
h
I = Overhang
distance
I h/4
FIGURE 2.4
Setbacks and extensions for an extension ladder.
2.15 Mastering the Use of a Calculator

Using your fx-260 solar calculator, perform the following exercises involv-
ing addition and subtraction and multiplication and division using standard
and scientific notation, basic trigonometry, and scientific notation.
2.15.1 Addition and Subtraction
128 + 356 = ________
1,026 – 34 – 90 = ________
72 + 37 + 67 + 96 = ________
1,000 + 436 – 399 = ________
1,000,000 – 456,384 + 98,000 = ________
231 – 458,080 = ________
2.15.2 Multiplication and Division
35 × 12 = ________
206/21 = ________
(1,283,645/1,000,000) = ________
(1,283,645 × 456)/189,592 = ________
(67/33) × 730 = ________
(56 × 823 × 172,402)/(234 × 134) = ________
(4/87)/(90 × 54) = ________
(1.211 × 60 × 60)/365 = ________
(0.78654/5.7933876) × 1,245,298 = ________
1.67584 × 105/365/6.23 × 10 –2 = ________
2.15.3 Trigonometry
Sin (33°) = ________
Cos (90°) = ________
Tan (45°) = ________
Sin (5°) = ________
Cos (5°) = ________
Tan (87°) = ________
Sin–1 (0.345) = ________
Cos–1 (0.000) = ________
Tan–1 (1.000) = ________
Sin–1 (0.25) = ________
Cos–1 (0.7856) = ________
Tan–1 (4,893) = ________
3
Measurements of DC and
AC Electrical Circuits
3.1 Introduction
This chapter will introduce the student to basic DC (direct current) and AC
(alternating current) circuit theory and practice. We will treat AC from the
perspective of utility-supplied power at 60 hertz (Hz). All concepts intro-
duced in this chapter will be explained together with a companion mea-
surement technique. In keeping with our COTS (commercial-off-the shelf)
philosophy, we will use industry-standard measurement equipment.
Students will learn about measurement precision and accuracy, and how
to determine the accuracy of instruments used in this laboratory. The follow-
ing are the topics covered in this chapter.
3.1.1 DC Electrical Circuits

• The DC electrical circuit—an abstraction
• Basic electrical concepts—analogy of water flow
• Additional circuit concepts—power, energy, time, frequency
• Summary of circuit concepts
• Lab resources—components and measurement tools
• Measurement precision and accuracy
• Color coding for resistors
• Measuring resistance with the digital multimeter (DMM)
• Measuring DC voltage with the DMM
• Bench power supply
• Powering a 12 VDC (volts of direct current) LED
• Powering a 50 W resistor
53
3.1.2 AC Electrical Circuits

• Difference between time-varying quantities and time invariant
quantities
• Utility power: voltages, frequency, and phases
• Capacitance and inductance
• RMS values

• Explain the basic laws of DC electrical circuits

• Identify basic DC circuit components
• Calculate an electrical circuit quantity given two other quantities
• Identify the instruments needed to make necessary measurements
• Set up, perform, and record basic DC electrical measurements
• Explain the concepts of precision and accuracy
• Calculate the accuracy of a given measurement
• Compare measurements of a component with manufacturers’
specifications
• Understand utility-supplied AC power
• Understand the concept of RMS values
3.3 Setup
In order to make a full complement of electrical measurements, we will need
a variety of components and measurement instruments. Following the guid-
ing principle of this course—commercial-off-the-shelf equipment—all of the
electrical components used in this laboratory are available at electronics dis-
tributor/suppliers, especially online suppliers such as Newark Electronics1
or Digikey.2 Some specialized equipment, such as safety equipment, can be
purchased at Grangers.3 The same guidance principles apply to the electrical
measurement instruments. In this latter case, I recommend using a major
electrical distributor that services the electrical trades such as Consolidated
Electrical Distributors (CED).4
Measurements of DC and AC Electrical Circuits 55
3.3.1 The Calculator

• We will use the Casio fx-260 solar calculator; see Figure 3.1. This
calculator has square, square root, inverse, exponential, and trig/
inverse-trig functions, and is solar powered!
3.3.2 Electrical Components

There should be enough of these components for each of the teams taking
the lab at the same time. Suggested sources are indicated:
• Assortment of 1/4 W and 1/2 W ± 5%, carbon film resistors: 40–80

values can be purchased in a kit for less than $100
• Assortment of 50 W resistors: for example, Vishay TMC-50 product
line, 1Ω, 5Ω, 10Ω, 20Ω, 30Ω
• 1.2 V NiMH AA batteries (at least four per team)
• 9 V battery
• Battery holders for two AA batteries and for two AAA batteries
• LED 12 V, with GU5.3 base
FIGURE 3.1
Casio fx-260 solar calculator.
3.3.3 Measurement Instruments

• Digital multimeter (a/k/a “DMM”), an Extech model 310; see
Figure 3.2. This instrument can measure voltage (AC and DC), cur-
rent (AC and DC), and resistance. It has special scales for 1.5 and 9 V
for battery testing and can also be used as a continuity tester.
• Clamp-on ammeter, an Extech model 380942; see Figure 3.3. This
instrument can measure DC and AC current and voltage. The cur-
rent is measured by placing the clamp around the wire in question,
FIGURE 3.2
Digital multimeter (a/k/a DMM): Extech model 310 (Courtesy of Extech Corporation).
FIGURE 3.3
Clamp-on ammeter: Extech model 380942 (Courtesy of Extech Corporation).
FIGURE 3.4
120 VAC outlet tester: P3 International P4400 Kill-a-Watt.
without requiring the circuit continuity to be broken. The voltage

is measured in the conventional manner using the jacks provided.
• 120 VAC (volts of alternating current) outlet tester, P3 International
P4400 Kill-a-Watt®; see Figure 3.4. This instrument has a standard
three-prong 120 VAC plug and companion jack and can make a
number of measurements of a load connected to the meter: voltage,
frequency, current, power, power factor, energy (watt-hours), and
elapsed time.
3.3.4 Other Equipment

• Voltage standard, Malone Electronics model VREF-01; see Figure 3.5
• Regulated bench power supply, Extech model 382213; see Figure 3.6
• An assortment of test leads with alligator clips at each end, 12 inch
length, six per team
FIGURE 3.5
Voltage standard: Malone Electronics model VREF-01 (Courtesy Malone Electronics).
FIGURE 3.6
Regulated bench power supply: Extech model 382213 (Courtesy of Extech Corporation).
3.4 The DC Electrical Circuit—An Abstraction

In the abstract, a DC electrical circuit is one whose properties remain con-
stant over time. The “D” refers to “direct” (i.e., nonvarying) and “C” refers
to “current.” However, in practice, DC circuits can change over time due
to changing conditions (e.g., sunlight intensity or ambient temperature) or
losses or changes in the composition of components (e.g., photovoltaic mod-
ules or batteries). So, basically, DC circuits are those circuits whose proper-
ties do not change appreciably over a time period of interest to us. This could
be minutes or even years; it depends on the application.
The basic building blocks of DC circuits are resistors and ideal sources of
voltage and current. A resistor will carry current if a voltage is applied to it
and it will dissipate power in the process. We will introduce the battery as a
classical energy storage device and it will be treated in most of this labora-
tory as being an ideal voltage source. We will also deal with DC bench power
supplies as both a source of voltage and of current.
We will conclude this laboratory by treating 60 Hz utility-supplied power.
3.5 Basic Electrical Concepts—Analogy with Water Flow

Many of the concepts used in electrical circuit theory seem difficult to under-
stand at first glance. Nonetheless, repeated use of relevant examples will
help you master this critical subject area. In the beginning, these concepts
might be easier to understand if we use analogies with things that are more
familiar to us. I will use the analogy with water flow (e.g., volume of water,
rate of flow, pressure, and resistance to flow).
3.5.1 Charge
Charge is one of the fundamental concepts in physics and engineering. The
fundamental unit of charge “qe” is the charge on the electron. This charge is
extremely small in practical terms and two other units have been defined.
The first—the coulomb (C)—is equal to 6.242 ×1018 electron charges. Put
another way, the charge on the electron is 1.602 × 10 –19 coulombs. The sec-
ond—the amp-hour—will be introduced and discussed later in Chapter 8 on
absorbent glass mat (AGM) batteries.
A NA L O G Y: Think of charge as analogous to a volume of water (measured in liters).
3.5.2 Current
Current is the time rate of change of charge. The amount of charge in cou-
lombs that changes in 1 second is defined to be the number of amperes
(“amps”). For example, a change of 6 coulombs over a time period of 2 sec-
onds equals 3 amperes.
A NA L O G Y: Think of current as water flow (measured in liters per minute). A hose
carries a flow of water just as an electrical conductor carries current.
3.5.3 Current Continuity

If there is a component in a circuit with two leads, then any current flowing
into one lead of a component must come out of the other lead. Although this
seems to be an obvious point, you will need to remember this later in the
laboratory sequence.
If two or more leads are connected together at a connection point, this is
called a node. Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents into
a node must be zero. This law will be useful when we develop an electrical
circuit model for a PV cell and for a module.
3.5.4 Voltage
Voltage is actually a misnomer: The correct term is potential difference (PD)
or electromotive force (EMF). It is important to remember that a potential
difference refers to two points in a circuit, or to the two leads of a single
component. It is also important to remember that a given node in a circuit
does not possess a voltage of its own, but only with respect to another node
in the circuit. The volt is the unit of measure of EMF. Nonetheless, bowing to
convention, we will also use the term “voltage” to refer to the quantity as well
as to the unit of measure.
In the general realm of energy—not just DC circuit theory—one can
define voltage in terms of energy. Energy, as we will see later in this course,
is another one of the fundamental concepts in physics and engineering. It
pervades every discussion about modern technology (and, for that matter,
public policy).
If an amount of charge Q is raised to a certain potential difference ΔV, the
change in electrical potential energy ΔE is given by
ΔE = Q × ΔV (3.1)
where Q is measured in coulombs and ΔV is measured in volts. Thus defined,

the unit of energy is the joule.
NOTE: I use the symbol Δ to refer to a change in a quantity, such as a change
in voltage, energy, or time.
A NA L O G Y: Think of voltage as water pressure (measured in pounds per square

inch) inside (compared to outside) a hose—for example, whether or not there is any
water flowing.
3.5.5 Resistance
If a black box—let us say we do not know what is inside the box—draws a
steady current of 1 ampere when we apply a potential difference of 1 volt,
we say that it has a resistance of 1 ohm. If it draws 1/10 of an amp, it has a
resistance of 10 ohms. Mathematically speaking,
R = V/I (3.2)
A NA L O G Y: Think of resistance as related to the diameter and length of the hose. The
smaller the diameter of the hose and the longer the hose, the higher the resistance to
water flow. For a given amount of water pressure (voltage), the smaller the diameter
of the hose is or the longer the hose is (representing higher resistance), the less the
water flows (current).
3.6 Additional Circuit Concepts—Power,

Energy, Time, Frequency
3.6.1 Power
Power can be defined as the time rate of change of energy
P = ΔE/Δt (3.3)
Power can also be written as the product of current times voltage, which
follows from Equations 3.1 and 3.3.
P = I × V (3.4)
If a device, such as a photovoltaic module, delivers a certain amount of cur-

rent I at a potential difference of V, then it is delivering power P.
If either I or V is zero, there is no power flow. If I or V, or both, vary over
time, then the power varies over time.
If potential difference is measured in volts and current in amperes, the
power is measured in watts. A commonly used term is kilowatt (1 × 103 watts
or 1,000 watts).
A NA L O G Y: The analogy for power in a water circuit is somewhat complicated,
except to say that flow of water in a hose contains power behind it both by virtue of
the flow rate and the pressure of the water in the hose with respect to outside the hose.
3.6.2 Energy
If a certain constant amount of power P flows for a time Δt, then the product
of the power times the time, is energy re-arranging Equation 3.3:
ΔE = P × Δt (3.5)
One watt times one second is one joule. We can also use the convenient
unit kilowatt-hour (kWh). Since there are 3,600 seconds in 1 hour, one kWh
equals 3,600,000 joules or 3.6 × 106 joules or 3.6 megajoules.
If the energy content of a system changes by one joule in one second, this
change in energy over this time is defined to be 1 watt.
We have now introduced the concepts of energy and power through the
definitions of charge and voltage and current and voltage. It is extremely
important to understand that energy can take on many different forms—not
just electrical energy. It can take the form of kinetic energy (e.g., a speeding
bullet), gravitation potential energy (e.g., behind a hydroelectric dam), chem-
ical potential energy (e.g., in a battery), or nuclear energy (e.g., contained in
a uranium atom).
3.6.3 Time and Frequency

Although this lab will begin with nonvarying DC electrical quantities, it is
worthwhile to introduce the concept of time and frequency and then come
back to it later.
All of us have an intuitive feeling for time, so let us not elaborate fur-
ther on this concept! Electrical quantities in a circuit can vary—increasing or
decreasing—over time. Often this variation is caused by conditions beyond
our control, such as the intensity of sunlight, changes in the ambient tem-
perature, or changes in wind velocity.
There is another concept called frequency. Frequency describes something
that varies over time in a periodic manner. In this case, frequency is literally
the inverse of time. In other words,
frequency = 1 time (3.6)
time = 1 frequency (3.7)
The unit of frequency is the hertz.

Let us say that some phenomenon is periodic—that is, it varies in a repeti-
tive way over time. If this is so, we say that it has a time period. If the time
period is 16.7 milliseconds (i.e., 1/60 of a second), another way of saying this
is that this phenomenon has a frequency of 60 hertz (i.e., 0.0167 = 1/60). For

the phenomenon to be truly periodic, every conceivable variable related to
the event must come back to its original value every time period.
3.7 Summary of Circuit Concepts

We can summarize in Table 3.1 what we have learned about DC circuit vari-
ables and time.
There is a particularly useful way to represent these relationships using
a segmented circle.5 This circle, shown in Figure 3.7, shows how the four
circuit quantities—resistance, current, voltage, and power—are related to
each other using Ohm’s law, V = I × R, and Watt’s law, P = I × V. The symbol
√ means “square root.” The square root of a number is a number that, when
multiplied by itself, yields the original number. For example, 2 is the square
root of 4, because 2 × 2 = 4 and 1.41421 is (approximately) the square root of
2, because 1.41421 × 1.4421 = 1.9999899. . . . Figure 3.7 is a particulary compact
summary of the quantities I, R, V, and P, each of which can be evaluated in
three particular ways depending on the known quantities.
P = Power I = Current
V×I V/R
V2/R P/V
I2 × R P I √P/R
Watts Amps
Volts Ohms
I×R V2/P
V R
√P × R V/I
P/I P/I2
V = Voltage R = Resistance
FIGURE 3.7
Current, voltage, resistance, power circle.
64
TABLE 3.1
Summary of Terms and Their Relationships
Term Unit Symbol Equation Equation Equation Equation
EMF Volt (V) V V = I × R V = P/I
Current Amp (I) I I = V/R I = P/V I = ΔQ/Δt
Resistance Ohm (Ω) R R = V/I R = P/I2
Charge Coulomb (C) Q ΔQ = I × Δt
Power Watt (W) P P = ΔE/Δt P = I × V P = I2/R P = V2/R
Energy Joule (J) E ΔE = P × Δt ΔE = I × V × Δt 2
ΔE = I  × R × Δt ΔE = V2/R × Δt
Time period Second (s) t t = 1/f
Frequency Hertz (Hz) f f = 1/t
Photovoltaic Laboratory
3.8 Nominal Specifications

You will often see the term “nominal” applied to various circuit compo-
nents—for example, a nominal 12 V car battery. Nominal means that the
actual value can depend on a number of factors, such as ambient tempera-
ture or the state of charge, in the case of batteries. In fact, the voltage of a 12 V
lead-acid battery can be anywhere between 10.6 and 14.4 V, depending on its
temperature, state of charge, and whether it is being (or has been recently)
charged or discharged.
3.9 DMM Measurement Accuracy

All electrical measurements—voltage, current, resistance, power, and
energy—possess an inherent resolution and a limiting accuracy. It is impor-
tant to understand the difference between these two concepts.
In the case of a DMM, both resolution and accuracy depend on the mea-
surement being taken and the range setting. Resolution is one unit in the
least significant digit (right-hand-most digit) on the digital display. For
example, the Extech 310 displays a maximum of four digits. If the range is set
to 2000 millivolts (mV) DC, this least significant digit represents 1 mV.
If we use the 2000 mV range setting and we measure the voltage of a nomi-
nal 1.2 V AA NiMH battery, we might get a reading of 1334 mV DC.
However, resolution tells us only the precision of the measurement: On
the 2000 mV range setting, the Extech 310 can resolve the difference between
1334 mV and 1333 mW. But is the measurement 1334 mV really the voltage
of the AA NiMH battery (to that level of accuracy)? And who or what is the
ultimate authority? The answer is “probably not” for a number of reasons! In
Figure 3.8, Extech lists the resolution and accuracy of its 310 DMM, depend-
ing on the measurement being taken and the range setting.6
In terms of DMM measurements, accuracy (plus or minus) is the sum of
two terms: “% of reading” and “number of digits.”
The “% of reading” is a product of the measurement value and the “%”
expressed as a decimal fraction.
Accuracy is a function of the analog measuring circuit inside the DMM;
whereas the number of digits displayed turns out to be a function of the
accuracy of the analog-to-digital circuitry.
In our example, “1.0% of the reading” is 13 mV (0.013 V) and two digits
are 2 mV. The total accuracy of the measurement is therefore ±15 mV. So, if
the reading turns out to be 1334 mV, the actual value could be anywhere
between 1219 and 1249 mV.
Range Specifications
Function Range Resolution Accuracy
Non-contact AC 100 to 600V Resolution & accuracy do not apply since the meter
Voltage detector does not display the voltage in this mode. The lamp
at the top of the meter’s display flashes when voltage
is sensed and an audible warning will sound
DC Voltage (V DC) 200mV 0.1 mV ±(0.5% reading + 2 digits)
2000mV 1mV ± (1.0% reading + 2 digits)
20V 0.01V
200V 0.1V
600V 1V ± (1.5% reading + 2 digits)
AC Voltage (VAC) 200V 0.1V ± (1.5% reading + 3 digits)

50/60Hz
600V 1V ± (2.0% reading + 4 digits
DC Current (ADC) 200mA 0.1mA ± (1.5% reading + 2 digits)
10A 0.01A ± (2.5% reading + 5 digits)
AC Current (A AC) 200mA 0.1mA ± (1.8% reading + 5 digits)

50/60Hz
10A 0.01A ± (3.0% reading + 7 digits)
Resistance 200Ω 0.1Ω ± (1.2% reading + 4 digits)
2000Ω 1Ω ± (1.2% reading + 2 digits)
20kΩ 0.01kΩ
200kΩ 0.1 kΩ
2000kΩ 1kΩ
FIGURE 3.8
Extech 310 multimeter specifications (Courtesy of Extech Corporation).
If we used the 20 V scale, instead of the 2000 mV scale, to measure the
same nominal 1.2 V battery, the result would probably be 1.33 V (the leading
zero being suppressed); 1.0% of reading is still 13 mV but two digits are now
20 mV and the total accuracy is ±33 mV. The actual value could be anywhere
between 1.00 and 1.66 V. Clearly, the 2000 mV range setting produces a more
accurate measurement than the 20 V range setting! Always remember to use
the most sensitive scale available on a DMM, so long as you do not exceed
the resolution of the DMM. Using the 200 mV scale to measure a nominal
1.2 V AA battery would result in the DMM displaying a single “1” with no
leading or lagging zeros, indicating that the value being measured exceeds
the maximum possible reading.
3.10 Absolute Calibration of Measurement

Instruments—Standards
Now that we understand the difference between the terms precision and
accuracy, we can ask ourselves the question, “How can we be sure that our
DMM is giving the real value of a voltage measurement?” Although the
manufacturer may publish specifications like those in Table 3.1, the DMM
might be faulty! A related question is “How can we be sure that our DMM
gives the same answer as someone else’s DMM—to within the same accu-
racy?” Who is in charge anyway?
The answer to these two questions lies in the establishment of standards.
A standard is established by creating a physical object (or system) and mea-
suring a physical quantity under highly controlled conditions (e.g., tempera-
ture, atmospheric pressure). For example, in 1889 the French International
Bureau of Weights and Measures (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
[BIPM]) fabricated a bar made out of 90% platinum and 10% iridium and
placed two marks on the bar that defined the length of the meter. Similarly,
BIPM fabricated a small cylinder of the same material and defined that mass
to be 1 kilogram.
Over time these physical specimens have been replaced by electronic stan-
dards. Today, the meter is based on the wavelength of krypton-86 radiation.
What makes standards more complicated is the fact that units of measure-
ment are related in nonobvious ways. In fact, physicists tell us that the volt is
linked to the second and that the two cannot be independently defined using
different standards. We need not worry about this detail in our class.
In order to calibrate a DMM, we can purchase an electronic voltage stan-
dard that produces a very precise voltage and then we use this voltage refer-
ence to calibrate the DMM.
For example, for about $25 one can purchase a small, battery-powered
electrical circuit whose output is 5.0000 V, accurate to 0.01% or ±0.0005 V.
This circuit, mentioned earlier, is powered by a single 9 V battery, measures
5.5 cm × 3.1 cm × 2.9 cm (2 3/13 in. × 3 1/16 in. × 1 1/8 in.), and is available
from Malone Electronics.7

3.11.1 Measuring the Voltage Standard
We will now use this voltage standard to calibrate our DMM. Following the
directions for use, turn on the 5 V DC reference and let it stabilize in an envi-
ronment close to 68°F (20°C) for 30 minutes:
□ Using the Extech 310, measure the output voltage of the reference
and record it: _____________ V.
□ Refer to the range specifications for the model 310 and calculate the
expected accuracy of the model 310 at this range: ± _____________ V.
□ Based on the measurement of the output voltage of the 5 VDC stan-
dard, is the measured accuracy of the model 310 consistent within its
expected accuracy? _____________ 
3.12 Color Coding for Resistors

Most resistors that are rated for low-power dissipation (1/4 W up to 1 W) are
so small that it is difficult to print part numbers or resistance values on the
body of the resistor. Instead, they are marked with a series of colored bands
indicating the resistance value and manufacturing tolerance (expressed as a
percentage). The color scheme is broken out in Figure 3.9.8
4-Band-Code
2%, 5%, 10% 560 K Ω ± 5%
Color 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 0 0 1Ω
Brown 1 1 1 10 Ω ± 1% (F)
Red 2 2 2 100 Ω ± 2% (G)
Orange 3 3 3 1KΩ
Yellow 4 4 4 10 K Ω
Green 5 5 5 100 K Ω ± 0.5% (D)
Blue 6 6 6 1MΩ ± 0.25% (C)
Violet 7 7 7 10 M Ω ± 0.10% (B)
Grey 8 8 8 ± 0.05%
White 9 9 9
Gold 0.1 Ω ± 5% (J)
Silver 0.01 Ω ± 10% (K)
0.1%, 0.25% 0.5%, 1% 237 Ω ± 1%

5-Band-Code
FIGURE 3.9
Resistor color chart.
3.13 Measuring Resistance with the DMM

We will begin this part of the lab measuring single resistors of varying resis-
tance and power rating:
□ Determine the four-band code for a 27 k Ω, 10% resistor, 1/4 or 1/2

W. Record this code: ___ - ___ - ___ - ___.
□ What is the range of values for one such 27 k Ω resistor based on the
10% tolerance? 27 k Ω ± _______ Ω
□ Choose a 27 kΩ 10% tolerance 1/4 W resistor from the parts bin
and clamp the DMM alligator clips onto the wire terminals of the
resistor.
Note that if you set the range to 200 Ω, 2 kΩ, or 20 kΩ, the display will read
a single “1” digit, indicating that the value of the resistance is above the range
setting. The 200 kΩ range setting is the lowest setting that is still greater than
the resistance in question. Higher range settings will also give readings, but
of lower accuracy than the 200 kΩ setting, just as in the case of the voltage
measurement in the previous section.
□ Record the actual reading of the DMM and calculate and record
the accuracy of the measurement based on the range setting:
_______ ± _______ .
□ Does the resistance indicated by the band code agree with your mea-
surement, to within the DMM accuracy limits? _______
□ In the same manner, select 33 Ω, 220 Ω, 100 kΩ and 680 kΩ resistors,
measure their resistances with the DMM, record the values and cal-
culate and record the accuracy limits:
33 Ω: ______ ± ______
220 Ω: ______ ± ______
100 kΩ: ______ ± ______
680 Ω: ______ ± ______
Repeat these measurements with the “unknown” 50 W resistors “A,” “B,”

“C,” “D,” and “E.” Discover the best range setting to use. Record the reading
and calculate the accuracy limits based on the optimum range setting:
A: 
______ ± ______
B: 
______ ± ______
C: 
______ ± ______
D: 
______ ± ______
E: 
______ ± ______
□ Using the test leads, connect two 10 Ω resistors in series.

□ Measure the resistance of this series combination: ______ Ω.
□ Verify that the following equation yields the resistance of two resis-
tors in series, within the limits of the measurement precision:
Rseries = R1 + R2 (3.8)
□ Using the test leads, connect two 10 Ω resistors in parallel.

□ Measure the resistance of the parallel combination: ______ Ω.
□ Verify that the following equation yields the resistance of two resis-
tors in parallel, within the limits of the measurement precision:
Rparallel = (R1 × R2 ) (R1 + R2 ) (3.9)
3.14 Measuring DC Voltage with the DMM

3.14.1 Single Batteries
We will make a simple DC voltage measurement of two different batteries.
Figure 3.10 depicts a NiMH AA battery and Figure 3.11 depicts a 9 V alkaline
battery:
□ Set the DMM to the 2000 mV DC range. Contact the terminals of the
NiMH AA battery with the DMM leads: red to positive (+) and black
to negative (–).
□ Record the reading and calculate the accuracy limits based on the
range setting: ________ ± ________.
□ Does the voltage measurement agree with the nominal value (value
indicated on the battery)? _______________ (yes or no)
FIGURE 3.10
NiMH AA battery.
FIGURE 3.11
9 V alkaline battery.
□ Set the DMM to the 20 VDC range. Contact the terminals of the 9 V
battery with the DMM leads: red to positive (+) and black to negative
(–). Record the reading and calculate the accuracy limits based on
the range setting: ________ ± ________.
□ Does the voltage measurement agree with the nominal value (value
indicated on battery)? _______________ (yes or no)
3.14.2 Multiple Batteries—In Series and in Parallel

□ Place two 1.2 AA batteries in the battery holder so that the negative
terminal of one battery is electrically connected to the positive ter-
minal of the other battery that is in series.
□ Measure and record the voltage across the two batteries: ______ V.
□ Is the result of this measurement consistent with the equation that
relates the voltage of two batteries in series? ____________ (yes or no)
Vseries = V1 + V2 (3.10)
□ Place two 1.2 AA batteries in the battery holder so that the negative
terminal of one battery is electrically connected to the negative ter-
minal of the other battery and the positive terminal is connected to
the positive terminal of the other battery. This is connecting these
two batteries in parallel. Be careful to use identical batteries in this
experiment!
□ Measure and record the voltage across the two batteries: ______ V.
□ Is the result of this measurement consistent with the equation

that relates the voltage of two batteries in parallel (Equation 3.11)?
__________ (yes or no)
Vparallel = V1 = V2 (3.11)
3.15 Bench Power Supply

A very versatile instrument is the “bench power supply.” This piece of equip-
ment provides a stable, adjustable, and accurate source of voltage, up to a
maximum current. It can also operate in a “constant current” or “current
limiting” mode. In this mode, the power supply delivers up to a maximum
current over a range of voltages. Finally, many bench power supplies deliver
one or more standard outputs, with 5 and 12 V being common values.
The Extech model 382213 is a 0–30 V DC, 0–3A DC adjustable power sup-
ply; mentioned earlier. It also supplies two fixed voltage sources (12 and 5 V
DC) at a maximum current of 500 mA each. It has a three-digit display for
both voltage and current and has an accuracy specification of ± (1% of full-
scale reading plus two digits).
3.16 Powering a 12 V LED

We will now measure the voltage and current supplied to a couple of “loads.”
FIGURE 3.12
LED track light: spot, MR-16.
In the first case, we will use the power supply to energize a nominal 12 V
LED in an MR-16 “configuration”; see Figure 3.12. The MR-16 base consists of
two pins, each 1.45 to 1.60 mm in diameter and spaced 5.33 mm apart. This
configuration is also referred to as a GU5.3 base.
Set the power supply to 0 V and connect the LED to the supply using alli-
gator clips. Observe proper polarity. Slowly bring the voltage up to 12 V,
noticing how the light intensity varies with voltage.
□ Record the current at 12.0 V: ______ A.

□ Calculate the power dissipated by the LED lamp: ______ W.
3.17 Powering a 10 Ω, 50 W Resistor

We will use the same power supply to energize a 10 Ω, 50 W resistor; see
Figure 3.13. This wire-wound resistor is embedded in an aluminum body
because the 50 W heat dissipation rating requires at least a modest heat sink
to keep the operating temperature of the resistor within reasonable values. If
this resistor is going to dissipate anything more than ~25 W, the resistor body
should be bolted down to another larger heat sink, using heat conductive paste.
In addition to measuring the voltage and current (thereby confirming the
resistance), we will also calculate the power dissipation and measure the
temperature of the resistor under load:
FIGURE 3.13
8 W, 50 W power resistor.
□ Set the output of the power supply to 0 V and clip the power supply
alligator clips onto the axial leads of the resistor. Slowly bring the
voltage up to 15.0 V and record the value of the current: I = ______ A.
□ Wait 5 minutes; reset the voltage to 15.0 V, if necessary; and repeat the
current measurement. Record the value of the current: I = ______ A.
□ Calculate the power dissipated by the resistor: ______ W.
□ Use the IR thermometer (or thermocouple bead and DMM) to mea-
sure the temperature of the resistor body and heat sink: ______ °C.
3.18 AC Circuit Theory

AC circuit theory deals with time-varying currents and voltages. In this labora-
tory, we will deal only with currents and voltages that are sinusoidal (i.e., vary
like a sine wave) at one frequency—in this case, 60 cycles per second. The unit
of frequency—cycles per second—is referred to as hertz (Hz).
The reason for focusing solely on 60 Hz power is that US electrical utilities
deliver power to their customers at 60 Hz, and we will need to understand
this specific type of AC power for the purposes of analyzing loads in general
and when connecting PV systems (e.g., inverters) to the grid. In Europe and
other countries the standard may be 50 Hz.
3.18.1 What Is a Sinusoidal Signal?

A sinusoidal signal is one that varies with time as follows:
V(t) = Vo × sin(2πft) (3.12)
where Vo is a constant such as 160.7. The quantity (2πft) is referred to as the

argument or phase of the sine function and has—in this form—the units
of radians. The quantity (360ft) expresses the phase in degrees. 360 degrees
equals 2π radians. In Table 3.2, we evaluate the expression V (t) for f = 60 s–1
(Hz) in increments of 1.38 ms.
As you can see in Figure 3.14, the sine function varies
• From 0 (at 0°) to 1 (at 90°) and back to 0 (at 180°)

• Then from 0 (at 180°) to –1 (at 270°) and back to zero (at 360°)
This pattern repeats itself every 360° (or 2π radians or 16.67 ms).
TABLE 3.2
Numerical Evaluation of the Sin(2π60t) Function
t(s) 0 1/720 1/360 1/240 1/180 5/720 1/120 7/720 1/90 1/80 5/360 11/720 1/60
t(ms) 0 1.38 2.78 4.17 5.56 6.94 8.33 9.72 11.11 12.50 13.89 15.28 16.67
2π60t (radians) 0 π/6 π/3 π/2 2π/3 5π/6 π 7π/6 4π/3 3π/2 5π/3 11π/6 2π
21,600t (degrees) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Measurements of DC and AC Electrical Circuits
Sin(2π60t) 0 0.50 0.87 1.00 0.87 0.50 0 –0.50 –0.87 –1.00 –0.87 –0.50 0
Note: Included are three ways to describe the argument of the sine function: time, angle in radians, and angle in degrees.
75
Sin
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000 Sin
0.00 180.00 360.00
–0.500
–1.000
–1.500
FIGURE 3.14
Sine curve.
Again, when we talk about a frequency of 60 Hz, we mean that this pattern
repeats itself every 1/60 s or 0.0167 s (16.67 ms). This quantity is called the
(time) period of the oscillation.
Generalizing from DC current and DC voltage to AC current and AC volt-
age is very straightforward. Ohm’s law and Watt’s law still apply:
V(t) = I(t) × R or I(t) = V(t) R (3.13)
P(t) = V(t) × I(t) = V 2 (t) R (3.14)
As you can see in Figure 3.15, the sin2 (sine squared) function varies
• From 0 (at 0°) to +1 (at 90°) and back to 0 (at 180°)

• Then from 0 (at 180°) to +1 (at 270°) and back to zero (at 360°)
Even though the current and voltage individually go through positive and
negative values, the power stays positive. Remember that a negative times a
negative is a positive.
Let us calculate the power that flows into a resistor when a voltage of V
is applied across a resistor. In this case, the time variation of the voltage is
sinusoidal:
V = Vo sin(θ) (3.15)
I = V R = Vo sin(θ) R (3.16)
Sin2
1.2
0.8
0.6
Sin2
0.4
0.2
0
0 180 360
FIGURE 3.15
Sine2 curve.
and
P = I × V = V 2 R = Vo2 sin 2 (θ) R (3.17)
As θ varies over time, we see that the power actually varies as well, just like
the sin2 function we saw in Figure 3.15. We would like to average the power
over time (many time periods) and neglect the fact that it undergoes time vari-
ation on a time scale of one period. It turns out that the average of the sin2 func-
tion over many periods of time approaches one-half (i.e., 0.5) in the limit. So if
we ask only for the average power dissipation, we evidently have
P = Vo2 2R (3.18)
The brackets around the symbol P, for power, imply an average over
time. The average power is exactly one-half of what we would have if the
current were Vo (DC) and not Vo sin θ (AC). In other words, if a sinusoidal
voltage is applied to a resistor of Vo sin (θ) and a current (Vo /R) sin (θ) flows
through the resistor, the resulting power is exactly one-half of the power that
would result from a DC voltage Vo being applied to the same resistor.
In order to deal with this differing result, we adjust the amplitude of the AC
voltage, setting it to be 2Vo . Here, 2 is the square root of 2: ( 2 × 2 = 2) . If
we then substitute the expression 2Vo into Equation 3.19 for Vo , the result-
ing average power will be P = Vo2 /R .
If we take Vo = 120V, then 2Vo = 169.7V ≅ 170V .
Let us summarize the results of these calculations. If a sinusoidally vary-
ing voltage of amplitude 2Vo is applied across a resistor R, then the power
dissipated in the resistor will be the same if we applied a constant voltage of
Vo across the same resistor.
This process—squaring a time-varying quantity, averaging the squared

value over many periods, and then taking the square root of this average—is
referred to as taking the root mean square (RMS) of a quantity.
If the time-varying voltage is not sinusoidal, we can still take the RMS
value; the power flowing through the resistor will be the same as if we had
applied a constant value of voltage equal to the RMS value.
When measuring general time-varying voltages and currents, it is impor-
tant to use a multimeter that is designated “RMS.” A multimeter that does
not have that designation will perform fairly well as long as the AC signals
are pure sinusoids and close to a frequency of 60 Hz.
3.19 Electrical Utility Service

Let us do a practical example: “240/120 VAC split-phase 60 Hz” power. This
is what the utility companies throughout the United States deliver to their
residential and small commercial customers. The utility company delivers
this power using three wires, generally referred to as “L1,” “L2,” and “neu-
tral.” Neutral wires have white insulation or have black insulation and are
wrapped with white tape.9 How is the 240 VAC delivered? The voltage differ-
ence between “L1” and neutral is 120 VAC; between “L2” and neutral it is also
120 VAC.
In Figure 3.16, we show how the voltage of L1 compares to neutral and the
voltage of L2 compares to neutral as a function of phase angle. The voltages
of L1-N and L2-N are said to be 180° out of phase—of the same magnitude
but of opposite polarity.
120.0
90.0
60.0
30.0
L1-N
V/√ 2
0.0
0 90 180 270 360 L2-N
–30.0
–60.0
–90.0
–120.0
FIGURE 3.16
L1 to neutral and L2 to neutral voltages.
240.0
210.0
180.0
150.0
V/√ 2
120.0
L1-L2
90.0
60.0
30.0
0.0
0 90 180 270 360
FIGURE 3.17
L1 to L2 voltage.
We can now ask the question, “What is the voltage difference between L1
and L2?” Starting with the voltage difference of L1-N and subtracting the
voltage difference of L2-N, it is clear that the result is twice as big as L1-N (or
L2-N). In Figure 3.17, we have plotted this result.
3.20 Measuring a 120/240 VAC 200A Split-Phase Service Panel

If an energized service panel is being used for this exercise, this will involve
dealing with potentially lethal 240 VAC voltages. The instructor will elect
to perform this measurement as a demonstration as opposed to having the
students perform the measurement themselves.
Regardless of whether or not the service panel is energized, we will use
red rubber protective gloves (see Chapter 1 on safety) and eye protection.
We will make a number of measurements at the 240/120 VAC service panel. I
have chosen an “all-in-one” load panel, which includes separate sections for
the utility feed and meter and provides for both an overhead utility feed and
an underground utility feed; see Figure 3.18:
□ Open the service panel door.

□ Disconnect the power to the panel by tripping the main disconnect
breaker, a four-pole 200A AC breaker in this case.
□ Remove the safety plate by unscrewing a screw at the bottom of the
plate and gently pulling down on the plate and pulling it away from
the panel. Put the plate aside.
FIGURE 3.18
Service panel.
Notice that the service panel has two rails and that each rail has a series of
tabs to allow circuit breakers to energize the branch circuits to clip onto these
tabs. The tabs are physically arranged so that they are alternately connected
to one rail and then to another. This means that, as you go down the column,
tabs are connected to L1, then L2, then L1, etc., in sequence.
Single-pole breakers clip onto one tab, while two-pole breakers clip onto
two adjacent tabs. See one 50A two-pole, double-width breaker that has been
inserted at the top of the panel.
Notice that there is a single buss bar located at the right-hand side of the
service panel. This is the neutral/ground buss. Neutral conductors will have
white or gray insulation, while equipment grounding conductors (EGCs)
will have green insulation, green insulation with a yellow stripe, or be bare.
The neutral/ground buss is also connected to the neutral service wire via the
flat buss that extends to the left into the “service side” of this panel. The large
terminal next to the buss is reserved for the grounding electrode conductor
(GEC), which connects to the grounding electrode (GE).
As a result of this arrangement, a branch circuit that is connected to L1 (or

L2) via a branch circuit breaker and also to the neutral buss bar is energized
by 120 VAC. One that is connected to L1 and L2 via a two-pole breaker (not
using the neutral at all) is energized by 240 VAC. It is important to realize
that in many cases 240 VAC branch circuits need not have a neutral con-
nection, although they may have a neutral wire to energize 120 VAC loads
(e.g., an electrical oven with 240 VAC heating elements and 120 VAC lighting
and control electronics).
3.20.1 120 VAC Branch Circuit (L1 or L2)
□ Place the DMM body in a convenient, visible place. Wearing electri-

cal gloves and eye protection, place one probe on the neutral buss
and one probe on the left-hand (L1) rail. Measure and record the AC
voltage: ______ VAC.
□ Measure the voltage between the neutral buss and the right-hand
(L2) rail: ______ VAC.
□ Make sure that the 20A single-pole breaker is in the OFF position.
Measure the voltage between the neutral buss and the terminal
block of this breaker: ______ VAC.
□ Switch the 20A single-pole breaker into the ON position. Measure
the voltage between the neutral buss and the terminal block of this
breaker: ______ VAC.
3.20.2 240 VAC Branch Circuit (L1 and L2)
□ Measure the voltage between the L1 and L2 rails: ______ VAC.

□ Make sure that the 20A two-pole breaker is in the OFF position.
Measure the voltage between the two terminal blocks of this breaker:
______ VAC.
□ Switch the 20A two-pole breaker into the ON position. Measure the
voltage between the two terminal blocks of this breaker: ______ VAC.
Later in this laboratory sequence, during the grid-connected PV system

chapter, we will connect the 240 VAC output of our inverter to a service panel
via a two-pole breaker.
3.20.3 Measuring Current in a 120 VAC Branch Circuit
□ Identify a 120 VAC branch circuit with a 20A single-pole breaker.

Using electrical gloves, safety eyewear, and an insulated, flat-blade screwdriver:
□ Make sure that the terminal screw on the breaker is torqued down to
specification.
□ Make enough room around the branch circuit conductor to accom-
modate the jaws of the clamp-on ammeter.
□ Set the clamp-on ammeter to the 30A (~) AC scale.
□ Zero the meter by pressing on the yellow “zero” button.
□ Open the clamp and close it around the branch circuit conductor.
□ Record the value of the current: ______ A AC.
□ If this value is less than 4A AC, open the clamp and close it without
enclosing the conductor, change the range setting to 4000 mA (~)
scale, press the zero button, open the clamp, and close it around the
branch circuit conductor.
□ Record the value of the current: ______ A AC.
3.21 Measuring the Voltage, Current, Power,

and Energy of a 120 VAC Outlet
In this section we will characterize loads connected to a 120 VAC outlet. We
will use the P3 International P4400 Kill-A-Watt electric usage monitor. See
Figure 3.19, depicting the P4400 plugged into a 120 VAC outlet and a power
strip plugged into the P4400.
□ Plug the P4400 into a 120 VAC outlet and plug a quad power strip
into the P4400. Choose a number of “loads,” plug them into the
power strip, and turn them ON. These could include the following:
• Desktop or laptop computer
• Projector
• Cell phone or tablet chargers
• An appliance such as a toaster oven or microwave
Pressing the buttons on the front panel of the P4400, record the following
quantities:
□ Voltage: ______ VAC
□ Current: ______ A AC
□ Power: ______ W AC
FIGURE 3.19
The P4400 plugged into a 120 VAC outlet and a power strip plugged into the P4400.
Press the watt/VA button a second time and record:
□ Volt-amperes: ______ VA AC
□ Frequency: ______ Hz
Press the Hz/PF a second time and record:
□ Power factor: ______ 
□ Energy: ______ kWh
Press the kWh/h button a second time and record:
□ Elapsed time: ______ hours: minutes
Leave the P4000 plugged into the outlet and the appliances on for as long as
practical during the laboratory; come back and make the energy and elapsed
time measurements a second time:
□ Energy: ______ kWh
Press the kWh/hour button a second time and record:
□ Elapsed time: ______ hours: minutes

□ Divide the energy (kWh) reading by the elapsed time (in hours) to
get the average power consumed by the combined loads connected
to the power strip: ______ W.
How does this power calculation agree with the sum of the powers of the
individual loads when ON? _______________ (agrees/disagrees)
Notes
1. http://www.newark.com
2. http://www.digikey.com
3. http://www.grainger.com
4. http://www.ced.com
5. http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/cybernetics/electronics_volts_
amps_watts.htm
6. Extech, http://www.extech.com/instruments/resources/datasheets/EX300
series.pdf
7. Malone Electronics: http://www.voltagestandard.com/Home_Page_JO2U.html
8. Digikey: http://www.digikey.com/us/en/mkt/4-band-resistors.html
9. See NEC 2011, Art. 310-110, for marking of conductors.
4
The Site Survey
4.1 Introduction
This laboratory is designed to cover all of the important aspects of the site
survey. It involves a thorough, detailed review of the site selected for instal-
lation of a photovoltaic system. There are five key pieces to the site survey:
• Measure and document the roof sections (or ground areas) proposed
for installation of PV modules and assess their physical condition.
• Inspect attic spaces, documenting rafter/truss dimensions and spac-
ing and any evidence of water damage.
• Evaluate the best pathways for DC and AC electrical runs from the
PV array to the string combiner or inverter and then to the service
panel. Determine the placement of the inverter(s), monitor, and other
balance of system components.
• Perform a shading analysis, which calculates the shading of the sun
from objects such as trees, buildings, and chimneys at the proposed
location for the PV modules.1
• Gather detailed information about the electrical service including rat-
ing of main disconnect/overcurrent protection, rail ampacity, system
phasing, grounding electrode and grounding electrode conductor,
and suitability for back-feeding the power output of the PV system.

At the end of this laboratory, the student will be able to
• Determine whether a proposed PV system can be fully installed at

the proposed site consistent with stipulated equipment and appli-
cable codes
85
• Gather sufficient information to support a full engineering design

and mechanical/electrical integration plan in support of a permit
package and the installation crews.
4.3 Organization of This Lab

This laboratory is divided into the following five sections:
• Roof measurements, roof pitch and orientation, location of obstruc-

tions and shading objects, inspection of existing roofing materials,
penetrations, and caulking
• Determination of rafters/truss dimensions and spacings, rafter/
truss spans, and attic inspection
• Photographs of roof sections, attic spaces, four building elevations,
building from the street and service panel
• Shading analysis
• Inspection and documentation of service panel and associated
grounding
All of these measurements and observations must be recorded in your labora-

tory notebook. Prior to the start of each site survey, write down your name, the
date, the system size (PV module type, number of PV modules, and PV invert-
ers), the client name and physical address, and confirm the electrical utility.
4.4 Prior Activities

4.4.1 Preliminary Technical Sales Proposal
In most PV projects, the site survey is preceded by the preparation and pre-
sentation of a preliminary technical sales proposal, which includes a high-
level description of the PV system and preliminary pricing that has been
positively received by the customer and that the responsible salesperson
believes has a high probability of turning into a negotiated sales contract.
The PV system configuration has already been simulated for annual energy
production and compared to 12 consecutive months of energy bills. Any
anticipated changes in the square footage of the home, new appliances, addi-
tions to the family, or lifestyle changes have been duly noted and used to
adjust the predicted 12 month energy usage going forward.
The Site Survey 87
In some circumstances, a sales contract has already been signed. In this

case there should be language built into the contract stipulating that the
contract is conditional on confirmation that the roof (or ground area) is of
sufficient size, the roof (or ground area) is in good condition, the existing
electrical service is code compliant, and there are no other existing deficien-
cies that would prevent the installation of a code-compliant PV system. In
this latter regard, there could be problems with a leaking roof; damaged
shingles, tiles, or roof membrane, or problems with the electrical wiring.
4.4.2 Sample Module Rows

Sample module rows are examples of frequently encountered PV layouts.
They are based on the specified PV module(s) and orientations and take into
account mid- and end-clamp dimensions. These examples can be created
using a CAD tool or drawn on quad ruled paper. In any event they are fully
dimensioned.
Using your field notebook, construct a series of single-row module

“samples” as described before: comprising two, three, four, and five
modules in portrait orientation, using the actual dimensions of the
Renogy RNG-240D PV module and ProSolar mid- and end-clamps.
Use a scale of two squares (1/2 in.) per foot.
4.4.3 Determination of All Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJs)

A successful site surveyor will need to understand which authorities have
jurisdiction over a PV installation and will properly apply the requirements
of each jurisdiction to the proposed installation. These AHJs include the
following:
• Municipal or county building and safety department

• Municipal, county, or state fire marshal
• Municipal zoning committees
• Homeowners’ associations (HOAs) and other architectural committees
• Electrical utility
For example, the applicable building and safety department will have
requirements regarding roof loading (live, dead, wind, and perhaps seismic).
The electrical utility may require an AC disconnect or a production meter.
The fire marshal will usually require “setbacks,” which are portions of the
roof that must be kept free of PV equipment so that fire fighters can have free
and unrestricted access to the rood in case of fire.
Municipal zoning committees2 and architectural review committees pres-
ent challenges to a site surveyor because they can vary quite widely in terms
of their restrictions. Zoning (a/k/a land use) committees may apply restric-
tions to building construction or building modifications apart from safety-
related codes. They may apply restrictions reflective of an area exclusive to
single-family residences. Architectural review committees enforce “restric-
tive covenants” related to aesthetic considerations on behalf of homeowner
associations (a/k/a community associations). These restrictions may include
setback and height restrictions, a requirement that utilities be screened, and
conformance to an architectural style.3 It is the responsibility of the salesper-
son to determine which AHJs cover the property in question and to commu-
nicate this information to the site surveyor. It is the responsibility of the site
surveyor to understand the specifics of each jurisdiction and to take them
into account while performing the site survey.
4.4.4 The Virtual Site Survey

A virtual site survey is one that is accomplished without physically visit-
ing the site. It is usually performed by a salesperson using aerial imagery
obtained by satellites or low-flying aircraft and referring to a county asses-
sor’s parcel map.
Google Earth is a good example of satellite imagery. Zillow, MS Live Earth,
and Google Maps are good examples of imagery from low-flying aircraft. In
addition, Google maps include street views.
Satellite images yield true dimensions in the plane of the earth but flat-
ten the vertical dimension and are relatively low resolution (~1 ft.). Aircraft
images have a significant angle of incidence (e.g., 30°) and do not allow direct
or accurate measurement of overall roof dimensions, but they do have the
advantage of high resolution. This higher resolution can actually permit
the resolution of chimneys, skylights, most vents, and other obstructions.
In addition to higher resolution, airplane images can be obtained from four
perspectives (east, south, west, and north), allowing the inference of roof
pitch and other information relating to the vertical dimension.
A recent commercial application, Eagleview,4 uses aerial imaging to deter-
mine a full three-dimensional representation of the building. Since the
Eagleview application requires a fee, it may not be appropriate for use in this
laboratory unless an educational use fee waiver can be arranged.
Since the preliminary site survey is often used in conjunction with a pre-
liminary technical sales proposal for the customer’s consideration, it should
include enough information to confirm that the required number of PV mod-
ules fit the appropriate roof sections (or ground areas).
The site surveyor should have a copy of the preliminary site survey, if
available, in hand when performing his or her own site survey.
The Site Survey 89
4.5 Resources
The site survey requires a number of relatively sophisticated instruments
and an attention to detail that is surpassed only by the actual PV installation.
The following is a comprehensive list of equipment needed for a successful
site survey:
• 8 ft. step ladder or 10–12 ft. extension ladder

• 24 ft. extension ladder5
• 35 ft. tape measure
• 100 ft. measurement wheel
• Digital camera
• Quad-ruled field notebook (Ampad model #22-158, or equivalent;
www.ampad.com)
• Pencil, eraser, and 6 in. ruler
• Protractor (a/k/a “tilt meter”)
• Construction level and a 2 × 4 piece of lumber, minimum 2 ft. long
• Flashlight with fresh batteries
• Screwdriver with both flat and Phillips blades
• Noncontacting AC voltage detector
• Shading analysis tool: SolarPathfinder™ or Solmetric Sun-eye™
• Calculator
• Small backpack in which to keep all of the items except the ladders
4.6 Example of a Site Survey

4.6.1 County Assessor’s Map
Prior to going to the site, you, as the site surveyor, should have a printout of
the county assessor’s map of the lot, giving you the overall lot boundaries.
Figure 4.1 depicts a portion of the assessor’s plot plan.
4.6.2 Sketch of the Property Including House
□ Using the assessor’s map as reference, create a hand sketch of the

property. Include the house, garage, driveway, curb, and any other
structures. Indicate true north on the sketch.
FIGURE 4.1
Portion of assessor’s plot plan.
□ Indicate the azimuth and pitch of all roof sections. A measurement

wheel can be used to quickly measure setbacks from lot boundaries
of all structures to a precision of half a foot. This sketch should show
the location of the service drop and the service panel.
□ Create a second, more detailed sketch for each of the roof sections
that will have PV modules. This sketch should include the location
of all of the modules contained in the preliminary technical pro-
posal. This sketch should include dimensions of the roof, of the PV
arrays, and of all relevant obstructions
□ On this second sketch, indicate the location where all of the shading
measurements were taken.
4.6.3 Documentation of Roof Sections

Figure 4.2 shows the final drawing of the roof section of a residential build-
ing. There are a total of 20 shading measurements, and the location of the
roof where each shading measurement was taken is documented. It contains
a series of letters from A through M, which indicate the location of obstruc-
tions and shading objects. It shows the location of the service panel and util-
ity drop. This figure is missing data on the pitch of the various roof sections.
The Site Survey 91
Shading: (1) 96% (7) 97% (13) 99% (19) 98%

(2) 96% (8) 98% (14) 99% (20) 97% 12' 5" 12' 5" [0, 0] A-I
Superior Street
(3) 97 % (9) 96% (15) 99% 2 1
(4) 97% (10) 97% (16) 97%
(5) 98% (11) 99% (17) 97%
(6) 98% (12) 59% (18) 98% 21"
3 5
33' 2"
Entrance
10' 9" A N
6' 8" M
[0,0] L&M 13 12
9' 10.5" 6' 3" 4
20 L 17' 1"
6' 6"
7' 4"
17' 4"
6
65' 6"
B
9' 4.5" 14 11 7' 2"
19
17' 3.5" HG
C
44' 8.5" 15 10 F 7
10' 2" 11' 9"
E
18
K
9' 4"
8
16' 9" 16 9 12' 7"
17 Drop
J1
10' 11"
6' 9" 6' 4.5" 8' 1" D Disconnect Panel
11' 11" 11' 11"
CH Breaker Panel 16' 3.5"
14' 11" 6' 10" * Client’s preferred Inverter
5' 2" location
[0,0] K 20' 5.5"
FIGURE 4.2
Detail layout of shading objects/obstructions on a roof.
Figure 4.3 contains additional information regarding the layout, specifically,

the location of all obstructions and shading objects.
4.6.4 Site Survey Document

The site survey detail summarizes the results of the site survey. In our exam-
ple it contains the following sections:
• Access to the property

• Service panel details
• Utility meter and service drop
• Roof condition
• A legend with the details of the obstructions and shading objects.
Site Survey Detail

Accessibility
• Curb to front door: 66 ft.
• Eastern property line: 10 ft. 5 in.
• Western property line: 8 ft. 5 in.
Breaker Panel
• 200 amp Siemens 120/240 volts of alternating current (VAC); two 2-pole units issue ZP-6341
• 16–20 amp Siemens 1-pole unit type MP-T
*1 available breaker slot
Service Panel
• 200 amp service disconnect with four open breaker slots
• Client has two panels: original panel with breakers and disconnect located at the rear
of house.
• City building department determined drop and main panel to be moved to SE corner
of house. Ground buss has two #4 gauge wires, one running into the attic mostly likely
to main panel, other runs downward to Ufer ground.
Meter
• Schlumberger Rr 27 7/9 analog watt-hour meter; City of Los Angeles XX YYY *0-999999*;
CL200, 240 V, 3 W, type J5S, FM2S, TA 30, 60 Hz, Kh 7.2
Service Drop
• Arial drop; Ufer ground
Rafters
• 16 in. on centers
Roof Condition
• Tar and gravel roof in excellent condition; client said roof is about 4–6 years old.
Legend for Obstructions and Shading Objectives

(A) 20 ft., 9 in. × 3 ft., 2 in. height; 1 ft., 50 in. width; 6 in. gas vent
(B) 37 ft., 3 in. × 8 ft., 5 in. height; 5 in. width; 2 in. abs piping
(C) 42 ft., 4 in. × 3 ft., 11 in. height; 3 in. width; 2.5 in. abs piping
(D) 63 ft., 5 in. × 1 ft., 6 in. height; 3 ft. 6 in. width; 2 in. drop
(E) 58 ft., 6 in. × 16 ft., 1 in. height; 8 in. width; 1 in. attic vent
(F) 55 ft., 11 in. × 16 ft., 6.5 in. height; 6 ft. 11 in. width; 7 ft., 7 in. antenna/obsolete service drop
(G) 48 ft., 6 in. × 18 ft., 2.5 in. height; 2 ft. 2 in. width; 6 in. gas vent
(H) 48 ft., 10 in. × 20 ft., 50 in. height; 1 ft. 7 in. width; 1 ft., 5 in. turbine vent
(I) 63 ft., 7 in. × 25 ft., 1.5 in. height; 3 in. width; 2 in. abs piping
(J) 63 ft., 5 in. × 30 ft., 6.5 in. height; 10.5 in. width; 2 in. abs piping
(K) 15 ft., 1.5 in. × 12 ft., 11 in. height; 1 ft., 7 in. width; 1 ft., 5 in. turbine vent
(L) 9 ft., 8 in. × 18 ft., 2 in. height; 1 ft. width; 2.5 in. abs piping
(M) 4 ft., 8 in. × 22 ft., 5 in. height; 1 ft., 1 in. width; 2.5 in. abs piping
Chimney: length: 3 ft., 10 in., width: 2 ft., 4.5 in.; height: 6 ft., 1 in.
FIGURE 4.3
Additional information about shading objects/obstructions.
The Site Survey 93

4.7.1 Student Site Survey
4.7.1.1 Document the Roof
□ Document the type of roof using one of the industry standard
descriptions: asphalt/composite shingle, torch-down, tar and gravel,
one-piece S-tile, flat concrete tile, standing metal seam, two-piece/C-
tile, wood shake, or slate.
□ In the case of tile roofs, ask the client if there are any extra tiles and
if you could borrow a sample, to be returned.
□ Record the length and width of all roof sections. Pay particular
attention to the roof sections that will be used for PV module instal-
lation—take measurements to the closest half inch.
□ Make measurements from opposite corners of each roof section
(i.e., triangulate), especially if the roof is not rectangular. Make one
sketch per roof section in your notebook, to scale. Use a scale of two
squares per foot in the Ampad quad-ruled notebook.
□ For each roof section, locate any obstructions and shading objects—
soil vents, heater vents, exhaust fan vents, skylights, chimneys, roof
hatches, A/C compressors—and any other components that might
interfere with the placement of the PV modules or shade them.
□ Use a common reference point (origin) on the roof (e.g., the south-
east corner) to locate the x- and y-dimensions of these objects. Use
a lettering or numbering system on the roof sketch and provide a
separate legend to provide the sizes (i.e., length, width, height) of the
obstructions and shading objects. (See Figure 4.3.)
□ Measure the true bearing of the roof using a compass. Most smart
phones have a compass application that can be downloaded and
used for this purpose. When GPS technology is used, these com-
passes yield true bearings. If a magnetic compass is used, make sure
that there are not steel objects nearby (e.g., flashing), which would
distort the reading, and take into account the local magnetic declina-
tion. Record the true bearing: ______ ° (true).
□ Measure and record the overhang of the eaves for each roof section:
______ ft.
□ Measure the pitch of the roof by laying a long (minimum 2 ft.) level
or length of 2 × 4 lumber on the roof and placing the protractor on
top. Or use the protractor on a rafter tail: ______ .
Almost all pitched roofs are constructed using standard rise-to-run ratio.
A rise of 4 ft. for every 12 ft. of horizontal run is referred to as “4:12.” This
results in a roof pitch of 19°. Common pitches in southern California are 3:12,
4:12, and 5:12. Low-slope roofs (e.g., torch-down) commonly used in commer-
cial buildings can have pitches of 1:12, or even less.
□ Ask the client the age of the roof and document this information.
□ Ask the client if the roof leaks and record the answer in your
notebook.
□ Determine if there is any undulation or sagging of the roof.
□ Observe the condition of the roofing material and note any loose,
cracked, or missing shingles/tiles. For asphalt shingle roofs, examine
for missing granular coating or wear, especially the ridge caps. For flat
roofs, examine for evidence of low-spots with “stains” or even dirt/
debris caused by puddling. Take a photograph of anything problematic.
See Figure 4.4 for an example of a heavily weathered asphalt shingle roof.

This roof would need replacement before the installation of the PV modules
could commence.
□ Observe the flashing and caulking for all pipes, vents, skylights,
chimneys, and attachments (e.g., satellite dish attachments). Record
any substandard work or problems.
□ Photograph any cracked or missing shingles/tiles and any question-
able flashing or deteriorating caulking. In this event, communicate this
information to the salesperson so that he or she may inform the cus-
tomer, and take this information into account in the final sales contract.
FIGURE 4.4
Heavily weathered asphalt shingle roof.
The Site Survey 95
□ Take several photos of every section of the roof, from every relevant
angle.
□ In the case of a ground mount, measure the slope of the ground,
ground surface, and subsurface details.
□ Based on proposed tilt angle and the number of rows and columns
in the array, sketch the array in the notebook, making sure to indi-
cate the position of the array with respect to any buildings.
□ Note the location and dimensions of any obstructions (e.g., walls)
and shading objects (e.g., trees, buildings).
4.7.2 Rafter/Truss and Attic Details

Measure and record the dimensions (e.g., 2 × 8) and center-to-center spac-
ing (e.g., 16 in.) of the rafters/trusses. The rafter/truss dimensions and spac-
ing can be obtained by measuring exposed rafter tails at the eaves or by an
inspection of the attic.
4.7.2.1 Attic Inspection

Check with the owner as to the locations of the access points to the attic.
If the DC or AC wiring runs are planned to be placed in the attic, an attic
inspection is mandatory. Attic access usually involves removing an access
panel, and sometimes there are retractable stairs. Use an 8 ft. step ladder or a
12 ft. extension ladder to reach the attic space(s).
□ Measure or confirm rafter/truss dimensions and center-to-center

spacing.
□ Note the distance that the rafter/truss system spans between load-
bearing walls.
□ Determine the optimum route from roof penetration to the point
where the wiring exits the building, in the vicinity of the inverter.
□ Take an adequate number of photographs of the entire attic space.
4.7.3 Main Service Panel

□ Note the location of the service panel on the marked-up plot plan
and photograph the panel with the panel door closed.
□ Open the door to the service panel and take a picture including the
manufacturer’s label and the breakers.
□ Remove the cover plate to the service panel and photograph the
exposed busses and circuit breakers.
□ Note the manufacturer and model number of the panel, the voltage,
and the current capacity of the busses and main breaker. They are
usually the same, but not always; the main breaker can be smaller.
□ Based on the quantity and size of the breaker(s) needed for the solar
system (e.g., one 2-pole 20 A breaker), determine whether or not there
is room in the service panel for the solar breaker. If not, determine if
single pole, full-width breakers can be replaced by half-width “twin”
breakers or whether two 2-pole breakers can be replaced by “quad”
breakers to make room.
4.7.4 Use of a Subpanel

□ If the preceding strategy of circuit breaker management is not suc-
cessful, document the use of a subpanel moving several branch cir-
cuits to create a code-compliant solution.
□ If two or more inverters are involved, document the deployment of a
subpanel to combine the AC outputs of the inverters prior to landing
on the service panel.
4.7.5 Locations for Other Major Components

□ Document the recommended location for the inverter(s), subpanel (if
needed), AC disconnect, and production meter.
□ If the preliminary technical proposal calls out a battery backup sys-
tem, determine the optimum locations for the battery bank and the
critical load subpanel.
□ Measure the distance from the battery bank to the inverter: ______ ft.
□ Depending on the monitor type, document suitable locations for all
of the components that comprise the monitoring system, including
data logger, current transformers, voltage measurement units, wire-
less/wired remotes, and communications gateways.
□ Determine if the client has the required wireless router or wireless
access point to the home network.
4.7.6 Grounding of Electrical Service

□ Document the grounding electrode (GE), the system grounding elec-
trode conductor (GEC), and the ground buss bar in the service panel.
□ Photograph the GE and the GEC.
□ If need be, remove the inspection plate of a Ufer ground in order to
document and photograph it.
The Site Survey 97
4.7.7 Trenching
There will be a need for trenching if the PV modules are to be located on a
building detached from the building where the service panel is located, or if
this is a ground mount.
□ Indicate and dimension the recommended route for the trenching.
4.8 Shading Analysis

A proper shading analysis is a key component of the site survey. A “skyline”
refers to a single image of the shading objects superimposed on a sun path
diagram. In principle, multiple skylines are taken on each roof structure that
will receive PV modules. A good strategy is to make shading measurements
at the four corners and in the middle of the roof. A “session” refers to a group
of skylines from one roof.
This process is then repeated for each roof section that will receive PV
modules.
With the advent of the Solmetric SunEye, each capturing of a single indi-
vidual skyline takes a minute or so and the postprocessing of all of a session
and the final shading report might take another 15 minutes.
Having said that, the rapidity and ease with which a shading report can
be undertaken using a SunEye can lead to a situation where the student fails
to appreciate the underlying fundamentals. For this reason, we will begin our
shading analysis exercise using the SolarPathfinder™ tool, complete with sun path
graph paper, crayons, and optional digital imaging. This will dovetail very nicely
with the lecture portion of the course, where a considerable amount of time
is spent on the sun’s path through the sky and the solar resource in general.
4.8.1 Performing a Manual Shading Analysis Using the SolarPathfinder

Refer to the user’s guide to set up the SolarPathfinder, consisting of the tri-
pod, base section, instrument section, and semitransparent dome section.
See Figure 4.5 for a diagram of the SolarPathfinder.
The SolarPathfinder employs sun path graph paper, which includes a set of
mutually perpendicular axes. One set of axes—the “arcs”—traces the sun’s
path through the sky during one day and is marked with the month in ques-
tion (e.g., December). In principle, there could even be a finer set of axes, but
one trace representative of all days in that month gives satisfactory results.
The other set of axes—the “rays”—traces out a constant hour for any time of
year and is marked with that time of day (e.g., 10 a.m.). The intersection of a
Retaining Clip Dome

Dome Ring
Dome Section
Compass Level
Magnetic Triangular Pivot
Declination
Instrument
Locking Tab
Section
Rubber “O” Ring

Seat for Base
Base Section
Grommets Tripod
FIGURE 4.5
Diagram of the SolarPathfinder (Courtesy of SolarPathfinder Corp.).
sun path and a time-of-day ray pinpoints the location of the sun on a day in
that month and at that time of day.
□ Level the base section first using the adjustable length tripod legs.
Then adjust the instrument section as it sits in the base section so
that the bubble is in the center of the black circle.
□ Set the declination of the job site using the magnetic declination tab,
a small brass tab next to the compass. The declination of the Los
Angeles area is approximately 12° east. Negative numbers are to the
left of the “zero” and positive numbers are to the right of it.
The Site Survey 99
□ Rotate the instrument section so that the red arm of the compass
points north (if the site is in the Northern Hemisphere; if not, the red
arm should point south).
□ Double-check the bubble to make sure that it remains in the center of
the black circle.
□ Place a piece of sun path graph paper (see Figure 4.6) onto the instru-
ment section. Make sure that the range of latitudes printed on the
graph paper includes the latitude of the site.
□ Place the semitransparent dome onto the instrument section. Notice
how the skyline is reflected in the dome.
□ While viewing the dome from 12 to 18 in. directly above it, place a
white crayon under the dome and trace out the skyline using the
crayon.
□ Remove the dome and the graph paper and inspect the white trace,
filling in any weak traces.
The results of a typical tracing are shown in Figure 4.7.

Note that there is a series of numbers embedded in each of the sun path
traces—one number for each half hour in the day. In each case the numbers
add up to 100%. These numbers represent the fractional solar resource for
that half hour time period.
In the spirit of a “hands-on” laboratory, we will now go through a fairly
laborious procedure to determine the shading percentage “by hand.” This
FIGURE 4.6
SolarPathfinder graph paper (Courtesy of SolarPathfinder Corp.).
FIGURE 4.7
Trace of shading and horizon (Courtesy of SolarPathfinder Corp.).
will serve to explain how tracing the skyline with a white crayon on the sun
path graph paper captures the shading data and could be used to calculate
a shading percentage without any other equipment or software (except for a
PVWatts calculation to get unshaded insolation data).
□ Inspect the arc for the month of December. Does the white crayon
trace intersect this arc? If so, the portion of the arc between the
beginning of the intersection and the end of the intersection rep-
resents the time period for which the sun is blocked by the skyline.
Outside this time period the site receives the full solar resource.
□ Sum the unshaded embedded numbers for the month of December
and record this number as a decimal fraction in the table in Figure 4.8
under the column “Shading Factor” (e.g., 0.81).
□ Repeat this process for the other 11 months.
To complete this exercise, we need to know the available unshaded insola-

tion for the site given the orientation of the roof (azimuth and pitch). This can
be done by using PVWatts®.
□ Go to the PVWatts website: http://pvwatts.nrel.gov/

The Site Survey 101
Insolation Days AC Energy AC Energy

No Shading in the No Shading Shading w/Shading
Month (kWh/m2/day) month (kWh/mo) Factor (kWh/mo)
Jan 31 0.69
Feb 28 0.84
Mar 31 1.00
April 30 1.00
May 31 1.00
June 30 1.00
July 31 1.00
Aug 31 1.00
Sept 30 1.00
Oct 31 0.96
Nov 30 0.72
Dec 31 0.71
Year 365
FIGURE 4.8
Shading calculation table.
□ Enter the site address or zip code and then click on “Go.”
□ Then click on the large arrow “System Info” on the right-hand side
of the page.
□ Enter the system size of 4.2 kW. The DC rating is the sum of the STC
ratings of the PV modules.
□ Choose standard for module type.
□ Choose “fixed (roof mount).”
□ In order to determine the system losses, click on the “Derate Calc”
button.
□ Enter 0.965 into the “Inverter/transformer” fill-in box, for the
inverter efficiency (e.g., SB3000TL-US-22 (240 V), a 3 kW transformer-
less inverter).
□ Enter 2 into the “Soiling (%)” fill-in box. Enter “0” into the Shading (%)
box.
□ Leave all other fill-in boxes with their default values.
□ Click on “Save.”
FIGURE 4.9
PVWatts® System Losses Breakdown page.
This should result in a DC–AC derate factor of 0.83, as shown in Figure 4.9.
□ Click on “Save” and the number 11.42 will be transferred to the

System Losses (%) box.
□ Enter a tilt of 18° (4:12 roof pitch) and an azimuth of 180° (south).
□ Click on Advanced Parameters.
□ Enter “96.5” into Inverter Efficiency (%) box.
□ Choose “Residential” for system type.
□ Enter “0.16” in the fill-in box for average cost of electricity, but do not
enter other information.
The main page should look like Figure 4.10.
□ Click on the right arrow, “Go to PVWatts results.”

□ The resulting page should look like Figure 4.11.
The first column in Figure 4.11 is the insolation for the array averaged over
each month. This is a function of the site location, tilt, and azimuth. This
The Site Survey 103
FIGURE 4.10
PVWatts® System Information page.
information is akin to the data contained in the solar redbook and other sources.
It is not a function of the PV modules or inverter. The second column is the AC
energy production for the system for each month of the year. This now takes into
account the PV equipment and insolation data. The third column dollarizes the
energy production using the cost of electricity (in this case $0.16/kWh).
At this point, none of these data take into account the effects of shading. In
order to do this, the monthly AC energy needs to be entered into the table in
Figure 4.8. We enter the daily insolation data as well for completeness, even
though it is not used in the calculation.
The entries in the final column, “AC Energy w/Shading,” are the product
of the “AC Energy No Shading” entries and the “Shading Factor” entries.
□ Calculate the “AC Energy w/Shading” for each month and sum the
data over all the months to get a total for the year. The result should
look like Figure 4.12.
4.8.2 Performing an Advanced Shading Analysis

Using the SolarPathfinder
We can speed up the process of getting a shading analysis by using the
SolarPathfinder Assistant (SPA) software and using digital images of the sun
FIGURE 4.11
PVWatts® Results page.
path traces. The SPA software also links to PVWatts so that we do not have
to do a separate PVWatts calculation. The SPA software then calculates the
“AC Energy with shading” and produces a report.
□ Remove the dome and take a photo of the skyline trace on the sun
path graph paper while it is still in the instrument section.
□ Upload the trace images to your computer.
□ Start the SolarPathfinder Assistant and start a new report.
□ Fill in the following information:
• Report name
• Notes
• Report type: choose PV
• Site location finder: choose zip code
• Tilt angle: enter 18°
□ Click on “Next.”
□ Choose south to be 180°.
The Site Survey 105
Insolation Days AC Energy AC Energy

No Shading in the No Shading Shading w/Shading
Month (kWh/m2/day) month (kWh/mo) Factor (kWh/mo)
Jan 4.09 31 233 0.69 161
Feb 3.87 28 202 0.84 170
Mar 5.70 31 325 1.00 325
April 6.77 30 369 1.00 369
May 6.72 31 374 1.00 374
June 7.64 30 412 1.00 412
July 7.54 31 416 1.00 416
Aug 7.55 31 413 1.00 413
Sept 5.99 30 313 1.00 313
Oct 4.73 31 267 0.96 256
Nov 4.81 30 263 0.72 189
Dec 3.74 31 211 0.71 150
Annual 5.76 365 3,798 3,548
FIGURE 4.12
Completed energy with shading calculation after entering energy per month (unshaded)
and shading factor.
□ Enter compass azimuth (or true south if using a GPS-based compass).

□ Leave the “Ideal Tilt” and “Ideal Azimuth” at their default values.
□ Choose inverter make and model.
□ Choose panel make and model.
□ Enter the inverter count and PV module count.
□ Enter the DC-to-AC derate factor data: inverter efficiency of 0.965
and soiling of 0.98.
□ Enter in the number of skyline measurements per roof section.
□ Crop and calibrate each image.
□ Trace the images.
□ Click on “Create Report.”
The report will be automatically generated and saved. The most important
column will be the “Actual Un-shaded AC Energy,” by month.
4.8.3 Performing a Shading Analysis Using the Solmetric SunEye ®

The Solmetric SunEye has a built-in fisheye camera, a GPS compass, and an
electric level. Thus, it is able to automate the process of capturing skylines.
The SunEye can be connected to a computer where the finishing touches can
be made on the skylines and a shading report can be generated. Because of
the ease of taking skyline images, the SunEye allows a site surveyor to take
dozens of skyline images without a great deal of effort.
□ Make sure that the SunEye is fully charged before using.

□ Connect the power cable, if need be, and start the SunEye by press-
ing the yellow button.
□ Click on “New Session” and give the session a name, usually the
name of the client. Add any notes you believe would be useful later.
Click on “Next.”
□ Decide which method to use to identify the location of the site. With
the model 210 GP, the SunEye will get the location via GPS satellites.
With the non-GPS version of the model 210 or with the model 100,
the best way to enter the site location is to choose a city and state.
This completes the entry of the session properties.
□ Click the icon at the lower left-hand corner of the screen and click on
“Skyline.”
□ Click on “New.”
□ Choose “Fixed” (axis); “Azimuth,” choosing true or magnetic, and
tilt. Click on “OK.”
□ Level the SunEye and align it to true south and click on “Snap.”
□ Create a skyline at each of the corners and at the center of the roof
section in question.
□ Annotate the location of these multiple skylines (e.g., “SE corner,
roof section #1”).
□ If necessary, click on the green and yellow paintbrushes to edit the
image, erasing spurious shading or to add shading that was missed.
Click on the X and choose “Apply Changes.”
□ Repeat this process for all roof sections that will have PV modules.
You have the choice to create a new session for each new roof section or
to annotate the skylines adequately so that it is obvious which skylines go
The Site Survey 107
with each roof. The latter choice is more appropriate, since the Solmetric
software allows you to choose which skylines are to be used for a given
shading analysis.
At this point we will launch the Solmetric software on a computer, upload
the SunEye images, and produce shading reports:
□ Launch Solmetric software.

□ Click on “File.”
□ Click on “Transfer from device.”
□ Click “Next.”
This will download all new sessions and erase them from the SunEye.
□ Click on “Session” and “Browse.”

□ Click on the session you want to use and click “Open.”
□ Click the icon at the lower left-hand corner of the screen; click on
“Skyline” and click on “Browse.”
□ Choose the first skyline and click on “Open.”
□ Use the paintbrush tools to edit the skyline and click on the X and
click on “Apply Changes.”
□ Edit all of the skylines.
□ Click on “File” and then click on “Export Session Report and Data.”
□ Fill in the client information and click “Next.”
□ Fill in the site surveyor information and click “Next.”
□ At this point you can choose which skylines are used to create a
shading report. Usually these are the skylines for a single roof. Click
“Next.”
□ Choose the file format for the report. A .pdf file format is best for our
purposes.
□ Choose the directory where the report will be saved.
□ Add a company logo if desired.
□ Click “Export.”
□ The resulting report will consist of a cover page, a summary shading
analysis (averaging over the chosen skylines), and shading analyses
for each skyline.
□ Copy the monthly solar access averages from the summary page into
the “Shading Factor” column in Figure 4.8.
□ Multiply the “AC Energy No Shading” by the “Shading Factor” to
get the “AC Energy with Shading.”
□ Sum the individual monthly entries to an annual AC energy.
4.9 Summary
We have used three separate techniques to calculate an estimate of AC energy
production for a given PV array: manual SolarPathfinder, SolarPathfinder
Assistant, and SunEye. Each has its own benefits.
The totally manual SolarPathfinder is straightforward but quite laborious.
It does have the pedagogical merit that the process makes it extremely clear
how shading analysis can be used in conjunction with AC energy estimation
software to predict the performance of a PV system.
The basic SolarPathfinder used in conjunction with SolarPathfinder
Assistant software still requires handcrafted traces, but by using a digital
camera, the traces can be processed by a computer program, eliminating the
tedious reading of the sun path traces. It also has the benefit of performing
the basic AC energy calculation as well, eliminating the need to use PVWatts.
The report contains quite a bit of information, in addition to the crucial AC
energy with shading data.
The SunEye tool, especially with GPS, makes quick work of the job of cre-
ating skylines. The report looks quite professional. However, to arrive at a
number for AC energy with shading still requires the use of PVWatts.
For the site surveyor, the SunEye is obviously the best tool to use.
However, the SolarPathfinder’s cost is a quarter of the SunEye. Thus, as a
pedagogical tool or if shading analyses do not need to be done that often, the
SolarPathfinder may be quite adequate for the task.
Notes
1. The underlying concept to a shading analysis is the sun as an energy resource.
It is assumed that this concept has already been covered in the companion lec-
ture sequence to this laboratory, but it will be covered again to make sure that
this extremely important piece of the site survey is understood and applied
accurately.
2. In 1979, the city of Los Angeles adopted an ordinance establishing historic pres-
ervation overlay zones to provide for review of proposed exterior alterations
and additions to historic properties within designated districts.
3. See “Bringing Solar Energy to the Planned Community,” T. Starrs, L. Nelson,
and F. Zaleman (www.doc.gov/bridge).
4. http://www.eagleview.com
5. In rare cases, a 28 ft. extension ladder may be needed for two-story buildings.
5
Racking Systems—General Considerations
5.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 involves the design and layout of photovoltaic racking systems
and the installation of them on a variety of different roof types. We will
cover two commonly encountered roof types: asphalt composition shingle
and flat concrete tile. Other common roof types include two-piece C-tile,
one-piece S-tile, standing seam metal roofs, torchdown, and membrane
roofs (e.g., PVC). We will not cover these roof types, basically because of a
lack of time.
The role of the racking system is to provide a sturdy, weatherproof founda-
tion for a roof-mounted PV system. A racking system is typically composed
of brackets (a/k/a anchors or footings), flashing, rails, and module clamps.
Brackets are anchored to the roof proper and rails are in turn mounted to the
brackets. The rails support the PV modules, possible microinverters or power
optimizers, and wiring. Module clamps secure the PV modules to the rails.
Since the brackets anchor the racking system to the roof rafters or trusses,
we need to check the pull-out strength of the fasteners used with the bracket,
to make sure that the PV system can safely handle the uplift forces due to
wind loading. We will perform this check using data tables that cover stan-
dard lag bolt dimensions and commonly encountered wood species used for
rafters and trusses.
In this introductory section, we will cover all of the material that is inde-
pendent of the roof type. Appendices 5A and 5B (as well as 5C through 5E in
the next edition) cover the material that is roof specific: the bracket itself and
the flashing used to weatherproof the bracket.
We will have a series of mock roofs, each 4 ft. (1.22 m) × 8 ft. (2.44 m), of
different roof types. Students will form teams and will rotate through the
different roof types. Because students will encounter different roof types
first, Appendices 5A and 5B (as well as 5C–5E in the next edition) will include
similar material.
A fairly large number of companies sell racking systems and most offer
products that address the most often encountered roof types.
109

At the end of this lab, the student will be able to
• Describe the makeup of different roof types

• Locate rafters on a roof
• Lay out the racking system on a roof
• Calculate the pull-out strength and resistance to lateral forces for a
given bracket system
5.3 Setup
One approach to implementation of a hands-on laboratory covering rack-
ing systems is to construct a number of small mock roofs covering the roof
types listed before. These small mock roofs are documented in detail in
Appendix I. A Google SketchUp model is included with this textbook. All
small mock roofs are based on a 4 ft. × 8 ft. sheet of plywood (or OSB) with
2 × 4 rafters on 16 in. centers.
NOTE: Two roofs for each of the three types of roofs or one roof for each of the
five types of roofs should be adequate for a class of 12 students, but with larger
classes, thought should be given to building one roof for every two students.
5.3.1 Portrait versus Landscape Layouts

There are two basic ways to lay out PV modules: portrait and landscape.
In portrait, the long dimension of the PV module is parallel to the rafters
(up and down the pitch of the roof), while in landscape the long dimensions
are at right angles to the rafters (left to right on the roof). Figures 5.1 and 5.2
depict portrait and landscape formats, respectively.
5.4 Positioning the Rails and Brackets

5.4.1 The 25% and 75% Rule
Regardless of the orientation, the rails that support the PV modules need
to run perpendicular to the long dimension of the PV module and the module
Racking Systems—General Considerations 111
FIGURE 5.1
A two-row, four-column array of modules in portrait format. For clarity, brackets and rails are
omitted.
FIGURE 5.2
A four-row, two-column array of modules in landscape format. For clarity, brackets and rails
are omitted.
clamps need to fasten to this long dimension of the module. This is not a matter of
choice; it is typically a requirement of the module manufacturer and may in
fact be part of the installation instructions. The rails are usually positioned
so as to support the modules at approximately the 25% and 75% points along
this long dimension of the module. Consult your module manufacturer to
understand how much latitude you have in this regard.
As a result of this “rails and clamps on the long dimension” requirement,
a portrait orientation results in the rails running at right angles to the rafters;
however, a landscape orientation results in the rails running parallel to the
rafters. A landscape orientation is less flexible as it requires that the rails be
located co-incident with the rafters, while a portrait orientation has no such
restriction.
5.4.2 Maximum Bracket Spacing

All racking systems require that the bracket-to-bracket spacing be no more
than a specified dimension. The standard rail for the ProSolar Roof Track
system specifies a maximum of 48 in. This maximum distance is a conse-
quence of the rail stiffness and its ability to withstand the dead and live
loads presented by the PV modules. There are rails with other larger dimen-
sions that permit greater bracket spacing.1
5.4.3 Standard Residential Rafter/Truss Spacing

Most residential roof rafters are spaced 16 in. apart (although for older, pre-
1950 homes the spacing can be 24 in.).
5.4.4 Constraints on Portrait Orientation

Taking into account the maximum bracket spacing and standard residen-
tial rafter/truss spacing, brackets can span either three rafters/trusses (16 in.
spacing) or two rafters/trusses (24 in. spacing). There is no such constraint
on the location of the bracket along the rafter or equivalently on the rail-to-
rail spacing and we are free to adjust this spacing to coincide with the 25%
and 75% points along the long dimension of the module.
Thus, portrait orientation does not normally present a problem for roof-
mounted PV systems.
5.4.5 Constraints on Landscape Orientation

For landscape orientation, bracket spacing is not a challenge. Since the rails
run up and down the roof, they and their brackets must coincide with raf-
ters. Therefore, there is a great deal of flexibility with respect to bracket spac-
ing. On the other hand, there are constraints on the rail location: Rails must be
separated by a distance that is a multiple of 16 in. (or multiples of 24 in. in the
case of older homes). This may conflict with the manufacturer’s requirement
that the rails and clamps be located at the 25% and 75% points. Depending
on the dimension of the PV modules, it can be can seen that landscape orien-
tation may not work in all cases.
5.4.6 Case Study: The 60-Cell, 156 mm Square Cell PV Module

A very popular PV module is the 60-cell module composed of 156 mm (6 in.)
square cells. We will use the Renogy RNG-245D PV module in this lab. Many
major PV module manufacturers have similar modules available.
The electrical and mechanical specifications for the Renogy RNG-245D PV

module include the following:
• 245 Wstc
• 60 each 156 mm (6 in.) monocrystalline cells in a 6 × 10 array
• Width: 990 mm (39.0 in.)
• Length: 1650 mm (65.0 in.)
• Frame thickness: 50 mm (2.0 in.)
Other modules with comparable dimensions and performance specifica-

tions include2:
• Sharp ND-245QCJ (994 mm × 1640 mm × 46 mm)

• Yingli YL245P-29b (990 mm × 1650 mm × 40 mm)
• Trina TSM-245 PC05 (992 mm × 1650 mm × 40 mm)
• Canadian Solar CS6P (982 mm × 1638 mm × 40 mm)
The 25% and 75% points for the RNG-245D are 16 1/4 in. and 48 3/4 in.,
which means that a rail spacing of 32 in. is almost ideal:
48.75 in. – 16.25 in. = 32.25 in.
Therefore, this module works well in portrait layouts with bracket-to-

bracket spacing of 48 in. (spanning three 16 in. rafter/truss spacing or two
24 in. rafter/truss spacing) and a rail-to-rail spacing of 32 in.
In landscape orientation, a bracket spacing of 48 in. along the rail is easily
achieved, but a rail-to-rail spacing of ~32 in. only works when spanning two
rafters/trusses spaced 16 in. apart. Rafter/truss spacing of 24 in. yields a rail-
to-rail spacing of either 24 or 48 in. Check with the manufacturer’s installa-
tion sheet to see what rail-to-rail spacings are acceptable.
The Renogy installation manual3 provides guidance on mechanical and
electrical installation as well as maintenance measures, warranty informa-
tion, and technical specifications.
5.5 Design of Layout for a Single PV Module

For this lab, we are going to design a layout for a single PV module to be
installed on a small mock roof. We will use brackets to anchor into the roof
support system (e.g., rafters). Rails will be attached to the brackets and the
modules will be clamped to and supported by the rails. In this laboratory we
5' 5"
3' 3"
1' 1/2" 2' 8 1/2"
2' 8"
FIGURE 5.3
Single PV module of overall dimensions 65.0 in. × 39.0 in. For clarity, the module clamps are
not shown.
will use the FastJack system manufactured by Professional Solar Products.

Later, when we design and install a 2.4 kW PV system, we will use module
clamps and rails manufactured by UniRac. We will have samples of other
types of racking systems available for inspection.
In Figure 5.3, a single PV module (overall dimensions 65.0 in. × 39.0 in.) is
mounted in portrait format, with two rails spaced 32 1/2 in. apart and each
rail spaced 16 1/4 in. from the ends of the modules. Brackets are spaced 2 ft.,
8 in. (two 16 in. rafters) apart.
5.6 Small Mock Roof Details

All of our small mock roofs are built up using 3/4 in. sheathing and 30 lb.
felt. In the industry, 5/8 in. OSB is the typical sheathing, but we are using
3/4 in. CDX plywood so that the roofs can be reused in subsequent classes.
5.7 Locating the Rafters

There are a number of ways to locate the rafters of a roof. This topic is fairly
controversial.
One way to locate rafters is to observe the rafter tails if they are visible
at the eaves of the roof. See Figure 5.4. Another way is to use more or less
sophisticated stud finders or stud sensors. These instruments measure capac-
itance and are commonly used to sense the presence of studs behind sheet
FIGURE 5.4
Observe rafter tails.
rock walls. They can also be used to sense the presence of rafters below the
roof. Low-end models cost less than $100 (see Figure 5.5 for the Zircon stud
finder), while the Bosch stud finder costs $1,350. While the low-end models
will work reasonably well on 5/8 in. sheet rock walls with 2 in. × 4 in. studs,
they do not work so well with 20-year (or, for that matter, 30-year) comp
shingles and 5/8 in. OSB. The Bosch model is well received.
FIGURE 5.5
Zircon electronic stud finder.
A third, ingenious way is to start in the attic and drill the pilot holes into
an open rafter or purlin and thence up through the roof. This will require
bits long enough to drill the length of the rafter. One can even build a “jig” to
keep the drill bit perpendicular to the roof, as shown in Figure 5.6.
One final way to locate rafters on a comp shingle roof is to use a 20 oz.
framing hammer (see Figure 5.7) and to strike the roof surface sharply with
the hammer. If there is not a rafter under the strike point, the sound of the
hammer striking the roof will be a dull thud. If there is a rafter under the
strike point, the report will be much sharper. With a lithe wrist and practice,
this technique can be quite accurate (~1/2 in.).
FIGURE 5.6
Using a jig to locate pilot holes.
FIGURE 5.7
20 oz. framing hammer.
5.8 Pull-Out Strength of Lag Bolts

Lag bolts, which anchor the bracket to the roof, exhibit pull-out strengths
depending on the diameter of the bolt, the depth of the threads into the
wood rafter, and the type of wood. Table 5.1 lists the load at which two lag
bolts failed (pulled out from the wood). From these limited data we could say
that the failure points for 3/8 in. and 5/16 in. lag bolts in spruce are 950 lb./in.
and 700 lb./in., respectively.
Professional Solar Products has published data for a 3/8 in. × 4 in. lag
bolt used with its commercial FastJack E-series.4 They found that the ver-
tical pull strength was 4050 lb. If we assume approximately 3 1/2 in. of
thread depth, this would calculate out to 1157 lb./in. This agrees fairly well
with the datum in Table 5.1 (950 lb./in.). Remember that this is a test to fail-
ure in both cases.
The American Wood Council has published data on lag pull-out capacities
for 5/16 in. lag bolts into common framing lumber. See Table 5.2. This is a
recommended capacity, not a test to failure. Since the 5/16 in. lag bolts for the
ProSolar FastJack system have 2 1/4 in. of thread, we will take the pull-out
capacity for spruce, pine, fir to be 205 lb./in., or
Pull-out capacity = 205lbs. in. × 2.25 in. = 461 lbs.
This capacity, 461 lb., is considerably smaller than the failure load of 700 lb.
in Figure 5.1. Why the difference? The reason is that prudent practice dictates
that a safety margin or a safety factor be applied to a demonstrated pull-out
strength when arriving at a capacity. There are several reasons for applying
a safety factor:
• Knots or other imperfections in the wood

• Pilot holes made too close to the edge of the rafter so that less than
100% of the thread is in competent wood
• Repetitive stressing over time compromising the integrity of the wood
• Overtorquing lag bolts causing damage to the wood fibers
TABLE 5.1
Two Results for Pull-Out Strength
Lag bolt (nom.) Pilot hole dia. Depth of thread Type of wood Failure load
3/8 in. 5/16 in. 2 in. Spruce 1900 lb.
5/16 in. 3/16 in. 1 in. Spruce 700 lb.
Source: Joseph W. Bramwell, 2011. The Digest of Physical Tests and Laboratory Practice, vol. 1.
Nabu Press.
TABLE 5.2
Lag Pull-Out Strength for 5/16 in. SS Lag Bolts in Common Rafter Wood Types
Lag screw
specification
5/16” shaft,a
Specific per inch
gravity thread depth
Douglas Fir, Larch 0.50 266
Douglas Fir, South 0.46 235
Engelmann Spruce, Lodgepole Pine 0.46 235
(MSR 1650 f & higher)
Hem, Fir, Redwood (close grain) 0.43 212
Hem, Fir (North) 0.46 235
Southern Pine 0.55 307
Spruce, Pine, Fir 0.42 205
(E of 2 million psi and higher grades of MSR
and MEL)
Sources: American Wood Council, NDS 2005, Table 11.2A, 11.3.2A.
Notes: (1) Thread must be embedded in the side grain of a rafter or other structural member
integral with the building structure.
(2) Lag bolts must be located in the middle third of the structural member.
(3) T hese values are not valid for wet service.
(4) This table does not include shear capacities. If necessary, contact a local engineer to
specify lag bolt size with regard to shear forces.
(5) I nstall lag bolts with head and washer flush to surface (no gap). Do not over-torque.
(6) Withdrawal design values for lag screw connections shall be multiplied by applicable
adjustment factors if necessary. See Table 10.3.I in the American Wood Council NDS
for Wood Construction.
a Use flat washers with lag screws. Flat washers are not necessary with concealor screws.
In this case the safety factor (SF) ratio of the capacity to the failure load
apparently is
SF = Failure Capacity = 700 lbs. 461 lbs. = 1.52 or 52%
Sometimes, an even more conservative SF of 100% is employed. In this lab

we will use the data from Table 5.2 (461 lb.) for each FastJack using 5/16 in. lag
bolts with 2 1/4 in. of thread depth.
5.9 Wind Forces on Roofs

Roofs experience uplift as well as downward forces due to wind. Predicting
what the uplift forces are to be expected on the roof at a given site is an
imprecise science at best. We will study two approaches:
• A relatively simple approach requiring determination of three site-

specific quantities5
• A more sophisticated approach requiring a total of ten site-specific
quantities6
5.9.1 The “Simple” Approach

This approach was published in 2004 by UniRac as Manual 214 and was
widely relied upon by installers and building and safety departments
throughout the United States at that time. It requires the determination of
three site-specific quantities:
• Basic wind speed at the site based on a map of the United States
(Figure 5.8)
• Exposure category based on the terrain around the site
• Building height above the ground
The determination of these three quantities permits the calculation of the

design wind pressure (pounds per square foot), which, under some circum-
stances, may create a downward force and in other circumstances may create
an uplift force.
If we know our array size (square feet), we can take the product of these
two numbers and determine the total force on the array (pounds).
If we know the total number of brackets supporting the array, we can
divide the total force on the array by the number of brackets and determine
the force on each bracket (pounds per bracket).
This number can then be compared with published pull-out strengths of
the fastener that is used by the bracket.

5.10.1 Model Structures
In our laboratory, we will now perform a series of calculations based on the
simple approach (Manual 214) and one calculation based on the complicated
approach.
5.10.1.1 Calculations Based on Simple Approach

Structure 1: one-story, ranch-style dwelling on a flat, 50 ft. by 125 ft. lot.
The neighborhood is 100% built-out with similar dwellings. There
are a considerable number of mature trees up to 50 ft. The roof is 5:12
120
90(40)
100(45)
110(49)
85(38)
120(54)
90(40)
90(40)
130(58)
140(63)
72
120(54)
68 110(49)
130(58)
100(45)
130(58) 90(40)
140(63) 140(63)
140(63) 150(67)
64 150(67)
90(40)
Special Wind Region
90(40)
100(45) 130(58)
60 Location V mph (m/s)
110(49) 120(54) Hawaii 105 (47)
90(40)
Puerto Rico 145 (65)
Guam 170 (76)
Virgin Islands 145 (65)
56 130(58) American Samoa 125 (56)
100(45)
130(58)
110(49)
52
-172 130(58) 120(54)
-166
-130
-160 -136
-154 -148 -142
FIGURE 5.8
Wind speed map.

pitch with gable ends (end of pitched roof is vertical). The building is
22 ft. wide by 60 ft. long. Rafters are dimensional (exact), 2 in. × 4 in.
The location is Northridge, California (zip code 91327: GPS coordi-
nates: 34°14.409′ N, 118°29.000′ W).
Structure 2: two-story building on 75 ft. by 75 ft. flat lot. The neigh-
borhood is 100% built-out with similar dwellings on comparable
lots. Trees are less than 25 ft. There is a hip roof, 5:12 pitch. The
building is 45 ft. by 50 ft. (both stories). The location is Manhattan
Beach, California (zip code 90266; GPS coordinates: 33°39.387′ N,
118°0.035′ W), 385 ft. to the shoreline (unbroken).
Structure 3: horse stable. The building is one story, 10 ft. high at the
eaves, 29 ft. wide by 45 ft. long with gable ends. Roof pitch is 3:12.
Several trees are close by but there are no other buildings within 150
ft. The location is Duarte, California (zip code 91008; GPS coordi-
nates: 34°9.037′ N, 117°58.311′ W).
5.10.1.1.1 Simple Approach—Structure 1

Determine the following quantities:
□ Basic wind speed: ____ mph

□ Exposure category: ____
□ Roof height: ____ ft.
□ Design wind pressure: ____ (pound per square foot)




5.10.1.2 Calculations Based on Complicated Approach

Using the complicated approach (Manual 227.3), perform the following cal-
culations on the structure of your choice:
□ Building height: _______ ft.
□ Building least horizontal dimension: _______ ft.
□ Roof pitch: _______ °
□ Exposure category: _______ 
□ Basic wind speed: _______ mph
□ Effective wind area: _______ ft.2
□ Roof zone setback length: _______ ft.
□ Roof zone location: _______
□ Net design wind pressure: _______ psf
□ Topographic factor: _______
□ Adjustment factor for height and exposure category: _______
□ Importance factor: _______
□ Total design wind load: _______ psf
5.10.2 Roof-Specific Installation of Brackets

After completing the preceding calculations you will need to switch to one of
the roof-specific handouts and work through a design for a single PV module:
• 5A: Asphalt composition shingle roof

• 5B: Flat concrete tile roof
Notes
1. See Professional Solar Products deep rails and extra deep rails.
2. Any of these four PV modules (or other 245 Wstc class PV modules with 60-cell
crystalline modules) should be appropriate for this lab.
3. Renogy_Installation_Guide.pdf
4. http://prosolar.com/prosolar-new/PDF_docs/commercial_fastJack_e_
series112012.pdf
5. SolarMount Code-Compliant Planning and Assembly with California Building Code
Certification Installation. Manual 214 (2004).
6. SolarMount Code-Compliant Installation Manual 227.3 (2011).
Appendix 5A: Racking Systems on Asphalt

Composition Shingle Roofs
5A.1 Introduction
This appendix involves the design and layout of a PV racking system and the
installation on an asphalt composition shingle roof. Appendix 5B involves the
design and layout of a PV racking system and the installation on a flat concrete
tile roof. In the next edition of this book, Appendices 5C, 5D, and 5E will cover
one-piece S-tile, standing seam metal, and torchdown roofs, respectively, in a
future edition of this textbook.
For asphalt shingle roofs, we will be using the ProSolar Roof Track system
based on FastJack™ brackets and standard height rail. Alternative choices
include functionally equivalent systems from UniRac and IronRidge.
In this appendix, we will lay out and install a single module on an asphalt
shingle roof based on rafters on 16 in. centers.
5A.2 Student Learning Objectives

• Describe the makeup of an asphalt composition shingle roof

• Install brackets on these roofs employing standard weatherproofing
techniques
• Install rails, module clamps, and PV modules
5A.3 Components Comprising the Racking

System for Composition Shingle Roofs
Figure 5A.1 depicts the different components that make up a racking system
for an asphalt composition shingle roof:
• Brackets composed of a “foot” and a 3/4 in. diameter post (lag bolts

not shown)
• Flashing (weatherproofing)
• Rails, with bolts and washers to affix to post
• Module clamps with captive nuts, washer and bolts.
5A.4 Setup
We have a small mock roof for use with asphalt composition shingles. This
roof is based on a 3/4 in. × 4 ft. × 8 ft. sheet of plywood with 2 × 6 rafters
on 16 in. centers, a layer of 30 lb. felt, and comp shingles. In the industry,
5/8 in. OSB is the typical sheathing, but we are using 3/4 in. CDX plywood
for greater reusability. Note that the first course of shingles is “doubled up,”
with the first layer oriented upside down with notches pointing up slope and
the second right side up. This double first course ensures that all water will
be carried off by the shingles and not allowed to reach the felt.
FIGURE 5A.1
Racking system (Courtesy of Professional Solar Products).
5A.5 Tools Needed for This Lab

Here are the specialty tools that are needed for this laboratory:
• 3/16 in. masonry drill bits

• 3/16 in. × 8 in. wood drill bits
• 3/8 in. masonry drill bits
• Cordless drill
• Cordless impact wrench with 1/2 in. standard socket and 5/8 in.
deep socket
• Chalk line and lumber crayon
• Linoleum knife or utility knife with hook blade
• Shears to cut asphalt shingles (optional)
• A flat length of thin steel (a/k/a “jimmy”) with a diagonal notch
wide enough to catch a roofing nail
• Electronic stud finder (or 20 oz. framing hammer with smooth face)
• A rafter locator tool composed of a 12 in. length of #8 solid copper
wire or equivalent bent into the shape of a “C” (See Figure 5A.2)
• Ball hex driver and a torque wrench for setting Allen head set screws
• Post-threading tool and flashing template (Professional Solar Products)
• Half-round file
5A.6 Student Exercises

5A.6.1 Design Layout for a Single PV Module
Figure 5A.3 depicts design layout for a single PV module to be installed
on a composition shingle roof. We will use brackets to anchor into the roof
support system (e.g., rafters, trusses, and purlins). Rails will be attached
to the brackets, and the modules are clamped to and supported by the
rails. In this laboratory we will use brackets, standard rails, and module
clamps (mid-clamps and end-clamps) manufactured by Professional Solar
Products. Later, when we design and install a 2.4 kW PV system, we will
again use ProSolar brackets, but we will switch to module clamps and rails
manufactured by Unirac. We will have samples of other types of racking
systems available for inspection.
FIGURE 5A.2
A rafter locator tool.
5' 5"
3' 3"
1' 1/2" 2' 8 1/2"
2' 8"
FIGURE 5A.3
Single PV module of overall dimensions 65.0 in. × 39.0 in.
In Figure 5A.3, a single PV module (overall dimensions 65.0 in. × 39.0 in.) is

mounted in portrait format, with two rails spaced 32 1/2 in. apart and each
rail spaced 16 1/4 in. from the module ends. Brackets are spaced 2 ft., 8 in.
(two 16 in. rafters) apart.
5A.7 Locating the Rafters

Inspect these roof layers, by looking at the edge of the roof and by care-
fully lifting up the shingles. Note the use of felt as well as shingles. Notice
that the subsequent rows or shingles (a/k/a courses) are overlapped so that
the notches in the shingles are completely covered by an unbroken piece of
shingle on the row below it. Note, as mentioned before, that the first course
is doubled-up and that the bottom layer is rotated 180° with respect to the
upper layer of this first course.
This means that all water that strikes the roof is carried off by the shingles
and is not allowed to penetrate down to the felt. This will be important when
we go to “flash in” (i.e., waterproof) our brackets.
The general task of finding the rafters was discussed in Section 5.7. We will
use the “hammer technique.” This way of locating rafters on an asphalt shin-
gle roof involves using a 20 oz. framing hammer (see Figure 5A.4) and striking
the roof sharply with the hammer. If there is not a rafter under the strike point,
the sound of the hammer striking the roof will be a dull thud. If there is a raf-
ter under the strike point, the report will be much sharper. With a lithe wrist
and some practice, this technique can be quite accurate (~1/2 in.).
FIGURE 5A.4
20 oz. framing hammer.
5A.7.1 Begin Layout

□ Locate a reference rafter. This reference rafter is one of the rafters
that we will use to attach a bracket.
□ Mark the center of the rafter with a crayon at two places on the roof
at least 4 ft. apart.
□ Snap a chalk line between these two marks.
□ Locate a second rafter 48 in. to the left or to the right of the first.
□ Again, mark two places at least 4 ft. apart.
□ Snap a second chalk line between these two marks.
Figure 5A.5 shows the result of the two chalk lines.

Your PV module layout will be based on locating the rails at approximately
the 25% and 75% points along the long dimension of the module. For a por-
trait layout, which has a great deal of flexibility in this regard, the rails will
be spaced 826 mm (32 1/2 in.) apart. For a landscape layout, the rails will be
spaced 813 mm (32 in.) apart—that is, two rafters apart.
FIGURE 5A.5
Two chalk lines indicating the location of two rafters 48 in. apart.
□ Using a crayon, mark one point toward the lower end of the chalk
line of the reference rafter, but no closer than 381 mm (16 in.) to the
eaves of the roof. (This will ensure that the PV module does not hang
over the edge of the roof.)
□ Make a second mark 826 mm (32 1/2 in.) higher along the chalk line.
These two marks locate two of the four brackets we need.
We now need to snap chalk lines locating the rails:
□ Start with one of two marks locating a bracket and snap a chalk line
perpendicular to the first rafter chalk line and extending past the
second rafter chalk line. It is important that this rail chalk line be
perpendicular to the rafter chalk lines. This can be done by ensuring
that the rail chalk line maintains a constant distance from the eaves
of the roof or by using a large (24 in. × 36 in.) carpenter’s square.
□ Repeat this process starting with the second mark.
□ Using the crayon, mark the intersection of the rail chalk lines with
the rafter chalk lines. We will now attach a bracket at each one of
these four marks.
5A.7.2 Installing the Brackets

As mentioned before, our bracket—a FastJack—is composed of a base and
post. The posts come in four different lengths so that the overall length of
the FastJack from the bottom of the base to the top of the post is 3 in. (76 mm),
4 1/2 in. (114 mm), 6 in. (152 mm), or 7 1/2 in. (191 mm). The shaft of the
5/16 in. (7.9 mm) lag bolt is 3 1/2 in. (88.9 mm) long.
The FastJack shown in Figure 5A.6 has an overall length of 4 1/2 in. (114 mm)
when assembled. When assembled, the lag bolt extends 3 3/8 in. (85.7 mm)
below the bottom of the base. The unthreaded portion is 1 1/8 in. (28.6 mm) and
the threaded portion is 2 1/4 in. (57.2 mm).
□ Using one of the four marks created in the previous section, drill a
pilot hole for the lag bolt, which will anchor the base to the rafter.
Start the hole with a 3/16 in. masonry bit in order to break through
the comp shingle surface, and then switch to a standard wood bit for
the remainder of the hole. Standard practice dictates that the pilot
hole be 60% of the nominal lag bolt size (60% of 5/16 in. is 3/16 in.). In
reality, the outside diameter of the unthreaded portion of the shaft
as well as the outside diameter of the threaded portion is approxi-
mately 0.300 in., so the recommended pilot hole diameter should be
62.5% of the actual shaft diameter. The depth of this pilot hole should
FIGURE 5A.6
FastJack components including base, post, lag bolt and washer, and bolt and washer for rail
(Courtesy of FastJack Professional Solar Products).
be 3 1/2 in. to accommodate the 3 3/8 in. length of an assembled lag

bolt. The FastJack base comes with a 3/16 in. drill guide that assures
that this pilot hole remains perpendicular to the roof surface.
□ At least once while drilling, clear the bit from the hole, removing
embedded wood shavings on the shaft of the bit. Make sure that
the bit continues to create wood shavings for the entire length of the
3 1/2 in. hole. Also make sure that drilling encounters some resis-
tance: Lack of resistance or lack of shavings means that the bit is no
longer drilling into wood.
□ Once the pilot hole is drilled, force caulk into the hole and then add
more caulk around the hole to form a 2 in. × 2 in. × 1/8 in. patch
using Sikaflex 1A caulk. Add a generous amount of caulk to the base
of the FastJack bracket.
□ Insert the lag bolt into the base making sure to use the SS washer.
Begin setting the lag bolt using the 1/2 in. socket and impact wrench,
making sure to keep the base aligned properly. The pilot hole side of
the base should point directly down the slope of the roof. As the base
is “snugged up” to the shingle, some of the caulk should extrude
from all four edges of the base. If not, back off on the lag bolt and
apply some more caulk to the base.
□ Once lightly snugged in and with caulk showing around the com-
plete perimeter of the base, carefully continue to snug down the lag
bolt, listening for a change in the pitch of the impact wrench and
watching for the rotation of the 1/2 in. socket to slow down. Do not
overtorque.
If the lag bolt does not snug up, this means you have missed the rafter. This
is called a “spinner.” In this case you need to determine on which side of the
rafter your pilot hole is located. In order to do this, remove the lag bolt and
base and insert the rafter locator wire (see Figure 5A.2) into the hole around
the first right-angle bend of the locator. Once it is in place, rotate this locator
first clockwise and then counterclockwise until the end of the locator hits the
rafter. With practice, you will even be able to determine how far away you
are from the rafter. Based on this information and other considerations, you
will need to drill a second pilot hole.
The rafter locator is a simple but effective tool. The only problem arises
when the spaces between the rafters are insulated with fiberglass battens,
causing the tools to get caught up in the battens.
If you do have a spinner, before you drill a second pilot hole, you will need
to weatherproof this first pilot hole by forcing caulk into the hole and then
adding more caulk around the hole to form a 2 in. × 2 in. × 1/8 in. patch. And
you will need to understand why you missed the rafter in the first place,
which is best understood by an inspection in the attic. Some causes include:
• Case 1: you may have made a mistake in determining the center line
of the rafter (skill is a product of practice).
• Case 2: you may have missed the rafter because it was “waney”
(i.e., it wandered along its length).
• Case 3: you may have hit the edge of the rafter. This does not become
apparent until you try to snug up the base and find that the lag bolt
spins because there is not 100% purchase into the wood.
• Case 4: you used too large a pilot drill bit.
• Case 5: you removed the lag bolt and reinserted/retorqued it.
How you proceed depends on whether the rails run parallel to the rafters
(portrait mode layout) or perpendicular (landscape mode layout).
In portrait mode layout:
• Case 1 or case 2: simply mark the actual center of the rafter along the
rail chalk line and repeat the process of installing the base.
• Case 3: drilling a second pilot hole just ~5/8 in. from the first pilot
hole may structurally weaken the rafter. You will need to nail a short
(24 in.) section of matching rafter material next to the rafter in ques-
tion. This is called a “sister joist” (a/k/a “scab”). Then drill the new
pilot hole into the sister joist.
• Case 4 or case 5: install a sister joist and proceed accordingly.
In landscape mode:
• Case 1: simply mark the actual center of the rafter, resnap your rail
chalk line, and repeat the process of installing the base.
• Case 2 or case 3: use a sister joist so that the pilot hole can be drilled
along the rail chalk line.
• Case 4 or case 5: simply move the pilot hole about 1 1/2 in. up or
down along the rafter chalk line.
The final step of installing the bracket is to produce a “fillet” out of the
extruded caulk at the base of the bracket. This fillet will deflect away any
water that comes into contact with the base:
□ Press your index finger against the edge of the base and draw it
around the base. This will cause any caulk to form a fillet. Continue
along all four sides in a series of continuous motions.
Figure 5A.7 depicts a well-fashioned fillet. Make sure to wipe your hands

clean of caulk or to use disposable gloves, as Sikaflex 1A caulk is very dif-
ficult to remove from clothing once it cures.
FIGURE 5A.7
A well-fashioned fillet.
5A.7.3 Choice of Post

The length of the post sets the clearance of the PV module above the surface
of the roof. The greater the clearance is, the greater the air circulation. It
is well documented that PV modules run cooler and exhibit higher output
power with increased air circulation. However, smaller clearances have a
more positive aesthetic. In any event, the choice should be specified on the
drawing set, which is part of the permit package.
□ Pick a FastJack post so that the overall height of the FastJack is

4 1/2 in. (part no. FJ450). Do not screw the post onto the base yet.
5A.7.4 Installing Flashing

To complete the weatherproofing of the penetration caused by the 5/16 in.
lag bolt, we will not rely on the caulk at the base of the bracket for seal-
ing. We will use a flashing with an elastomeric seal (Oatey brand P/N 11830;
see Figure 5A.8). The elastomeric seal seats against the 3/4 in. diameter post,
eliminating the need to use caulk to seal the post to the flashing.
Before we actually install the flashing, we will make a cutout in the shin-
gles, to ensure that any rain will be caught by the flashing and shingles,
eliminating the possibility that rainwater will reach the felt below:
□ Place the flashing template over the base and cut the asphalt shingle
in a semicircular arc, as shown in Figure 5A.9.
□ Slide the flashing over the FastJack base and under the upper row of
the composition shingles. The upper edge of the flashing should not be
FIGURE 5A.8
Oatey flashing with elastomeric seal (Courtesy of Professional Solar Products).
FIGURE 5A.9
Using the flashing template to cut comp shingles (Courtesy of Professional Solar Products).
visible through the slots in the shingle! This will ensure that water can-
not flow underneath the flashing.
□ Attach the post onto the post-threader tool, locking it in place with
the wing nut.
□ Push the post through the elastomeric seal and thread the post “fin-
ger tight” into the base.
□ Loosen the wing nut and unscrew the post-threader tool.
□ Using adjustable pipe pliers (e.g., Channel Lock™ pliers), tighten the
post into the base. There is no need to fasten this flashing to the roof
surface.
Figure 5A.10 shows the finished product.
FIGURE 5A.10
ProSolar FastJack and Oatey flashing in place (Courtesy of Unirac).
5A.7.5 Dimensioning and Attaching the Rail

□ The rail used in this lab is an extruded C-channel 1 5/8 in. square.
See Figure 5A.11.
□ Cut two lengths of rail 35 1/2 in. long so that the rail is 3 in. longer
than the short dimension of the PV module. This 3 in. is necessary to
accommodate end-clamps, which are 1 1/2 in. wide.
□ When there is more than one module in a row, the formula for rail
length, Lrail, depends on the width of the end-clamps (Wendclamp), the
width of the mid-clamps (Wmidclamp), the number of modules (N), and
the width of the module (Wmodule) (Figure 5A.12).
Lrail = 2 × Wendclamp + (N − 1) × Wmidclamp + N × Wmodule
In our case, Wendclamp = 1 1/2 in., Wmidclamp = 9/16 in., and Wmodule = 32 1/2 in.

File the burrs off the ends of the rail.
□ Turn the rail upside down, place it next to the two posts that it will
span, and center it between the two posts. Mark the back side of the
rail with a Sharpie at the center of each of the two posts.
FIGURE 5A.11
ProSolar standard rail (Courtesy of Professional Solar Products).
FIGURE 5A.12
ProSolar rail attached to FastJack bracket and Oatey flashing (Courtesy of Professional Solar
Products).
□ Drill 3/8 in. clearance holes for the 3/8 in. SS bolts that come with
the FastJack system. There is a groove on the bottom side of the rail,
which helps keep the drill bit from wandering.
□ Turn the rail right side up and bolt the rail in place using the 3/8 in.
SS bolts and SS washer.
5A.7.6 Installing the PV Module

□ Select four black anodized end-clamps with their bolts and split
washers. The structural integrity of ProSolar end-clamps depends on
a very close fit with the module in question. Since the RNG-250D PV
module frame is 50 mm (1.969 in.), the appropriate end-clamp is P/N
C1968EC (suitable for frames between 1.963 and 1.988 in. thick). If we
were to use mid-clamps, the part number would be P/N C275IMC
(Figure 5A.13).
Caution: if another module is being used, take care to choose an end-clamp

that matches the module frame thickness.
□ Place the PV module on the two rails, positioning it so that

• The distance between the short-side PV module and the rail is the
same on both ends (i.e., symmetrically placed between the rails).
• The long side of the PV module is perpendicular to the rail.
This can be best assured using a long (24 in. × 16 in.) carpenter’s
square
□ Slide the end bracket assembly onto the rail, employing the grooves
in the C-channel to capture the nut.
FIGURE 5A.13
ProSolar mid-clamps and end-clamps (Courtesy of Professional Solar Products).
FIGURE 5A.14
Module in landscape format on composition shingle roof.
□ Place the clamp over the edge of the module frame, making sure that
the clamp butts up against the frame.
□ Tighten the bolts, finger tight.
□ Double-check the position of the PV module and retighten the bolts
using the impact wrench.
Figure 5A.14 depicts a well-installed module in landscape format on a

composition shingle roof.
Appendix 5B: Racking Systems on Flat Concrete Tile Roofs
5B.1 Introduction
This laboratory involves the design and layout of a PV racking system and
the installation on a flat concrete tile roof. In Appendix 5A, we covered
asphalt composition roofs; in the next edition of this book, Appendices 5C,
FIGURE 5B.1
PV finished flat concrete tile.
5D, and 5E will cover one-piece S-tile, standing seam metal, and torchdown
roofs, respectively.
As before, it has been anticipated that Appendices 5A and 5B will be con-
ducted in the same period of time; students will break up into teams, each
working on a specific roof type, and then will rotate through as many differ-
ent roof types as time allows.
As in Appendix 5A, we will lay out and install a single module on a flat
concrete tile roof, with rafters on 16 in. (406 mm) centers.
Figure 5B.1 depicts a finished PV system on a flat concrete tile roof.
5B.2 Student Learning Objectives

• Describe the makeup of a flat concrete tile roof.

• Install brackets on flat concrete tile roofs, using an adjustable track
and 3/8 in. SS supports.
• Install rails, modules, and PV module clamps on 3/8 in. SS supports.
5B.3 Components Comprising the Racking

System for a Flat Concrete Tile Roof
Figure 5B.2 depicts the different components that make up a racking system
for a flat concrete tile roof:
• Robust offset channel with 5/16 in. × 3 in. SS lag bolt and SS flat

washer (tile trac base)
• Captive nut with 3/8 in. 16 tapped hole (upper carriage)
• Piece of 3/8 in.16 × 6 in. SS threaded stock (a/k/a “all thread”)
• Two 3/8 in. SS nuts
• Two 3/8 in. SS flat washers
5B.4 Setup
We have a small mock roof, using flat concrete tile. As with the other
roofs, this roof is based on a 4 ft. × 8 ft. sheet of plywood with 2 × 6 rafters
FIGURE 5B.2
The Tile Trac kit (Courtesy of Professional Solar Products).
on 16 in. centers. In distinction to the asphalt roof, this roof employs bat-
tens—1 in. × 2 in. strips of wood—that are nailed to the roof on top of the felt
and are used to “hang” the flat concrete tiles in place.
5B.5 Tools Needed for This Lab

Here are the specialty tools that are needed for this laboratory:
• 3/16 in., 7/16 in. and 1/2 in. masonry drill bits

• 3/16 in. wood drill bits
• Cordless drill
• Cordless impact wrench with 1/2 in. standard socket and 5/8 in.
deep socket
• Chalk line and lumber crayon
• A flat length of thin steel (a/k/a “jimmy”) with a diagonal notch
wide enough to catch a roofing nail or a pry bar
• Electronic stud finder
• A stud locator composed of a 12 in. length of #8 solid copper wire or
equivalent bent into the shape of a “C” (See Figure 5A.2).
• 20 oz. framing hammer with smooth face
• A Sharpie® finepoint permanent marker
5B.6 Student Exercises

5B.6.1 Locating the Rafters
This task is a little bit harder than finding rafters on an asphalt shingle roof,
as the technique of bouncing a framing hammer off the surface of the roof
is not practical at this point in time. If the rafter tails are visible, locate and
mark a reference rafter as before and then snap a line, perpendicular to the
roof eaves, up and down the roof from this rafter tail. Even if the rafter tails
are covered by fascia board and trim, sometimes the nails in the fascia board
are visible or can be located with a magnet or stud finder.
If the rafter tails are not visible, observe a reference rafter in the attic. By locat-
ing an object that is visible in the attic space as well as on the roof—a vent, a
chimney, or a skylight—measure the distance from the reference rafter to this
object. Transfer this “offset” dimension to the top side of the roof, using a crayon,
locating the position of the rafter below. Then snap a line, perpendicular to the
eaves, up and down the roof from this point. While you are in the attic, confirm
the center-to-center spacing of the rafters and note any deviations.
Quite often these two techniques can be used together.
5B.6.1.1 Begin Layout

As in Appendix 5A, mark the location of the other rafters that will be used
for anchoring to brackets. These are only approximate locations, so we do not
need ±1/2 in. accuracy at this point in time.
Mark the location of the rails. At the intersection of these two sets of
lines—rafters and rails—identify and mark the concrete tile in question with
an “X.” Do this for all bracket locations.
5B.6.1.2 Removing Tiles and Precision Location of Rafters

Lift up the tile in question by its lower edge by 1 to 2 in. Slide the pry bar
under the tile and push it upward to the location of the nail holding the tile
in place. This nail is usually driven into a 1 in. × 1/2 in. batten board (a/k/a
furring strip) and concrete tile. See Figures 5B.3 and 5B.4 for more detail.
Using the notch on the pry bar, catch the nail and gently but persistently pull
on this nail, while rocking the tile up and down, until the nail pulls free. Try
not to disturb the adjacent tiles unduly. Pull this tile free and save.
FIGURE 5B.3
Tile trac with battens.
FIGURE 5B.4
Using a pry bar to remove nail fastening tile to batten and removing tile.
Now locate the rafter with some precision, using a combination of (a) locat-
ing the rafter tails and reference rafters and (b) the bouncing hammer tech-
nique. Mark the felt with the rafter location using a crayon.
By alternately placing this removed tile on the exposed hole and then
removing it a couple of times, it is possible to transfer the mark on the
exposed felt layer to the tile.
Repeat this process until all of the bracket locations have been identified
and marked.
5B.6.1.3 Setting the Brackets

We could use the same FastJack brackets as we did in Appendix 5A, using
a post length of 5 1/2 in. (140 mm) to ensure adequate space between the
PV modules and the concrete tiles. We would then need to drill a clearance
hole of ~1 1/4 in. (~32 mm) in the concrete tile to accommodate the post and
provide weatherproof flashing. However, it is quite possible that the location
of the bracket will coincide with the overlapping rain gutters between two
tiles. This would make drilling the appropriate clearance hole problematic
and create additional weatherproofing issues. In addition, any penetration of
an “S-tile” is best located at the top of the S-curve as compared to the bottom.
The use of offset channels can neatly solve this problem and offers, in gen-
eral, an alternative bracket solution.
Professional Solar Products offers Tile Track, which uses a small, robust
offset channel that permits one to offset the location of the rafter anchor and
the “post”—actually a piece of 3/8 in. SS threaded stock (all thread) that ties
into the PV module rail. See Figure 5B.2 for more details.
□ Using one of the four marks created in the previous section, drill a
pilot hole for the lag bolt, which will anchor the base to the rafter,
using a standard wood bit for the hole. Standard practice dictates
that the pilot hole be 60% of the nominal lag bolt size—60% of 5/16 in.
is 3/16 in. The depth of this pilot hole should be 3 1/2 in. to accom-
modate the 3 3/8 in. length of an assembled lag bolt.
□ At least once while drilling, clear the bit from the hole, removing
embedded wood shavings on the shaft of the bit. Make sure that
the bit continues to create wood shavings for the entire length of the
3 1/2 hole. Also make sure that drilling encounters some resistance:
Lack of resistance or lack of shavings means that the bit is no longer
drilling into wood.
□ Position the 5/16 in. clearance hole in the offset channel over the
point pilot hole and slide the captive nut to the desired position for
the post. Screw in the 3/8 in. SS threaded stock into the tapped hole
located in the captive nut. Secure the 3/8 in. SS stock into the offset
channel using pliers or a pair of “jam nuts.” A 5/16 in. nut could be
snugged down onto the captive nut if desired. Once the pilot hole is
drilled, force caulk into the hole and then add caulk to the base of the
offset channel, using Sikaflex 1A caulk.
□ Insert the lag bolt into the offset channel, making sure to use the
SS washer. Begin setting the lag, bolt using the 1/2 in. socket and
impact wrench, making sure to keep the offset channel aligned
properly. As the offset channel is snugged up to the roof, some of the
caulk should extrude from all four edges of the channel. If not, back
off on the lag bolt and apply some more caulk to the base.
□ Once it is lightly snugged in and with caulk showing around the
complete perimeter of the channel, carefully continue to snug down
the lag bolt, listening for a change in the pitch of the impact wrench
and watching for the rotation of the 1/2 in. socket to slow down.
Do not overtorque. As shown in Figure 5A.7, create a fillet with the
extruded caulk.
If the lag bolt does not snug up, this means that you have missed the raf-
ter. This is called a “spinner.” In this case you need to determine on which
side of the rafter your lag bolt is located. In order to do this, remove the lag
bolt and base and insert the rafter locator tool (see Figure 5B.5) into the hole
around the first right-angle bend of the locator. Once it is in place, rotate this
locator first clockwise and then counterclockwise, noting where the end of
the locator hits the rafter. With practice, you will even be able to determine
FIGURE 5B.5
Rafter locator tool.
how far away you are from the rafter. Based on this information and other
considerations, you will need to drill a second pilot hole.
The rafter locator is a simple but effective tool. The only problem arises
when the spaces between the rafters are insulated with fiberglass battens,
causing the tools to get caught up in the battens.
If you do have a spinner, you will need to weatherproof this first pilot hole
by forcing caulk into the hole and then adding more caulk around the hole
to form a 2 in. × 2 in. × 1/8 in. patch. This can be done after you successfully
lag the offset channel. In any event, you will need to understand why you
missed the rafter in the first place, which is best understood by an inspection
in the attic. Some causes include:
• Case 1: you may have made a mistake in determining the center line
of the rafter (skill is a product of practice).
• Case 2: you may have missed the rafter because it was “waney”
(i.e., it wandered along its length).
• Case 3: you may have hit the edge of the rafter. This does not become
apparent until you try to snug up the base and find that the lag bolt
spins because there is not 100% purchase into the wood.
• Case 4: you used too large a pilot drill bit.
• Case 5: you removed the lag bolt and reinserted/retorqued it.
How you proceed depends on whether the rails run parallel to the rafters
(portrait mode layout) or perpendicular (landscape mode layout).
In portrait mode layout:
• Case 1 or case 2: simply mark the actual center of the rafter along the
rail chalk line and repeat the process of installing the base.
• Case 3: drilling a second pilot hole just ~5/8 in. from the first pilot
hole may structurally weaken the rafter. You will need to nail a short
(12 in.) section of matching rafter material next to the rafter in ques-
tion. This is called a “sister joist” (a/k/a “scab”). Then drill the new
pilot hole into the sister joist.
• Case 4 or case 5: install a sister joist and proceed accordingly.
In landscape mode layout:
• Case 1: simply mark the actual center of the rafter, resnap your rail
chalk line, and repeat the process of installing the base.
• Case 2 or case 3: use a sister joist so that the pilot hole can be drilled
along the rail chalk line.
• Case 4 or case 5: simply move the pilot hole about 1 1/2 in. up or
down along the rafter chalk line.
• The final step of installing the bracket is to produce a “fillet” out of
the extruded caulk at the base of the bracket. This fillet will deflect
away any water that comes into contact with the base.
□ Once the pilot hole is drilled, force caulk into the hole and then add
more caulk around the hole to form a 2 in. × 2 in. × 1/8 in. patch
using Sikaflex 1A caulk. Add a generous amount of caulk to the base
of the FastJack bracket.
□ Insert the lag bolt into the offset channel making sure to use the SS
washer. Begin setting the lag bolt using the 1/2 in. socket and impact
wrench, making sure to keep the offset channel aligned properly.
As the offset channel is snugged up to the roof, some of the caulk
should extrude from all four edges of the channel. If not, back off on
the lag bolt and apply some more caulk to the base.
□ Once it is lightly snugged in and with caulk showing around the
complete perimeter of the channel, carefully continue to snug down
the lag bolt, listening for a change in the pitch of the impact wrench
and watching for the rotation of the 1/2 in. socket to slow down. Do
not overtorque.
□ Using the work transferred to one removed tile, drill a 7/16 in. hole
in the tile using a carbide bit. Frequently cool this bit by placing it in
a cup of water.
□ Replace tile, aligning the hole with the 3/8 in. all-thread.
□ At this point in time, carefully apply a generous amount of Sikaflex

1A caulk (or similar polyurethane sealant) to the annular gap
between the 3/8 in. stock and the clearance hole in the tile. Then
drop the supplied washer in place on top of the caulk. Repeat this
process until all of the pieces of the 3/8 in. stock are in place.
Make sure to wipe your hands clean of caulk or to use disposable gloves, as Sikaflex
1A caulk is very difficult to remove from clothing once it cures.
5B.6.1.4 Positioning the Rails

□ Cut two lengths of rail 35 1/2 in. long so that the rail is 3 in. longer
than the short dimension of the PV module. This 3 in. is necessary to
accommodate end-clamps, which are 1 1/2 in. wide.
□ File the burrs off the ends of the rail.
When there is more than one module in a row, the formula for rail length,
Lrail, depends on the width of the end-clamps (Wendclamp), the width of the
mid-clamp (Wmidclamp), the number of modules (N), and the width of the mod-
ule (Wmodule).
Lrail = 2 × Wendclamp + (N − 1) × Wmidclamp + N × Wmodule
As before, Wendclamp = 1 1/2 in., Wmidclamp = 9/16 in., and Wmodule = 32 1/2 in.

In our case, turn the rail upside down and locate it next to the two 3/8 in. SS
all threads.
□ Mark the back side of the rail with a Sharpie at the center of each of
the posts.
□ Drill 3/8 in. clearance holes for the 3/8 in. SS bolts that come with
the FastJack system. There is a groove on the bottom side of the rail,
which helps keep the drill bit from wandering.
□ Turn the rail right side up and bolt the rail in place using the two
3/8 in. SS nuts and two SS washers.
□ Repeat this process for the second rail.
5B.7 The PV Module

We will use the Renogy RNG-245D PV module—990 mm (39 in.) wide by
1650 mm (65 in.) long.
□ Select four black anodized end-clamps with their bolts and split
washers. The ProSolar end-clamps depend on a very close fit with
the module in question. Since the RNG-250D PV module frame is 50
mm (1.969 in.), the appropriate end-clamp is P/N C1968EC (suitable
for frames between 1.963 and 1.988 in. thick). If we were to use mid-
clamps, the part number would be P/N C275IMC.
□ Place the PV module on the two rails, positioning it so that
• The distance between the short-side PV module and the rail is the
same on both ends (i.e., symmetrically placed between the rails).
• The long side of the PV module is perpendicular to the rail.
This can be best assured using a long (24 in. × 16 in.) carpenter’s
square
□ Slide the end bracket assembly onto the rail, employing the groove
in the C-channel to capture the nut.
□ Place the clamp over the edge of the module frame, making sure that
the clamp butts up against the frame.
□ Tighten the bolts, finger tight.
□ Double-check the position of the PV module, making sure that it is
square with the rails, using a speed square or carpenter’s square.
□ Retighten the bolts using the impact wrench (Figure 5B.6).
FIGURE 5B.6
Cordless impact wrench.
6
Characterization of a PV Module
6.1 Introduction
This laboratory will explore the behavior of a photovoltaic module under a
variety of environmental conditions, as well as provide a strong foundation
for its use in PV systems.
We introduce the concept of a current-voltage (I-V) characteristic, which
specifies the current and voltage produced by a PV module as a function
of the load resistance connected to it. We will discover how the I-V charac-
teristic varies as a function of the sun’s irradiance striking it and also as a
function of the temperature of the cells which comprise the PV module. We
will discover that at a given irradiance and temperature, there is a maximum
power that can be delivered by a PV module to a unique load resistance.
During the course of this laboratory we will come to understand how the
individual cell size and the number of cells in a module determine the mod-
ule currents, voltages, and powers.
In Chapter 7, as a follow-up to this chapter, we will use PSpice® to develop
fairly sophisticated models for a PV cell and for a PV module and we will
compare the results of simulating the I-V characteristic of the PSpice model
against measured data.

• Distinguish the key characteristics of a photovoltaic module by

measuring voltages and currents under a variety of environmental
conditions
• Identify the instruments needed to make the necessary measurements
• Compare these measurements with those contained in the manufac-
turer’s data sheet
149
6.3 Setup
This laboratory will involve a number of fairly sophisticated instruments
and measurements. The focus of these activities will be a commercially
available, 36-cell, 100 W PV module. The following is an introduction to the
PV module and instruments that we will use during the lab.
6.3.1 The TiltAll Tripod

We will mount the PV module that we wish to characterize on a rugged tri-
pod, the TiltAll TE Professional (see Figure 6.1). This tripod comes with three
sturdy, adjustable legs; adjustable vertical extension with lock; and three sets
of adjustable axes with locks: azimuth, elevation, and cross-elevation. The
cross-elevation axis will not be used in this class, although it is useful in
photography. This tripod can easily support a 16 kg (35 lb.) load.
FIGURE 6.1
TiltAll TE Professional.
Characterization of a PV Module 151
FIGURE 6.2
Four adjustment/locking knobs: vertical extension (lower left), azimuth (lower right), elevation
(upper right), and cross-elevation (upper left).
Figure 6.2 depicts the four adjustment/locking knobs: vertical extension

(lower left), azimuth (lower right), elevation (upper right), and cross-eleva-
tion (upper left).
6.3.2 Choice of PV Module—The Renogy RNG-100D

For this laboratory, as well as for others, we will need to pick a PV module
to work with. For over 30 years, one of the most popular PV modules has
been referred to as a “12V nominal PV module” because, at typical operating
temperatures, the value of Vmp is just above 14.4 V set point for acceptance
charging of nominal 12V lead acid batteries. This module is composed of 36
cells and has historically been used with 12V battery systems. Depending
on the cell technology (monocrystalline vs. polycrystalline), size (5 in. vs.
6 in. square), and surface treatment of the glass and silicon cell surface, the
maximum power output can range from 100 to 140 W. Another popular PV
module is the 60-cell module designed for grid-tied applications. Several
manufacturers offer 60-cell modules with 6 in. square cells that have a maxi-
mum power rating in the neighborhood of 245 W.
In the 36-cell category, we choose the Renogy RNG-100D PV module. The
data sheet for this module gives the following information:
• Solar cell: monocrystalline, 125 mm (5 in.) by 125 mm (5 in.)

• Length, width, and thickness of frame: 1195 mm (47.0 in.), 541 mm
(21.3 in.), 35 mm (1.4 in.)
• Weight: 7.5 kg (16.5 lb.)
• Open circuit current (standard test conditions [STC]): Voc = 22.5 V
• Temperature coefficient of Voc: Tcoef,Voc = (ΔVoc/Voc)/(ΔT) = –0.30%/°C
• Short circuit current (STC): Isc = 5.75 A
• Temperature coefficient of Isc: Tcoef,Isc = (ΔIsc/Isc)/(ΔT) = +0.04%/°C

• Maximum power output (STC): Pmp = 100 W
• Temperature coefficient of Pmp: Tcoef,Pmp = (ΔPmp/Pmp)/(ΔT) = –0.50%/°C
• Maximum power point: Vmp = 18.9 V and Imp = 5.29 A
• Nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT): 47°C ± 2°C
• Connectors: MC4
Other 36-cell, nominal 12 V modules on the market today include the

Kyocera KD-140SX-UFBS (~6 in. square, polycrystalline cells), the SunWize
SW-110P (~5 in. square, polycrystalline cells), and the Mitsubishi PV-MF130
(6.14 in. square polycrystalline cells). If another module is used for this labo-
ratory sequence, there should not be a great deal of difference in the way in
which the laboratory is run or the outcomes.
In Figure 6.3, we show the RNG-100D mounted on the TiltAll tripod. Note
that the top edge of the frame of the PV module at the left is equipped with
Velcro so that an irradiance meter can be attached to the PV module.
FIGURE 6.3
The RNG-100 mounted on the TiltAll tripod.
6.4 Components and Instruments

6.4.1 The Gnomon
Figure 6.4 depicts the gnomon, a physical object that is used to cast the sun’s
shadow. Our gnomon is nothing more than a wooden dowel sharpened to a
point at one end and cut perpendicular to the axis of the dowel at the other
end. In this case, we have a wooden dowel, 1.0 cm (7/16 in.) diameter, 15.2 cm
(6 in.) long.
The gnomon will be placed on the surface of the PV module and the result-
ing shadow will be measured. The ratio of the gnomon length to its shadow
will determine the angle of the PV module relative to the sun. Figure 6.5
depicts a ruler used to measure the gnomon length and the gnomon’s shadow.
6.4.2 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

We will need to measure voltage, current, and temperature repeatedly dur-
ing this laboratory. For the purposes of measuring voltage, we will use a
FIGURE 6.4
The gnomon, a physical object that is used to cast the sun’s shadow.
FIGURE 6.5
A ruler used to measure the gnomon length and the gnomon’s shadow.
FIGURE 6.6
Extech model 310 DMM (Courtesy of Extech Corporation).
digital multimeter (Extech Model 310; see Figure 6.6). This is a multipurpose

instrument that can measure direct current (DC) and alternating current
(AC) voltage, DC and AC current, resistance, and temperature (using a bead
wire thermocouple). It does not employ RMS algorithms to measure AC volt-
ages or currents.
6.4.3 Bead Wire Thermocouple and Black Electrician’s Tape

Figure 6.7 shows the bead wire thermocouple used in conjunction with the
DMM. When using it, make sure to observe the proper polarity. We will use
it to measure the temperature of the back of the PV module. Black electri-
cian’s tape (see Figure 6.8) will be used to affix the thermocouple to the back
of the PV module. It will also be used as a target for the infrared thermom-
eter (see Section 6.4.5).
6.4.4 Clamp-On Ammeter

It is inconvenient, not to mention potentially hazardous, to have to discon-
nect a conductor from its termination in order to insert an ammeter into
FIGURE 6.7
Thermocouple used with 310 DMM to measure temperature (Courtesy of Extech Corporation).
FIGURE 6.8
Black electrician’s tape.
FIGURE 6.9
Extech clamp-on ammeter (Courtesy of Extech Corporation).
the circuit for current measurements. A better solution is to use a clamp-on

ammeter. This instrument clamps over a wire in situ and can measure the
DC or AC current flowing in the wire without breaking the circuit continu-
ity. For this laboratory, we have chosen the Extech 380942 for this purpose
(see Figure 6.9).
6.4.5 Digital Infrared Thermometer

The digital infrared thermometer is a noncontacting instrument that mea-
sures the infrared power emitted by an object and converts that power into a
temperature. We will use the Extech Model 42500 to measure the back of the
PV module and compare this measurement with that of the IR thermometer
(see Figure 6.10).
Care must be taken when using this instrument. It works by measuring the
infrared radiation emitted by an object. The amount of infrared radiation is
FIGURE 6.10
Extech IR thermometer (Courtesy of Extech Corporation).
proportional to the emissivity of the object, which should be as close to 100%

as possible. Applying one or more pieces of black electrician’s tape to the
object under investigation serves as a high emissivity target.
6.4.6 Irradiance Meter

The Daystar™ irradiance meter (see Figure 6.11) will be used to measure
the irradiance. We will use this instrument two ways. The first is to point it
at the sun to get the maximum irradiance. The second is to place this instru-
ment perpendicular to the surface of the PV module (using the Velcro pads
FIGURE 6.11
Daystar irradiance meter.
supplied) and thereby measure the incident solar irradiance perpendicular to the
PV module. The Daystar irradiance meter uses a small PV cell as the basis for
its measurement.
6.4.7 Tilt Meter

A tilt meter (a/k/a protractor) measures the inclination or pitch of a surface
with respect to level. We will use a tilt meter on the surface of the PV mod-
ule and measure the elevation or tilt angle of the PV module with respect to
level. See Figure 6.12.
6.4.8 Torpedo Level

In order to ensure that a surface is level or plumb (90° with respect to level)
we will use a small spirit level, referred to in the trade as a “torpedo level.”
We will use a model 9 in. long with a magnetic bar, and three spirit bub-
bles—in this case, “level,” “45°,” and “plumb.” See Figure 6.13.
FIGURE 6.12
Inclinometer (a/k/a tiltmeter).
FIGURE 6.13
Torpedo level.
6.4.9 Thermometer
In order to measure the ambient temperature, we will use a laboratory-grade
thermometer and calibrate in degrees Celsius. See Figure 6.14.
6.4.10 Calculator
We will need to make a series of field calculations during this laboratory.
A good, solar-powered calculator with trig and inverse trig functions is the
Casio fx-260 solar calculator (see Figure 6.15).
FIGURE 6.14
A laboratory grade thermometer, calibrated in degrees Celsius.
FIGURE 6.15
The Casio fx-260 solar.

6.5.1 The Measurements
We will use the Renogy RNG-100D for this part of the laboratory. See Table 6.1
for the key performance parameters and Table 6.2 for the temperature sensi-
tivity of these parameters.
First, we will make a number of measurements of the environment: maxi-
mum irradiance, ambient temperature, and module temperature. These
measurements are important because the electrical characteristics of a PV
module depend on irradiance and temperature.
Second, we will make a series of current and voltage measurements of the
PV module. We will vary the irradiance perpendicular to the module, by
varying the angle of the module with respect to the sun. We may be able to
make measurements at two different ambient temperatures; however, this will
depend on the weather. The measurements for this laboratory are as follows:
• Measurement 1: maximum irradiance IRRmax

• Measurement 2: the gnomon and the “cosθ” law
• Measurement 3: IRRmax, when PV module is pointed directly at the sun
• Measurement 4: irradiance when PV module is not pointed directly
at the sun
• Measurement 5: module temperature—two ways to measure
• Measurement 6: ambient temperature
• Measurement 7: Voc, the open circuit voltage
• Measurement 8: Isc, the short circuit current
• Measurement 9: MPP, the maximum power point
• Measurement 10: the I-V characteristic
TABLE 6.1
Renogy RNG-100D Monocrystalline PV Module Electrical Characteristics
Open circuit Short circuit Maximum Maximum Maximum
voltage current power power voltage power current
Voc Isc Pmax Vmp Imp
22.5 V 5.75 V 100 W 18.9 V 5.29 A
TABLE 6.2
Temperature Sensitivity of the Electrical Characteristics
Renogy RNG-100D monocrystalline PV module temperature coefficients
Open circuit voltage Short circuit current Maximum power
–0.30%/°C +0.04%/°C –0.44%/°C
FIGURE 6.16
Pointing the Daystar meter directly at the sun.
6.5.1.1 Measurement 1: Maximum Irradiance

Holding the Daystar irradiance meter in your hand, find IRRmax, the maximum
irradiance, by pointing the Daystar meter directly at the sun (see Figure 6.16).
Move the Daystar meter slightly side to side and up and down to obtain a
maximum reading. Record this number.
□ IRRmax = ______ W/m2
6.5.1.2 Measurement 2: The Gnomon and Measuring the Angle of Incidence

By temporarily fixing a gnomon perpendicular to the surface of the PV mod-
ule, we can measure the shadow cast by the gnomon to determine the angle of
the perpendicular to the PV module relative to the angle of the sun. Specifically, if
the PV module is adjusted so that there is no shadow, then we know that the
perpendicular to the PV module is pointed directly at the sun.
In Figure 6.17, we have constructed a right triangle whose two legs are the
gnomon length (L) and the gnomon shadow (S). The angle Θ is the angle
between the perpendicular to the PV module and the sun.
From basic trigonometry,
tanθ = (S L)
or
θ = tan −1 (S L)
The “inverse tangent” function is available on the Casio calculator by using

the “Shift” button.
Gnomon
(L)
Shadow
(S)
FIGURE 6.17
Diagram of the gnomon length and shadow.
Position the gnomon perpendicular to the surface of the PV module. Lock

the azimuth bearing. Adjust the elevation bearing of the tripod to obtain a
shadow 3–5 cm long, and lock the elevation bearing. The exact length of the
shadow is not important. Measure and record the length, S, of the shadow.
See Figure 6.18.
□ S = ______ cm
Using the gnomon length of 15.2 cm and the length of the gnomon shadow,
calculate the angle Θ:
□ Θ = ______ °.
6.5.1.3 Measurement 3: Irradiance When PV Module

Is Pointing Directly at the Sun
Again, locate the tripod on reasonably level terrain. Use the adjustable legs
to level the tripod base using the torpedo level and the elevation shaft of the
tripod. Attach the thermocouple to the back of the PV module just above its
FIGURE 6.18
Measuring the gnomon shadow.
center, using three strips of black electrician’s tape to fix the thermocouple
wire bead in place.
Connect the MC-4 connectors of the PV module to the DMM using the
cables that convert from MC-4 to banana plug. (When the back-side tempera-
ture of the PV module is measured using the thermocouple, the PV module
leads will need to be swapped out in favor of the thermocouple plug.)
Place the gnomon perpendicular to the surface of the PV module. Adjust
the azimuth and elevation of the PV module so that the gnomon does not cast
a shadow. Lock the azimuth and elevation bearings. No shadow means that
the PV module has an angle of incidence equal to zero (pointed directly at
the sun) and should be receiving the same maximum irradiance IRRmax as
in measurement 1. Remove the gnomon. Measure the irradiance with the
irradiance meter as shown in Figure 6.19 (or attach it to the top side of the PV
module using the Velcro provided):
□ Irradiance = ______ W/m2
Compare this reading to measurement 1. Can you think of a reason why

they might not agree? Has there been a change in the sky conditions (clear,
hazy, overcast)?  ______________________________________________________________
6.5.1.4 Measurement 4: Irradiance When the

PV Module Is Not Pointed at the Sun
This measurement is designed to confirm the cosΘ law, which relates the
maximum irradiance to the irradiance normal to the PV module when not
pointed directly at the sun.
Place the Daystar irradiance meter perpendicular to the PV module (or use
the Velcro attached to the side of the module). Repeat measurement 2: Place
the gnomon on the PV module again and measure the length of the shadow
it casts. Record the length of the shadow:
□ S = ______ cm
FIGURE 6.19
Measuring the irradiance incident on the PV module.
Using the gnomon length of 15.2 cm and the length of the gnomon shadow,
calculate the angle Θ:
□ Θ = ______ °.
Now measure the irradiance perpendicular to the PV module. Record the

irradiance:
□ IRR (Θ) = ______ W/m2
Calculate the ratio of the irradiance IRR to the maximum irradiance IRRmax:
□ Ratio = cos(Θ) = [IRR(Θ)/IRRmax] = ______
Calculate Θ:
□ Θ = ______
Compare it to the preceding ratio.

Another way of stating what we may have just confirmed is to say that
the new irradiance value and the value obtained when the sun’s rays were
perpendicular on the PV module (gnomon yielded no shadow) are related
by the expression
IRR(Θ) = IRRmax × cosΘ
6.5.1.5 Measurement 5: Module Temperature—Two Ways to Measure

Adjust the azimuth bearing so that the PV module is pointed toward the sun
(exact angle is not important). Wait 5 minutes. Point the IR thermometer at
the black electrician’s tape at the back side of the PV module, as shown in
Figure 6.20. Measure and record this reading in degrees Celsius. This will
not be exactly the cell temperature, because of the intervening Tedlar back-
ing, but it will be close to it:
□ T (module, IR) = ______ °C
Attach the thermocouple leads to the DMM as shown in Figure 6.21 and

record the temperature:
□ T (module, thermocouple) = ______ °C.
FIGURE 6.20
Measuring the back-side temperature of a PV module with the IR thermometer.
FIGURE 6.21
Measuring the back-side temperature of a PV module with the thermocouple and the model
310 DMM.
Calculate the difference in temperature using these two techniques and

express the result as a percentage:
(Tthermocouple − T1R )
ΔT(percent) = × 100
T1R
□ ΔT/T = ____________________ %
□ Can you think of a reason why the two measurements differ? __________
______________________________________________________________________________
□ What is the accuracy of the DMM in temperature mode? ________________
□ What is the accuracy of the infrared thermometer? ______________________
□ Do the two measurements agree to within the relative accuracies of the
two instruments? __________________________________________________________
6.5.1.6 Measurement 6: Ambient Temperature

Since a significant fraction (~70%) of the sun’s power is absorbed by a PV
module and turned into heat, the temperature of a PV module can be consid-
erably higher than the ambient temperature. This difference can be as much
as 25°C on a sunny day without much wind.
The antireflection coatings on the glass and on the surface of a Si cell
and the surface treatment of the Si cell (e.g., microgrooving) maximize the
amount of irradiance that actually is absorbed by the PC cells. Also, the color
of the module frame affects the amount of irradiance absorbed by the frame
proper. Thus, all of these are contributing factors to the amount of solar irra-
diance absorbed by the module and converted to heat. The composition of
the back-side encapsulation also is a factor in the resulting module tempera-
ture, as modules radiate some of the heat away. Finally, wind can carry away
some of this heat by convection so long as the ambient temperature is less
than the module temperature.
Measure the ambient temperature using the laboratory-grade thermom-
eter provided. Take care to keep the thermometer in the shade so that it is not
heated by direct sunlight:
□ T (ambient) = ______ °C
What is the difference between the module temperature as measured by

the IR thermometer here and the ambient temperature?
□ T (module, IR) – T (ambient) = ______ °C
The module temperature is an important variable; we will find out later

that the power output of a PV module goes down with increasing module
temperature.
6.5.1.7 Measurement 7: Standard Operating Conditions (SOCs)

and Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
In addition to standard operating conditions, manufacturers also specify
an expected cell (or module) operating temperature, referred to as NOCT.
NOCT is the expected temperature of an open-circuited module subjected
to an irradiance of 800 W/m2, an ambient temperature of 20°C (68°F), and
a wind speed of 1 m/s. 800 W/m2 is closer to the typical irradiance experi-
enced by a module than 1000 W/m2 is.
We would expect NOCT to vary from module to module because of differ-
ences in module construction and the consequent heat transfer characteristics.
For the Renogy RNG-100D, NOCT = 47°C ± 2°C. In other words, under the
preceding test conditions, the temperature of the RNG-100D exceeds that of
ambient by ΔT = 27°C.
□ What is the module temperature, Tmodule, determined from the infra-

red thermometer? ______ °C
□ What is the ambient temperature, Tambient? ______ °C
□ What is the difference between Tmodule and Tambient? ______ °C
□ How does this measured temperature difference compare with
27°C? _______
□ What reasons can you think of that might cause a difference between
these two temperature differences? ____________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6.5.1.7.1 Electrical Measurements of the PV Module

under Different Load Conditions
In the next three measurement sequences, we will measure the electrical char-
acteristics of a PV module under different load conditions. By load conditions,
we mean the value of the external load resistance connected to the PV module.
The first measurement is Voc, called the open circuit voltage. See Figure 6.22.
This measurement is made without drawing any current. This is achieved
by using the DMM, set to measure DC voltage. When measuring voltage the
DMM presents a very high resistance to the PV module. Hence, the DMM
draws a negligible amount of current and this is a good way to measure Voc.
The second measurement is Isc, called the short circuit current. See Figure 6.23.
This measurement is made without allowing any voltage to be present at the
terminals of the PV module. This is achieved by using the DMM set to mea-
sure DC current. Alternatively, we can also short the leads of the PV module
together, measuring the resulting current with a clamp-on-ammeter.
The third measurement is made with a finite load resistance, which results
in both current and voltage being present at the same time. See Figure 6.24
for the experimental arrangement and Figure 6.25 for the equivalent circuit.
At the factory, all PV modules are characterized using STC by illuminat-
ing the PV module with 1000 W/m2, at an angle of incidence equal to zero,
FIGURE 6.22
The open circuit voltage.
FIGURE 6.23
The short circuit current.
FIGURE 6.24
Set of load resistors used to step through the IV characteristic.
R1
OC 6.5 5.5
1
R2
1
4.5
R3
Measure
PV 1
Voltage
I-V 3.5
R4
0.5
Measure 3.0
Current
R5
1
SC R8 1.0 R6 2.0
1 1
FIGURE 6.25
Diagram of load resistors.
a spectrum equivalent to a 1.5 air mass, and a module temperature of 25°C

(77°F). This is accomplished by using specially calibrated high-intensity
flash lamps; the measurements are made in a fraction of a second, which
does not allow the temperature of the PV module to vary from the ambient
temperature, which is kept at 25°C.
6.5.1.8 Measurement 8: Voc , the Open Circuit Voltage

Refer to the PV module data sheet and set the DC voltage of the DMM to be just
above the Voc (at STC) from the data sheet. Plug the positive and negative leads
into the DMM V/Ω /mA and COM jacks, respectively. Record this reading:
□ Voc = ______ V
Measure the back plane temperature of the PV module using the thermo-
couple and the DMM. Record this value:
□ T (module, thermocouple) = ______ °C
Is the measured value of Voc equal to the Voc specification on the data sheet?
It rarely is and the reason for this difference is that we are not making our
measurements at STC. What we can do is to take the STC value and cor-
rect for the differences in temperature and irradiance. It turns out that Voc
depends only slightly on irradiance and we will ignore it in this laboratory.
The electrical characteristics of the RNG-100D module are listed in
Table 6.1, and the temperature sensitivities of these characteristics are listed
in Table 6.2. We have the following value for Voc at STC and its temperature
coefficient:
• Voc = 22.5 V
• Tcoef = ΔVoc/Voc = –0.30%/°C
Based on the measured back plane temperature, we now adjust the STC
value of Voc, using the following equation:
⎡ Tcoef ⎤
Voc (T) = Voc (25°C) × ⎢1 + × (T − 25°C) ⎥
⎣ 100 ⎦
Record this quantity:
□ Voc (T) = ______ V
Remember that Tcoeff is a negative quantity, so, as the temperature exceeds

25°C, Voc goes down.
□ How does this published value for Voc (suitably temperature corrected)
compare with your measurements? _______________________________________
6.5.1.9 Measurement 9: Isc , the Short Circuit Current

To first order, Isc is essentially proportional to the irradiance incident on the
PV module. For example, if the irradiance normal to the PV module drops
by 50%, Isc should drop by 50% (all other parameters remaining constant).
Isc is also a weak function of module temperature. We will look at this weak
dependence on temperature later.
We have the following value for Isc at STC for the RNG-100D:
• Isc = 5.75 A
Since STC assumes an irradiance of 1000 W/m2, we need to correct the STC
value for the actual irradiance:
Isc,IRR = Isc (STC) × (IRR 1000)
where IRR is the actual irradiance normal to the PV module.

Measure and record IRR:
□ IRR = ______ W/m2
Using the STC value Isc, use the above equation to correct the value of Isc
from the data sheet (STC).
□ Record the irradiance-corrected value for Isc: ______ A.
Are the two measurements consistent with the irradiance corrected value?
____________ (yes, no)
Based on Isc under STC (from the data sheet) and the value of IRR, and the
value of IRR, set the scale of the clamp-on ammeter and zero-out the read-
ing. Then open the jaws of the meter and place them around the PV lead.
Record Isc:
□ Isc,IRR,clamp-on = ______ A
Disconnect the leads from each other and plug them into the DMM using
the COM and 10 A jacks. Record Isc:
□ Isc,IRR,DMM = ______ A
Compare these two measurements:
□ Isc,IRR,clamp-on – Isc,IRR,DMM = ______ A
Are they consistent within the respective accuracies of the two instru-
ments? ______________________________________________________________________
□ What reasons can you think of for these two values being different?
______________________________________________________________________
It turns out that the short circuit current is a function of the ambient temper-
ature; in fact, it is positive. However, the sensitivity, +0.04%/°C, is an order of
magnitude smaller than that for Voc , and we will not correct Isc for temperature.
6.5.1.10 Measurement 10: The Full I-V Characteristic

Characterizing a PV module by its I-V characteristic requires measuring the
current and voltage at a number of load resistances. If we make enough mea-
surements, we can plot the data as a “scatter plot” on a piece of graph paper
and attempt to draw a “smooth curve” through the data points.
The I-V characteristic depends on a number of environmental param-
eters, including ambient temperature, wind speed, irradiance, and solar
spectrum. For the purposes of this laboratory, we will ignore wind speed
and solar spectrum. As before, we will measure the back-side tempera-
ture of the PV module with the thermocouple and the irradiance with the
Daystar meter.
In order to have the PV module deliver power to an external load, we must
have nonzero values for both voltage and current, at the same time. In our
two previous measurements, we had one without the other. In other words,
under conditions of either open circuit or short circuit the module delivers
no power.
In order to deliver power to an external load, we have created a series of
resistor strings (see Figure 6.25), allowing us to vary the load resistance: 0 Ω
(short circuit), 1Ω , 2Ω , 3Ω , 3.5Ω , 4.5Ω , 5.5Ω , 6.5Ω , and ∞Ω (open circuit).
First, we connect the output of the PV module to just one 1 Ω resistor and
measure the resulting current (using the clamp-on ammeter) and voltage
(using the DMM). Then we move the alligator clip over one space to create
a load of 2 Ω and repeat the measurement. Continue these measurements
until the current and voltage have been measured for all seven values of
load resistance.
The product of the measured current and voltage will be the DC power
delivered by the PV module to any given load.
In the following table, enter your current and voltage measurements, as

well as the product of the two, the power:
I-V characteristicS for IRR = _______ W/m2 T(module) = _______

Resistance (ohms) Current (amps) Voltage (volts) Power (watts)
0 Ω (short circuit)
1Ω
2Ω
3Ω
3.5 Ω
4.5 Ω
5.5 Ω
6.5 Ω
Open circuit
Plot these measurements on the following graph and draw a smooth curve
through the data points.
I (Amps)
V (Volts) 5 10 15 20
6.5.1.11 Measurement 11: Maximum Power Point, Pmax

Looking at the I-V characteristic data, what is the maximum power Pmax for
this module?
□ Pmax = ______ W
What are the corresponding values of the current, Imax, and voltage, Vmax, at
the maximum power point?
□ Vmax = ______ V
□ Imax = ______ A
What is the load resistance, Rmax, for which Pmax is obtained?
□ Rmax = ______ Ω
Again, as before, let us compare this measured value of Pmax to the manu-
facturer’s data sheet. Since the data sheet numbers were taken at STC (25°C
and 1000 W/m2), we need to correct these values for the actual module tem-
perature and the actual irradiance.
For the Renogy RNG-100D, Tcoef,Pmax is –0.44%/°C. The equation for both
temperature and irradiance correction is as follows:
Pmax (T,IRR) = Pmax (STC) × ⎡⎣1 − 0.0044 × (Tmodule − 25°C) ⎤⎦ × (IRR/1000)
Using the STC value for Pmax, calculate the expected value based on the
irradiance (IRR) normal to the module (measurement 2) and module tem-
perature (measurement 4):
□ Pmax,calculated = ______ W
Compare this value to your measurement of Pmax (measurement 9):
□ Pmax,measured = ______ W
6.5.2 Other Minor Dependencies

The open circuit voltage Voc does not change appreciably with irradiance.
However, some sensitivity can be seen at relatively low values of irradiance
(less than 100 W/m2). And as mentioned before, the short circuit current Isc is
not a sensitive function of temperature.
7
Modeling the PV Cell, Module, and Array
7.1 Preface
This laboratory is different from the others in this textbook. It represents an
investigation into modeling a photovoltaic cell and, by extension, a PV mod-
ule and PV array. We will use a software program called PSpice, which will
allow us to simulate the performance of a PV cell under the effects of irradi-
ance and temperature. Thus, the “hands-on” part of this laboratory involves
the use of PSpice on a Windows computer.
This laboratory has been developed for three reasons.
First, the standard methodology introducing photovoltaics rarely links the
behavior of a PV cell (the I-V characteristic, if you will) to an equivalent elec-
trical circuit model. This is unfortunate as the elements of the circuit model
are relatively simple (diode, current source, and resistors) and each one of
the elements can be linked one-to-one with physical aspects of the PV cell.
Second, the circuit model can quite accurately represent the behavior of a
PV cell, including the basic quantities such as Voc, Isc, Vmp, Imp, and Pmp.
Third, the effects of shading can be investigated, showing what happens to
different PV cells in the overall PV module.
7.1.1 The “Standard Methodology”

The standard approach starts with a discussion about semiconductor materi-
als, bonds, crystal growth or polycrystalline ingot creation, creating wafers,
doping, and the formation of the p–n junction. This is followed up with other
details about cell manufacturing, such as ohmic contacts, surface treatments,
and antireflective coating. It finishes with integration of PV cells into PV
modules including the addition of bypass diodes.
Somewhere along the way the I-V characteristic is introduced as a fait
accompli, but the student is not given an explanation why the I-V characteris-
tic looks as it does or of any of the limitations it implies to performance. What
is more, there are concepts such as the “fill factor” that are introduced but
then appear to have limited pedagogical value.
173
In the process of describing the characteristics of PV modules, a wide vari-

ety of currents, voltages, and powers are introduced—short circuit current,
open circuit voltage, maximum power point voltage, current, and power—
along with different test conditions—standard test conditions (STC), PVUSA
test conditions (PTC), and nominal operating conditions (NOC), for exam-
ple—under which the measurements are taken.
In most textbooks, it is made clear that all commercial PV modules are com-
posed of a single series-connected string of PV cells, and as a consequence of
this fact, basic circuit DC circuit theory tells us that the current through the
cells in a module is constant. But what is not stressed enough is the fact the
current through each cell is the same even if the cells are not the same size nor
doped the same, nor if the cells are exposed to different levels of irradiance.
7.1.2 Universal Constants: Cell Voltage and Cell Current Density

Let us assume we are dealing with a module composed of identical, series-
connected crystalline silicon cells. If one divides the open circuit voltage
for a module Voc,module by the number of cells in the module, one always
gets Voc,cell = 0.61 ± 0.01 V. On the other hand, if one divides the short cir-
cuit current of the module Isc,module by the area of one cell, one usually gets
Isc,cell = 32 ± 2 mA/cm2. Why do these two numbers appear to be universal
constants for conventional crystalline silicon PV cells?
There are fairly simple answers to both these questions and, together with
understanding the I-V characteristic at a deeper level, they motivate this
chapter.
The first few times I taught a course in photovoltaics, I expanded my treat-
ment of the solid-state physics with a discussion of doping profiles, minority
and majority carriers, the p–n junction, the built-in field, drift and diffu-
sion, and recombination. Although I accomplished a broader treatment of
the topic, in my mind there is limited benefit to a purely descriptive approach
to photovoltaics.
7.1.3 Partial Shading of PV Modules and Bypass Diodes

Shading of cells in modules and the shading of modules in arrays is often not
explained in much depth. In fact, students typically do not understand what
really goes on at the cell level in a PV module when one or more cells are
shaded, nor the consequences of shading. Photovoltaic Systems (J. P. Dunlop,
3rd edition) does treat shading at the cell level,
This laboratory will go into greater depth and will show how bypass diodes
can be employed to mitigate some of the consequences by shunting current
around a subset of series-connected cells that contain one or more shaded
cells. This results in near-normal current for the module but a reduced volt-
age across the module.
Modeling the PV Cell, Module, and Array 175
7.1.4 Overcurrent Protection in Three or More Strings

A fair question to ask is the following: “In string inverters, why do three or
more strings need separate overcurrent protection but not two or one?” It
turns out that the answer to this question can be deduced from circuit mod-
eling but is beyond the scope of this laboratory. After finishing this labora-
tory, the interested student could investigate this matter, for extra credit.
7.1.5 High-Performance PV Modules

It is beyond the scope of this laboratory to treat the more advanced PV cell
technologies such as those by SunPower, Sanyo, and Sunpreme.
7.2 Unity in the Data?

The first practical problem I tackled was to attempt to make sense out of a
bewildering number of different types of modules, using the preceding nor-
malization schema. This started in 2004 before the rapid expansion of the PV
module manufacturing industry. To avoid making things more complicated
than they already are, I will avoid discussing silicon thin film modules or
modules made from materials other than silicon.
7.2.1 How Many Cells in a Module?

For reasons that will become clear later, there are usually an even number
of columns in a PV module: four, six, or eight, although a five-column, ten-
row PV module is fairly common. (Mitsubishi and Kyocera offer PV modules
in this configuration.) On the other hand, the number of rows is essentially
arbitrary: 8, 9, 10, or 12. I am not aware of a commercially available PV mod-
ule with 11 rows. This row–column architecture creates the possibility of a
wide range of cell numbers in a PV module. Common configurations include
36, 48, 50, 54, 60, 72, 96, and 120 cells. With rare exceptions, all cells in a mod-
ule are (initially) wired in single series strings.
7.2.2 Commercial PV Module Electrical Characteristics

Table 7.1 lists a number of popular (i.e., commercially available) crystalline
silicon PV modules circa 2004 and 2014, including their un-normalized and
normalized performance characteristics.
Let us take a look first at the commercial market for crystalline PV mod-
ules circa 2004. Four representative PV modules included:
TABLE 7.1
Popular (Commercially Available) Crystalline Silicon PV Modules
Isc (mA/cm2)
Voc (V/cell)
Cell size
Column
Voc (V)
Isc (A)
(mm)
Type
Row
Mfgr. Module
Circa 2004 PV modules
Mitsubishi MF170EB3 P 5 10 30.60 0.612 150 7.38 32.8
Kyocera KC-158g P 6 8 28.90 0.602 152 7.58 32.8
BP Solar BP-3150S P 6 12 43.50 0.604 125 4.75 30.4
Sharp ND-167U1 P 6 8 29.04 0.605 156 8.02 33.0
Circa 2014 PV modules

Mitsubishi PV-MF125 P 4 9 21.80 0.605 156 7.90 32.4
Kyocera KD245GX-LFB2 P 6 10 36.90 0.615 156 8.91 36.6
Renogy RNG-245 M 6 10 37.48 0.625 156 8.35 34.3
Trina TSM245 P 6 10 37.50 0.625 156 8.68 35.6
• Mitsubishi PV-MFP170EB3, with a 5 × 10 array of 150 mm (5.9 in.)

square cells
• Kyocera KC-158g, with a 6 × 8 array of 152 mm (6.0 in.) square cells
• BP Solar BP-3150S with a 6 × 12 array of 125 mm (4.9 in.) square cells
• Sharp ND-167U1 with a 6 × 8 array of 156 mm (6.1 in.) square cells
There were other manufacturers, such as Evergreen (which used a ribbon

extrusion technology to produce polycrystalline cells) and Shell Solar.
By 2014, the number of PV module manufacturers had grown to over
a hundred and the number of PV modules to over a thousand (cf. the Go
Solar California website: http://www.gosolarcalifornia.ca.gov/equipment/
pv_modules.php). BP Solar and Evergreen are no longer commercially sell-
ing PV modules. SunPower and Sanyo have come onto the market, and there
are hundreds of PV module manufacturers—the vast majority from China,
although Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines, and the United States are sources
of PV panels.
The PV module industry has been in a nearly constant state of flux, with
acquisitions and new manufacturers coming onto the scene. To illustrate, a
series of acquisitions started in 1975 when Solar Technology International
was formed by Bill Yerkes, a Stanford-educated mechanical engineer. In 1977
the assets of STI were purchased by Atlantic Richfield, Co., forming ARCO
Solar. In 1990 Siemens, a German multinational engineering and electronics
conglomerate, purchased ARCO Solar. In 2002 Royal Dutch Shell acquired
Siemens Solar, forming Shell Solar. And, finally, in 2006 SolarWorld, a
German company, acquired Shell Solar. In 2014 SolarWorld continues to

manufacturer PV modules in Hillsboro, Oregon and elsewhere.
The average open circuit voltage per cell for circa 2004 modules is seen
to be remarkably uniform, Voc,cell = 0.606 V + 1.0%/–0.7%; the average short
circuit current per unit cell area is Isc,cell = 32.3 A/cm2 + 7.4%/–5.9%. There is
a considerably greater variation in the short circuit current density than that
of the open circuit voltage, and we should be able to explain this.
When we look at the circa 2014 modules and perform the same normal-
ization and averaging process, we get Voc,cell = 0.618 V + 1.1%/–2.1% and
Isc,cell = 34.1 mA/cm2 + 4.4%/–5.0%. By comparison, both numbers have
increased over time and at the same time the tolerances have tightened up
quite a bit. As before, the spread in short circuit current density per cell is
greater than the spread in open circuit voltage per cell.
The reason for the small variation in Voc and the relative small increase of
Voc over 9 years is due to the fact that all of the listed modules are crystalline
silicon, doped with boron and phosphorus, with similar doping concentra-
tions and depths; this results in similar p–n junctions. These are the param-
eters that affect Voc. Later we will see that Voc is basically the voltage across
the diode formed by the p–n junction and that this “forward” voltage is only
logarithmically dependent on diode current.
It turns out that Voc is not a sensitive function of irradiance. On the other
hand, Voc does depend linearly on device temperature. As long as PV manu-
facturers specify their module performance at STC, it should be possible to
take this temperature variation into account when PV systems are designed
by adjusting Voc for the actual module (p–n junction) temperature.
It turns out that the larger variation in Isc is primarily due to the devel-
opment of specialized surface treatment of the cells—antireflective coatings
and texturing—and antireflective coating on the glass. These enhancements
increase the photon flux going into the silicon, and thereby increase the
chance of photo-induced current.
7.3 Goals for This Laboratory

The goals for this laboratory are to
• Develop an accurate electrical circuit model for a PV cell

• Build upon this model to include models for modules and arrays
• Check to see if the resulting simulated I-V and P-V characteristics
agree with experimental results, under a variety of test conditions
• Investigate the effects of cell shading
Circuit Simulation
Model simulation results
Agree?
Device Measurements Test Data
FIGURE 7.1
Circuit modeling approach.
In the context of this laboratory, “circuit modeling” will consist of develop-

ing an electrical equivalent circuit and then using that equivalent circuit in a
circuit simulation program to generate I-V and P-V characteristics and deter-
mine the maximum power point. It is extremely important to check to see if
the simulation results agree with experimental results so as to validate the circuit
modeling approach for future use (see Figure 7.1).
The models we will develop will, in fact, be capable of investigating the
results of differing values of irradiance and module temperature to get new
I-V and P-V characteristics.
Finally, we will look at what happens, at the cell level, when one or more
cells in a series-connected module are shaded.
Once an accurate model has been developed, a circuit simulation program
can be used to perform a number of very useful “what if” calculations, usu-
ally in a fraction of a second, that might take tens of hours and considerable
cost to perform in the real world using real components and sophisticated
measurement equipment.
Having an accurate model for a photovoltaic cell, for example, also allows
one to characterize the fabrication process and possibly figure out how to
optimize the performance of the cell.
7.4 Introduction
There are two circuit simulation programs in wide use at colleges and universi-
ties. The first is SPICE, first developed at the University of California, Berkeley.
The first version—SPICE 1—was released in May 1972. There are a number of
commercial versions of SPICE, such as PSpice. Another popular program is
MATLAB™, first developed at the University of New Mexico in the late 1970s.
Both of these programs benefit from a schematic capture front end, which
allows an intuitive (graphical) representation of an electronic circuit file.
We will explore a series of models for a single PV cell, each more sophis-
ticated and, hopefully, more accurate than the previous one. We will then
build a model for a PV module based on this relatively sophisticated cell
model and, finally, a model for a PV array based on the module model.
Specifically, we will begin with a simple two-element model for the cell
and see how accurately this simple model can duplicate an I-V characteristic.
We will then add additional elements—principally parasitic resistances—to
increase the accuracy of the model, and we will understand how the model’s
accuracy depends on specific values of the model elements. We will then go
on to model a photovoltaic module as a series string of individual cells, add-
ing bypass diodes to complete a reasonably accurate model of the multicell
PV module. We will then model an array of PV modules composed of a series
string of individual PV models.
Once it is constructed, we can then use the model of the PV module and
investigate the performance of the module with respect to variations in tem-
perature and irradiance. We will check the simulated results against measured
data taken in Chapter 8. We will also look at the effects of shading of individ-
ual cells on the performance of a PV module and we will come to understand
how bypass diodes can significantly reduce the adverse effects of shading.
I have chosen to use PSpice as the simulator, as opposed to MATLAB, but
this laboratory could be as easily worked through using MATLAB. This
choice is somewhat arbitrary.

At the end of this lab, the student will be able to
• Develop a PSpice PV cell model

• Use a PV cell model to simulate the I-V characteristic of a PV cell and
PV module, under varying irradiance and temperature
• Calculate the value of the short circuit current, open circuit voltage,
and maximum power operating point
• Show how the key performance parameters of the I-V characteris-
tic—Voc, Isc, Vmp, Imp, and Pmp, and their variation with respect to tem-
perature—depend on the model parameters
• Show how select key measurement data can be used to build a mod-
ule-specific model that very accurately simulates the real-life perfor-
mance of a specific, commercially available PV module
7.6 Simple Component Models in PSpice

PSpice calculates circuit problems by using a combination of elements (such
as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, and transformers) in conjunction
with sources. The elements obey simple current-voltage characteristics and the
sources represent sources of voltage or current (which can be considered con-
stants or functions of other currents or voltages).
7.6.1 The Resistor Revisited

In Chapter 3, in the discussion of circuit theory, we became familiar with an
element, the resistor, R, whose current-voltage characteristic is
I = V R or V = I × R
This means, for example, that if we apply a voltage source of 5 V across a

resistor of 2 Ω, the resistor will draw 2.5 A.
7.6.2 The Voltage Source

A voltage source, Vs, is an ideal (i.e., abstract) concept. In theory, it impresses
a constant voltage across a resistor regardless of the value of the resistance.
In reality, this is not exactly true, as can be readily demonstrated by measur-
ing the voltage of a AA battery under open-circuit conditions and then with
successive loads of 16 Ω, 8 Ω, 4 Ω, 2 Ω, and 1 Ω. You will notice that at a suf-
ficiently low value of resistance the voltage drops as the load resistance drops.
Thus in reality there are no ideal voltage sources! One way of modeling this
nonideality is to add a resistance, Rser, in series with the ideal voltage source.
This resistance limits the maximum current to
I max = Vs Rser
This is achieved under short circuit conditions—that is, zero external load
resistance. The equivalent circuit model for the voltage source is shown in
Figure 7.2.
7.6.3 The Current Source

The ideal current source is in many ways the complement of the ideal volt-
age source. Ideally, it injects a constant current into a load resistance, again
regardless of the load resistance. In reality, current sources are limited in
their ability to inject their rated current into large value resistors. This could
be demonstrated by performing a similar experiment measuring the cur-
rent injected into larger and larger resistances. One way of modeling this
Rser
+ Vs
FIGURE 7.2
Voltage source model with series resistor.
– Is Rshu
+
FIGURE 7.3
Current source model with shunt resistor.
phenomenon is to add a shunt resistance, Rshu, in parallel with the ideal

current source (see Figure 7.3). Now the maximum voltage (under open cir-
cuit conditions) would be
Vmax = I s × Rshu
7.6.4 The Diode

The diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow easily in one
direction while essentially preventing current to flow in the opposite direc-
tion. In practice, there might be a factor of 1 billion (109) between the forward
current and reverse currents. In a typical diode, a voltage source of only 0.60
of a volt (of one polarity) will cause amperes of current to flow in one direc-
tion while as little as a nanoampere (10 –9 A) will flow with –0.6V applied to
the same diode. Diodes are commonly used to convert AC current into DC
current. Figure 7.4 shows the symbol for the diode, with the arrow pointing
in the direction of forward current.
D1
FIGURE 7.4
Diode model.
Let us look at the I-V characteristic of a diode. The diode current is given by
I(diode) = A × J0 ⎡⎣exp(qV nkT) − 1 ⎤⎦
where
V is the applied voltage
q is the charge on the electron (1.602 × 10 –19 coulombs)
k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.380 × 10 –23 m2–kg-s–2-K–1)
T is the temperature in kelvins
n is the “ideality factor,” which is approximately 1 for silicon PV cells,
A is the area of the diode
J0 is the current density (A/cm2)
At 25°C (298K), the quantity
VT = nkT /q
can be evaluated
VT = 0.02567V
or
VT (1 39)th of a volt
One last parameter needs to be quantified: Jo, which is referred to as the

“dark current density.” Although it depends on a number of semiconductor
parameters and bias conditions (i.e., Jo is not really a constant), at 25°C we can
take it to be approximately 1.5 × 10 –12 mA/cm2 for typical PV cells.
Let us now look at the equation for the diode current for a couple of spe-
cial cases. Assume that we are dealing with 156 mm (6 in.) square PV cells
(Acell = 243 cm2).
I(diode) 3.65 × 10−10 × [exp(39×V ) − 1] Amps
At V = 0, the exponential term—exp39×V—is unity and the diode current is

zero. This is not surprising because a diode is a passive element, not a source
of power, and we expect the current to be zero for zero bias voltage.
For V negative and less than 1/10 of a volt, the first term gets quite small,
and the quantity in the square brackets is negative one and the diode current
saturates at –3.65 × 10 –10 A, a very small value.
On the other hand, for V positive, the first term increases very rapidly. At
V = +0.1 V, the first term in the square brackets is 49.4, large in comparison to
unity. At V = +0.2 V, the first term is 2.44 × 103. At V = +0.3 V, the first term is
1.20 × 105. As you can see, for positive voltage biases of only a few tenths of a
volt, the first term in the square brackets quickly overwhelms unity.
One question we can ask at this point is as follows: “What forward bias
voltage will result in a forward current of, say, 5 A, a typical value for a 125
mm cell or module current?”
We can answer this question by solving this last equation for V and deter-
mining the value of V for a given forward current:
V = VT × ln(I diode I o + 1)

V = (1 39)ln ⎡⎣(I diode 3.65 × 10−10 ) + 1 ⎤⎦V
For a forward current of 5 A, the bias voltage is 0.60 V. Is this value famil-
iar? It should be, because it is very close to the typical value of Voc, the open
circuit voltage of a PV cell! Why should the voltage of a forward-biased diode
be the same as the open circuit current of a PV cell? Good question.
7.6.5 Plotting the Diode I-V Characteristic

Let us plot the I-V characteristic of a forward-biased diode with an area of
1 cm2. The results are shown in Figure 7.5. The forward current is quite small
compared to 1A: less than 0.01 A up to 0.55 V forward bias. This means that
1.0 A
– I (diode)
0.8 A
0.6 A
0.4 A
0.2 A
0A
0V 100 mV 200 mV 300 mV 400 mV 500 mV 600 mV 700 mV
vbias
FIGURE 7.5
Silicon diode under forward bias.
0A
– I (diode)
–0.2 A
–0.4 A
–0.6 A
–0.8 A
–1.0A
vbias
FIGURE 7.6
The same I-V characteristic as in Figure 7.5, except that the current axis has been “flipped.”
Positive current is now out of the diode.
the term exp(39 × v) is still +1 and is essentially cancelled by the –1 term. Beyond
0.55 V, the exponential term continues to grow quite rapidly and we see the
current rise to several tenths of an ampere.
Let us “flip” the I-V characteristic, plotting the negative of the diode cur-
rent. In doing so, positive current is exiting the diode and negative current is
entering the diode, as before. This is shown in Figure 7.6. Now let us add an
internal, constant current of 0.31 mA (appropriate for a 1 cm2 PV cell under
100 W/cm2 irradiance) and plot the sum of the diode current and this con-
stant current in Figure 7.7. This figure looks very much like a PV cell with an
Isc = 31 mA and a Voc = 0.616 V.
Let us take this remarkable similarity—between the I-V characteristic of a
PV cell and that of a diode coupled to a constant current source—and see if
we can actually create an accurate model for a PV cell.
7.7 Two-Element Model for the PV Cell

Figure 7.8 depicts an equivalent circuit of a PV cell, a parallel combination of a
diode and a current source. The diode is meant to represent the p–n junction
40 mA
– I (diode) + I (I1)
30 mA
20 mA
10 mA
0A
vbias
FIGURE 7.7
The same I-V characteristic as Figure 7.6 plus adding in parallel a constant current of 31 mA.
– I1 D1
+
FIGURE 7.8
The simplest model of a PV cell: a current source and diode.
inside the PV cell. The constant current source represents the photo-induced
current in the rest of the cell on either side of the p–n junction.
For the purposes of the following discussion we will assume that we have
a crystalline silicon PV cell with an area of 1 cm2. Later, we will scale up to
160 cm2 (25 sq. in. cells) or 230 cm2 (36 sq. in. cells) as we did before. The 1 cm2
area will set the value of the short circuit current at 31 mA (for an irradiance
of 100 mW/cm2) and the dark current of the diode at 1.5 × 10 –12 A. Figure 7.9
shows the addition of an external load resistance RL. The current source I1
will pump 31 mA into the parallel combination of the internal diode and the
external load resistor RL. The arrows indicate the direction of positive cur-
rent flow. Some or all of the current available can flow through the external
load resistor RL; however, some of the current can also flow interior to the
model (i.e., into the diode) and not be available to the external circuit. In fact,
when the load resistance is infinite (i.e., open circuit load conditions), all of the cur-
rent flows into the diode, producing a voltage of ~0.61 V (see following).
– I1 D1 RL
+
31 mAdc {Rvar}
FIGURE 7.9
The circuit including the PV cell and a load resistance RL.
Figure 7.10 now shows that the current source is indeed 31 mA. This is what
we should expect from a 1 cm2 PV cell under this level of illumination. It also
shows the open circuit voltage to be 0.616 V—again, a reasonable value.
The I-V characteristic for the two-component PV cell model in Figure 7.10
is given by the following equation:
I(RL) = I1 − I0 ⎡⎣exp(qV nkT) − 1 ⎤⎦
Again, I(I1) is the photo-induced current (which depends on junction area

and illumination) and the second term is the diode current.
There is a default diode model already available in PSpice that is nonethe-
less relatively sophisticated. It has 15 user-adjustable parameters, including
junction area, dark current density, temperature, and parasitic resistances.
These parameters reflect the detailed composition of the photovoltaic cell
40 mA
I (RL)
30 mA
20 mA
10 mA
0A
V (RL)
FIGURE 7.10
PSpice simulation of a single PV cell of area 1.0 cm2 and under an irradiance of 100 mw/cm2.
including doping densities and p–n junction physical dimensions. If we do

not specify these parameters, PSpice will use default values built into the
model. One of the parameters that we do need to specify is the junction area,
which together with the dark current density determines the value of Io:
J0 = 1.50 × 10 –12 A/cm2 and Area = 1.0 cm2
I o = Area ∗ J o = 1.50 × 10−12 A
As mentioned before, we can override the default parameters for the diode
and, if we are careful to adjust these parameters, this equation actually does
a fairly good job of representing the PV cell I-V characteristic.
7.7.1 I-V Characteristic for the PV Cell

Using PSpice, we can now simulate the performance of the PV cell model
of Figure 7.8. Figure 7.10 depicts the current through the external load RL as
a function of the voltage for a photo-induced current, 31 mA. Note that the
open circuit voltage is 0.616 V. What is plotted in Figure 7.10 is the external
voltage and current (i.e., the voltage across the load resistor RL vs. the cur-
rent through the load resistor RL). At any point on the curve, the value of the
load resistor is given by
RL = Vload I load
Notice that the current flowing in the external load resistor at zero voltage Isc
(short circuit current) is exactly 31 mA, as it should be. This is obtained when
the load resistor is zero. The voltage across the external load resistor at zero
current Voc (open circuit voltage) is 0.616 V.
If we were dealing with a PV module with 60 cells in series, all of the volt-
ages would be multiplied by 60. Specifically, we would expect a Voc (mod-
ule) = 36.9 V. Compare this to the open circuit voltages of the two 60-cell
modules of Table 7.1: 37.48 and 37.50 V.
7.7.2 The Concept of Load Resistance

Another way to look at these plots is to realize that the I-V characteristic can
be traced out by applying a variable load resistance RL to the PV cell.
Figure 7.11 shows a straight line—called the load line—beginning from
the origin and striking the I-V characteristic at points Iop and Vop, where “op”
stands for “operating point.” The ratio Iop/Vop (the slope of this straight line)
is nothing more than the inverse of the load resistance RL. With Vop = 0.586
V and Iop = 20.0 mA, RL = 29.3 Ω.
7.7.3 Separately Displaying the Source, Diode,

and External Load Currents
Figure 7.11 depicts the three separate currents: the current source, the diode
current, and the external load current. The external load current is identical to
the I-V characteristic. Obviously, the sum of the diode current I(diode) and external
load current I(RL) is equal to the source current I(I1).
It is clear from Figure 7.11 how the onset of diode conduction (Idcell) causes
most and then all of the current to flow internally in the diode and none into
the external load I(RL).
7.7.4 Maximum Power Point (MPP)

A fair question to ask is “What is the maximum power that can be delivered
from the PV cell to the external load RL?” One way to determine this would
be to plot the power delivered to the external load graphically—the P-V char-
acteristic—together with the I-V characteristic. Figure 7.13 depicts these two
curves together, along with the load line.
One can see from the P-V plot that the maximum power is Pmax = 15.9 mW
at the operating point Vmax = 0.535 V and Imax = 29.8 mA, realized with a load
resistance of 17.9 Ω.
40 mA
I (vbias)
30 mA
20 mA
Iop =
0.020 A
ne
d Li
Loa
10 mA
Vop =
0.586 V
0A
vbias
FIGURE 7.11
The operating point Iop; Vop determined by the intersection of the load line and the I-V
characteristic.
40 mA
I (load) I (diode) I (I1)
30 mA
20 mA
10 mA
0A
v (load)
FIGURE 7.12
Plots of the photo-induced current, diode current, and current flowing into the external load
resistance.
40 mA
I (vbias) I (vbias) vbias
30 mA
Imax = 29.8 mA
20 mA
10 mA
Vmax = 535 mV
0A
vbias
FIGURE 7.13
The I-V and P-V characteristics for a 1cm2 PV cell under 100 mW/cm2 irradiance.
7.8 Cell Efficiency

At this point in time, we can ask ourselves what the power conversion effi-
ciency from solar power to electrical power is. If we remember that the solar
power incident on our PV cell is 100 mW/cm2, we can now calculate the power
conversion efficiency, the ratio of Pmax to Psolar:
η = (Pmax 100mW ) = (17.9mW 100mW ) = 17.9%
This answer is very close to the typical value of efficiency for commercial
crystalline silicon cells and provides confidence that the model does a good
job of representing real-world PV cells.
7.9 I-V and P-V Characteristics for Different Irradiance Values

The next step in increasing the sophistication of our model for a PV cell is
to add a mechanism to account for the variation of the current source with
irradiance. We do this by adding a parameter sweep, which will allow us to
investigate this effect. For example, with a parameter sweep we could step
through five values of irradiance: 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 mW/cm2. We will
assume that the value of the short circuit current (Isc) Isc is strictly propor-
tional to irradiance:
I sc = 31mA(Irr 1,000)
The results of this simulation are given in Figure 7.14, where we have also
plotted I-V and P-V on the same graph as before.
Let us examine how the maximum power point changes with changing irra-
diance. Table 7.2 lists the results of a series of simulations for different values of
irradiance: Pmax, Eff (%), Imax, Vmax, and RLmax as a function of irradiance.
TABLE 7.2
Changes in Pmax, Efficiency and Operating Point as a Function of Changing Irradiance
for a 1 cm2 PV Cell
Irradiance
(mW/cm2) Pmax (W) Eff. (%) Imax(A) Vmax(V) RLmax (Ω)
100 16.0 16.0 29.4 0.544 18.5
80 12.6 15.8 23.5 0.534 22.7
60 9.4 15.7 17.7 0.531 30.0
40 6.0 15.0 11.6 0.517 44.6
20 3.0 15.0 5.9 0.508 86.1
40 m
I (vbias) I (vbias) I (vbias)
30 m
I, P
20 m
10 m
0
vbias
FIGURE 7.14
I-V and P-V curves for varying levels of irradiance.
Looking at the results in Table 7.2, as the irradiance changes from 20 to

100 mW/cm2 (a factor of 5, or 400%), the change in Imax is almost exactly pro-
portional, while the value of Vmax changes less than a factor of 1.07× (7%).
As a result, the efficiencies stay relatively constant while the optimum load
resistance changes by a factor of ~5× as well.
In a later chapter we will see that the inverter, which converts the DC power
of a PV module into AC power, must be able to present a varying load resis-
tance to the PV array as irradiance changes, so as to realize near constant
efficiency at the PV array level.
7.10 Equivalent Circuit for PV Cell

Including Parasitic Resistances
A slightly more sophisticated model than that of Figure 7.6 is shown in
Figure 7.15. We have added two parasitic resistances, Rser and Rshu. The series
resistance, Rser, arises from the resistance of the metallization pattern (back-
side pattern and front-side herringbone patterns) and the bulk semiconduc-
tor. The shunt resistance, Rshu, arises from partial shorting of the cell near the
cell edges and junction impurities. In order to maximize the power delivered
to the load resistance, Rser needs to be as small as possible and Rshu needs to
be as large as possible.
Rser
.1
– I1 Rshu D1 RL
+ 1k
31 mAdc {Rvar}
FIGURE 7.15
A more sophisticated equivalent circuit for the PV cell shown in Figure 7.6, employing Rser and
Rshu.
The initial values shown in the schematic in Figure 7.14 have been initially
chosen so that they do not appreciably affect the performance of the PV cell.
However, if we increase Rser by a factor of 100× or we decrease Rshu by a factor
of 100×, either choice will begin to have an effect. These results are shown in
Figures 7.16 and 7.17.
7.10.1 Temperature Dependence of PV Cell Characteristics—Voc

The last demonstration modeling a PV cell is to look at the temperature
dependence of the I-V and P-V characteristics. All manufacturers of PV mod-
ules specify the temperature dependence of Isc, Voc, and Pmax, usually in the
form of a percentage difference per degree Celsius, measured at a reference
(A) irr_PV_parasitics_rser_sweep (active)

40 mA
I (vbias)
30 mA
20 mA
10 mA
0A
vbias
FIGURE 7.16
The I-V characteristic with Rser varying from 20, 10, 1, 0.1, and 0 W (left to right).
(A) irr_PV_parasitics_rshu_sweep (active)

40 mA
I (vbias)
30 mA
20 mA
10 mA
0A
vbias
FIGURE 7.17
I-V characteristic for Rshu = 10, 100, 1 × 103, and 1 × 106 W (left to right).
TABLE 7.3
Renogy RNG-100D Monocrystalline PV Module Temperature Coefficients
Open circuit voltage Short circuit current Maximum power
–0.30%/°C +0.04%/°C –0.44%/°C
temperature of 25°C. For example, Table 7.3 depicts the temperature depen-

dence of Isc, Voc, and Pmax for the Renogy RNG-100D.
In order to look at the simulated temperature dependence of Voc we solve
the diode equation for zero external current and at T = 298K:
⎛ kT ⎞ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ 3.1 × 10−2 A ⎤
Voc (298K) = ⎜ ⎟ × ln ⎢ ⎥ = (0.0256) × ln ⎢ −12 ⎥ = 0.608V
⎝ q ⎠ ⎣ Io ⎦ ⎣ 1.50 × 10 A ⎦
Taking the derivative of Voc with respect to temperature T (and ignoring

any temperature dependence of I0),
dVoc (298K) ⎛ k ⎞ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ 3.1 × 10−2 A ⎤

= ⎜ ⎟ × ⎢ ⎥ = (8.61 × 10−5 ) × ln ⎢ −12 ⎥
dT ⎝ q ⎠ ⎣ Io ⎦ ⎣ 1.50 × 10 A ⎦
dVoc
= 2.05 × 10−3V /°C
dT
or
1 dVoc
= 3.36 10−3 /°C = 0.336%/°C
Voc dT
This is in excellent agreement with the value for the RNG-100D shown in
Table 7.3.
7.10.2 Temperature Dependence of PV Cell Characteristics—Isc

If we were to short circuit the output of the PV cell, the load voltage would
be zero. This means that the voltage across the diode is zero as well (ignoring
Rser), and the total diode current will be zero. Therefore the full value of Isc
will flow through this external short circuit. Unless we have a more sophisti-
cated model for the photo-induced current source, there will be no variation
of Isc with temperature.
In reality, the short circuit current does have a small, positive variation
with temperature as cited in Table 7.3. However, it is beyond the scope of this
laboratory to develop a temperature-dependent model for the photo-induced
current.
We will now continue to look at the change in Isc, Imax, Vmax, and Pmax with
respect to temperature and irradiance; however, we will save these investiga-
tions for the student exercises.

The introduction to this laboratory has been quite lengthy. The reason for
this is that modeling of PV cells and PV modules is usually not a part of an
introductory course in photovoltaics. Therefore, a fair amount of introductory
explanation and motivation was in order. This laboratory contains work of
a fairly advanced nature—for example, the use of mathematical expressions,
circuit simulation, and sophisticated models. These advanced exercises can be
omitted without a loss of continuity to the overall laboratory sequence.
The student exercises will involve the use of PSpice to build circuit models,
perform a simulation, and display the results.
We will begin by selecting a commercially available PV module with which
to work. We have chosen the monocrystalline Renogy RNG-100D. This PV
module has 36 each 125 mm (4.92 in.) square cells, arranged in a four-column
by nine-row array, and it contains two bypass diodes: one between the nega-
tive lead and the junction between cell 18 and cell 19 and a second diode
from this same point to the positive lead. Any quality, 36-cell PV module
TABLE 7.4
Simulation Data
Manufacturer Renogy Sunwize Mitsubishi Kyocera
Model no. RNG-100D SW-110P PV-MF120 UE KD-140SX
No. cells 36 36 36 36
Cell size (mm) 127 127 156 156
Isc (A) 5.75 6.6 7.6 8.68
Voc (V) 22.5 22.0 21.5 22.1
Imp (A) 5.29 6.3 6.75 7.91
Vmp (V) 18.9 17.4 17.1 17.7
Pmp (W) 100 110 115 140
Pmp tol (%) ±5 +10/–5 +7/–0
ΔVoc/ΔT (%/°C) –0.30 –0.35 –0.343 –0.36
ΔIsc/ΔT (%/°C) +0.040 +0.065 +0.054 +0.060
ΔPmp/ΔT (%/°C) –0.44 –0.50 -0.452 –0.52
(monocrystalline or polycrystalline) would be acceptable for the purposes of

this laboratory.
A list of other acceptable PV modules is given in Table 7.4.
7.12 The PSpice Simulation Program

We will use PSpice from Cadence Design Systems. Versions of this simula-
tion program for student use are quite inexpensive and many colleges and
universities already have multiple (site) licenses for PSpice.
In order to describe the circuit that we wish to simulate in PSpice, we need
to do the following:
• Describe the circuit by placing elements and wiring them together.

• Describe the measurements to be made.
• Describe the way the measurements are graphically displayed—that
is, the outputs.
7.13 The Spice Netlist

The circuit is described by creating a netlist, which is a list of the elements used
in the circuit and the numbered nodes to which they are attached. The netlist
also includes the measurements to be taken and the outputs. Each element
is described by one or more values. Here is an example of a simple netlist:
*cel_1_si_RL_V1.cir (file name)

*put extra comments here
*and here
*simplest solar cell characteristic
isc 0 1 31e-3; add comments here, too
dcell 1 0 diode
.model diode d(is=1.5e-12)
rload 1 0 20
.end

The netlist can be created and edited within PSpice, but we can also use
MS Notepad, making sure to use the file extension “.cir” when we save the
file. Any line that begins with an asterisk “*” is ignored by PSpice, and any-
thing that follows a semicolon “;” is also ignored, including the semicolon.
Using the asterisk allows us to add comment lines, such as documenting the
file name and adding any other information that we think would be helpful.
7.13.1 Creating the Netlist Using MS Notepad

Open MS Notepad and begin making the following entries:
□ Beginning with an asterisk and a space, type in the file name you
have chosen and use the extension “.cir” to identify it as a circuit file
for PSpice.
□ Beginning with an asterisk and a space, type in any other informa-
tion you deem appropriate.
□ Type the next line for a current source named “Isc” connected
between nodes “0” and “1” and having a value of 31 mA. Note the
convention for exponential notation. If the first letter in the element
name starts with an “I” PSpice interprets the element as a current
source. One does not need to add the unit “A.” PSpice expects the
value of current to be expressed in amps.
□ Type the next line for a diode named “dcell” connected between
nodes “1” and “0.” The diode element is described in a two-step pro-
cess. First, the model “diode” is specified.
□ Type the third line indicating that PSpice should use the model “d”
for diode. “d” is one of the diode models internal to PSpice, with
approximately 15 or so default parameters that describe it. If any
of these default parameters need to be changed, they are specified
within the parentheses at the end of the statement. In this case we
wish to specify that the multiplicative factor (non-voltage-dependent
factor Io) in the diode equation in current is 1.5 × 10 –12.
This two-step process for specifying the diode model seems a bit cumbersome,
but it becomes useful for circuits more complicated that we will be using.
□ Type the fourth line for a resistor named “rload” connected between
nodes “1” and “0” and having a value of 20 Ω. If the first letter in the
element name starts with an “r” PSpice interprets the element as a
resistor. One does not need to add the unit “Ω.” PSpice expects the
value of resistance to be expressed in ohms.
□ The last line is the “.end” statement. DO NOT press the Enter key
after this last line.
□ Run a simulation in PSpice:
• Select “File”, “Open.”
• Near the bottom of the window, at “Select Files of type,” select
“Circuit Files (.cir).”
• Select “cel_1_si_RL_V1.cir.”
• View the contents of this circuit file.
• Select “Simulation” and “Run cel_1_si_RL_V1.”
At this point PSpice will make a bias point calculation in which it calculates
all of the voltages in the circuit at each node with reference to the ground node
“0.” It is important to remember the fact that node “0” is reserved for this use.
In the lower left-hand corner of the simulation window, information on the
progress of the simulation is logged. If the data have been entered correctly,
this window will list the following progress:
• Reading and checking circuit

• Circuit Read in and checked, no errors
• Calculating bias points
• Bias points calculated
• Simulation complete
□ View the results of the bias point calculation:

• Select “File”, “Open.”
• Near the bottom of the window, at “Select Files of type,” select
“Output Files (.out).”
• Select “cel_1_si_RL_V1.out.”
This file contains the netlist and bias point information.
□ Locate and record the voltage of node “1” with respect to node “0”:
______ V.
□ Record the value of the load resistor connected between nodes 1 and
0: ______.
□ Calculate the flowing in Rload: ______ mA.
□ Calculate the power being dissipated in Rload: ______ mW.
In order to determine the current and voltage for a new load resistor, we
would need to edit the circuit file to assign a new value to Rload, such as 40 Ω,
and save the results. We would then need to close the circuit file, reopen it,
rerun the simulation, and open and inspect the new output file.
This is a cumbersome and lengthy process but we can automate it some-
what by making the value of the load resistance a parameter and then sweep-
ing this parameter through a series of resistances.
□ Open the circuit file “cel_1_si_RL_V1.cir” and immediately save it as

“cel_1_si_RL_V2.cir.”
□ Close this file and immediately reopen it.
□ Modify the file by deleting the line.
Rload 1 0 20
□ And adding the new lines
.param load=2
rload 1 0 {load}
.step param load list .1 1.6 3.2 6.4 9.05 12.8
+15.22 18.1 21.52 25.6 36.2 51.2 102.4 204.8 13107.2
What we have done is to create a parameter called “load” to give it an ini-

tial value of “2.” Then we assign “load” to be the value of the resistance for
Rload and, finally, to “step” load through a “list” of values starting with 0.1
through 13,107.2 (ohms).
The values for the load resistance have been chosen to trace out the I-V
characteristic in somewhat even steps. In reality, this has taken some trial
and error. Note the line in the netlist that starts with a “+.” This tells PSpice
that this line is a continuation of the previous line. Using this feature allows
for more compact netlists.
□ Verify that your netlist looks like this:

*cel_1_si_RL_V2.cir
isc 0 1 31e-3
dcell 1 0 diode
.param load=2
rload 1 0 {load}
+15.22 18.1 21.52 25.6 36.2 51.2 102.4 204.8 13107.2
.end
□ Run a simulation on this netlist and open the resulting output file.
7.13.2 Using MS Excel to Record and Plot Data

We will now use MS Excel to record our simulation data, perform some cal-
culations, and display the results.
□ Open a new spreadsheet.

□ Record the values of the load resistance 0.1 to 13,107 Ω into column
“A” using the first cell “A1” to label the column as “RL.”
□ Record the values of the “node 1” voltage in column “B,” using cell
“B1” to label the column as “V.”
□ Use the third column to calculate the current by entering into cell “C2”
the equation “= A2/C2,” using cell “C1” to label the column as “I.”
□ Grab the handle in the lower right-hand corner of the cell “C2” and
drag it to the bottom of this column. This will make each entry in the
third column the current flowing through the load resistor.
□ Use the fourth column to calculate the power dissipated in the load
resistor by entering into cell “D2” the equation “= B2*C2,” using cell
“D1” to label the column as “Power.”
□ Grab the handle in “D2” to replicate this formula down the fourth
column.
□ Use the fifth column to calculate the efficiency of the PV cell. Do
this by entering into cell “E2” the string “= D1/0.1” using cell “E1” to
label the column as “Eff.”
□ Grab the handle in “E2” to replicate the formula down the fifth col-
umn. Select the cells in column “E” and format them as “percentage.”
Your Excel spreadsheet should look like Table 7.5:

TABLE 7.5
Excel Spreadsheet of Output File Data
RL V I Power Eff.
0.1 0.0031 0.03100 0.000 0.1%
1.6 0.0496 0.03100 0.002 1.5%
3.2 0.0992 0.03100 0.003 3.1%
6.4 0.1984 0.03100 0.006 6.2%
9.1 0.2805 0.03099 0.009 8.7%
12.8 0.3967 0.03099 0.012 12.3%
15.2 0.4700 0.03088 0.015 14.5%
18.1 0.5350 0.02956 0.016 15.8%
21.5 0.5656 0.02628 0.015 14.9%
25.6 0.5803 0.02267 0.013 13.2%
36.2 0.5948 0.01643 0.010 9.8%
51.2 0.6020 0.01176 0.007 7.1%
102.4 0.6088 0.00595 0.004 3.6%
204.8 0.6117 0.00299 0.002 1.8%
13,107.2 0.6143 0.00005 0.000 0.0%
□ Select all of the entries in columns “B” and “C.” Click on “Insert,”
then “Chart,” then “Scatter,” and then “Scatter with smooth lines.”
The I-V plot should appear.
□ Select “Move Chart” and then select “New Sheet.”
Your I-V plot should look like Figure 7.18.
□ Right-click in the plot area and select “Select Data Source”; then
select “Select Data Source.”
□ Click on “Add Ledged Entries (Series)” and then fill in “Power” for
the series name.
□ Click on the spreadsheet icon to the right of “Series X values”; switch
to Sheet1 and select the contents of “column b” and then hit the
“enter” key.
□ Click on the spreadsheet icon to the right of “Series Y values,” switch
to Sheet1 and select the contents of “column d,” and then hit the
“enter” key.
□ Type “Power” for the series name and then hit “OK” twice.
Your chart should look like Figure 7.19.
□ Add minor grid lines by right-clicking on the Y-axis and X-axis

labels and selecting “add minor grid lines.”
0.03500
Series 1
0.03000
0.02500
0.02000
0.01500
0.01000
0.00500
0.00000
0.0000 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 0.6000 0.7000
FIGURE 7.18
I-V plot using MS-Excel charting function.
0.03500
Series 1
Power
0.03000
0.02500
0.02000
0.01500
0.01000
0.00500
0.00000
0.0000 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 0.6000 0.7000
FIGURE 7.19
I-V and P-V lots using MS Excel.
0.03500 0.018
Current
Power
0.016
0.03000
0.014
0.02500
0.012
0.02000 0.010
0.01500 0.008
0.006
0.01000
0.004
0.00500
0.002
0.00000 0.000
0.0000 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 0.6000 0.7000
FIGURE 7.20
I-V and P-V plots using two Y-axes.
□ Left-click in the power curve, click on “Format Data Series,” and

then click on “Secondary Axis,” which will put an axis to the right
of the plot and automatically scale the data. Click on “Close.”
□ Right-click on the current curve, click on “Select Data,” select
“Series1,” click on “Edit,” fill in the series name as “Current,” and
then click “OK” twice.
Your chart should look like Figure 7.20.

From this exercise we can see that Isc = 31.0 mA, Voc = 0.614 V, Imp = 29.5
mA, Vmp = 0.531 V, and Pmp = 15.7 mW. These numbers are what we would
expect for a single PV cell of area 1 cm2 and an irradiance of 100 mW/cm2.
7.14 Using the Power of PSpice

In the preceding exercises we have not used much of the functionality in
PSpice. Instead, we have taken the tabular data resulting from a PSpice simu-
lation and then relied on Excel to organize the data, perform the calculations,
and then display the resulting data using the charting functions.
We will now go back to PSpice to use its more advanced functionality in
the area of simulation as well as data processing and graphical display.
7.14.1 Using the Voltage Source in Place of the Load Resistor

When we placed a load resistor in the circuit along with the current source
and diode, the PSpice program determined the voltage across the resistor. We
then “hand calculated” the resulting current using the relationship I = V/R
and the power using the relationship P = I*V.
Another approach is to replace the load resistor by a voltage source. At first
glance, this does not seem correct, since the load resistance is a passive element
and a voltage source is an active element. Here is why this substitution works:
• When we use an actual load resistor, the PSpice program solves for a
self-consistent set of currents through each element and the voltages
across each element.
• Let us say that the resulting current is Iload and the voltage is Vload.
• If we were to substitute an ideal voltage source and set its voltage to
Vload, it would maintain that voltage regardless of the current it had
to supply to the rest of the circuit (for Vload > 0) or to accept from the
rest of the circuit (for Vload < 0).
• We have thus expanded the concept of a voltage source to have both
• Negative values of current, meaning that it is supplying power to
the circuit
• Positive values of current, meaning that it is receiving power from
the circuit
This substitution of a voltage source for a load resistor would seem sim-
ply to be complicating the job of determining the I-V characteristic of a PV
cell. However, the corresponding advantages are that we can use a lot more
power of PSpice in analysis, data manipulation, and graphical display.
7.14.2 The New Netlist

□ Open up the circuit file “cel_1_si_RL_V2.cir” in Notepad and save it
with a new name: “cel_1_si_Vbias_V1.cir.”
*cel_1_si_Vbias_V1.cir
isc 0 1 31e-3
dcell 1 0 diode
.model diode d(is=1.5e-12
.param load=2
rload 1 0 {load}
+15.22 18.1 21.52 25.6 36.2 51.2 102.4 204.8 13107.2
.end
□ Document the new name of the file in the netlist.

□ Remove the following four lines from the netlist:
.param load=2
rload 1 0 {load}
+15.22 18.1 21.52 25.6 36.2 51.2 102.4 204.8 13107.2
□ Replace them with the following lines:
vbias 1 0 dc 0
.dc vbias 0 .7 0.01
.probe
These three lines mean the following:
• There is a new element, a DC voltage source, “vbias,” connected

between the same two nodes “1” and “0,” with an initial value of 0 V.
• Sweep “vbias” from 0 to 0.7 V in steps of 0.01 V.
• A circuit analysis is performed at each bias point, allowing us to know
the currents flowing through each element as well as the node voltages.
• The “.probe” statement puts the results of the analysis into a “data”
file with the file extension “.dat.”
The netlist should now look like the following:
*cell_1_si_Vbias_V1.cir
isc 0 1 31e-3
dcell 1 0 diode
vbias 1 0 dc 0
.dc vbias 0 0.7 0.01
.probe
.end
Save the file and close it.
□ Open the file “cel_1_si_Vbias_V1.cir.”

□ Click on “Simulation.” This will result in an empty plot screen.
□ Select “Trace” and “Add Trace.” We are presented with a set of volt-
ages and currents to choose from.
□ Select “I(vbias)” and click “OK.”
The resulting curve (Figure 7.21) is somewhat similar to the conventional

I-V characteristic, except for the fact that the current for “vbias” takes on
positive and negative values. We have expanded the negative portion of the
current scale to emphasize this fact.
“I(vbias)” is positive from V bias = 0 V to V bias = 0.615 V; it is negative from
V bias = 0.615 V to V bias = 0.7 V. A positive value for “I(vbias)” means that the
current is flowing into the voltage source, whereas a negative value means that
the current is flowing into the rest of the circuit. So, yes, that means that we can
force current (and power) into a PV cell from an external source!
This fact bears a little discussion. Another way to look at what is going on
is to calculate the power being dissipated in vbias. This power is the product
of the current times voltage:
P(vbias) = I(vbias) × V(vbias)
If the product is positive, then power is being delivered to the rest of the
circuit. If the product is negative, then power is being dissipated in the PV
cell. This phenomenon of power dissipation in a PV cell will arise later in
connection with the shading of modules. For now, though, we are only
0.2 A
I (vbias)
0A
–0.2 A
–0.4 A
–0.6 A
–0.8 A
–1.0 A
Vbias
FIGURE 7.21
I-V plot using PSpice plotting routines, displaying both positive and negative values of current.
40 mA
I (vbias)
30 mA
20 mA
10 mA
0A
Vbias
FIGURE 7.22
I-V plot using PSpice® plotting routines displaying only positive values of current.
interested in the PV cell delivering power to an external circuit and we will

confine ourselves to positive current. To this end,
□ Select “Plot” and then select “Axis Settings.” Click on the “Y-axis”
tab.
□ Under “Data Range,” select the radio button “User Defined,” fill in
“0” to “40 mA,” and select “OK.”
Now your plot should look like Figure 7.22, a more traditional representa-
tion of a PV cell I-V characteristic.
7.15 Simulating a PV Module Composed of 36 Each

of 6 in. Cells—The Renogy RNG-100D
Up until now we have been simulating a hypothetical single PV cell with an
area of 1 cm2, and we have learned how to set up a PSpice® netlist, run simu-
lations, and display the results graphically. We would now like to see how a
PSpice circuit can model the PV cell used in the RNG-100D PV module and
model the RNG-100D PV module itself. We will need to do two things. First,
we scale the current up to a cell area of 232 cm2 (a cell 6 in. square); this will
represent the 6 in. cell used in the RNG-100D. Then, we scale up the voltages
by a factor of 36, to account for the fact that we have 36 series-connected PV
cells. This scaling of 36 is rigorously correct only so long as every cell in the
PV module is identical and receives the same identical irradiance.
□ Open the circuit file “cell_1_si_Vbias_V1.cir” and immediately save

it as “cell_1_si_vbias_V2.cir.”
□ Edit the first comment line to reflect the new file name.
□ In the .model statement, change the value from 1.5e-12 to 3.48e-10
(232× larger).
□ Replace the vbias voltage source with the following four lines:
e 1 0 2 0 0.027777; 1/36 voltage divider

vbias 2 0 dc 0; the control voltage
.dc vbias 0 25.2 0.36
* this will produce sweep of e from 0 to 0.7 V in steps
of 0.01 V
What we have done is to replace “vbias” with a voltage-dependent voltage

source “e.” “e” will produce a voltage between nodes 2 and 0; this is 1/36 of
the voltage between 1 and 0, which is where we have placed vbias. Now we
can sweep vbias from 0 to 25.2 V in steps of 0.36 V. Your netlist should look
like the following:
* cel_1_si_Vbias_V2.cir
* 6” cell, area 232 cm2
isc 0 1 7.2
dcell 1 0 diode
e 1 0 2 0 0.027777; 1/36 voltage divider
vbias 2 0 dc 0; the control voltage
.dc vbias 0 25.2 0.36
* this will produce a sweep of e from 0 to 0.7 V in steps
of 0.01 V
.probe
.end
Now we will configure PSpice to display the results of our simulation by

what should now be the familiar I-V and P-V plots.
□ Open the simulation file “cell_1_si_vbias_v2.cir” and simulate/run.

□ Add the trace “I(e).”
1 G = .02777
V(bias)
– + +
I1 D1 + – –
+ V{var}
E
–
0
FIGURE 7.23
The modified circuit, which allows us to scale down the external voltage by a factor of 1/36 and
apply it to an individual cell.
□ Click on “Plot” and then “Axis settings.”

□ For the “X axis” choose “User defined” and then enter “0V” and
“23V.”
□ For the “Y axis” choose “User defined” and enter “0A” and “8A”;
then click on “OK.”
□ Click on “Plot” and then “Add Y-axis.”
□ Add the trace “I(e)*Vbias”
□ Click on “Plot” and then “Axis settings.”
□ For the “Y-axis” choose “User Defined” and then enter “0 W” and
“160 W.”
The resulting I-V and P-V plots should look like Figure 7.24.
8.0 A 160 W
1 2 1 I (e) 2 I (e) x vbias
6.0 A 120 W
4.0 A 80 W
2.0 A 40 W
>>
0A 0W
0V 4V 8V 12 V 16 V 20 V 23 V
vbias
FIGURE 7.24
The simulated I-V and P-V characteristics for a 36-cell PV module.
Note the following characteristics of this PV module:
• Pmax = 133 W
• Vmax = 19.4 V and Imax = 6.86 A
• RLmax = 2.83 Ω
7.15.1 Adding the Parasitic Resistances

As it turns out, real PV cells also have what are called “parasitic resistances,”
which are resistances that occur in the cell away from the p–n junction
(diode). The power dissipated in these parasitic resistances is not available to
the external load—hence the term “parasitic.” We will need to add two para-
sitic resistances, Rser and Rshu. Before we do, we need to think about whether
or not we need to scale these resistances. Our basic circuit is a still a single
PC cell but now with an area of 232 cm2. This means that all of the resulting
currents have been scaled up by this factor of 232×, while the voltages are the
same. In order for the parasitic resistances to have only a small effect on the
performance of the PV cell, resistances should scale ~250× and, accordingly,
we will set Rser = 0.0004 Ω and Rshu = 4.0 Ω.
The schematic shown in Figure 7.25 shows the addition of Rser and Rshu
with values that should have only a small effect on the performance of our
PV cell.
□ Now add the lines to the PSpice program to sweep Rser and Rshu.
When this is done and we resimulate, we should see the I-V and P-V charac-
teristics shown in Figures 7.26 and 7.27, respectively.
7.15.2 Library Element “cell_1.lib”

We will now develop the concept of a “library element.” The motivation
for introducing a library element is as follows: The model we just devel-
oped for a 36-cell PV module had a critical limitation in that every cell
2 Rser 3
.0004 1 G = .02777
V(bias) + +
– I1 +
Rshu D1 – –
+ V
4.0 E
–
FIGURE 7.25
Adding Rser and Rshu to the circuit.
8.0 A 240 W
1 2 1 I (e) 2 I (e) vbias
200 W
6.0 A
160 W
???
4.0 A 120 W
80 W
2.0 A
40 W
>>
0A 0W
0V 4V 8V 12 V 16 V 20 V 23 V
vbias
FIGURE 7.26
The effect of Rser. Values for Rser vary from 0.02, 0.01, 0.001, and 0.00001 W from left to right.
8.0 A 240 W
1 2 1 I (e) 2 I (e) vbias
200 W
6.0 A
160 W
4.0 A 120 W
80 W
2.0 A
40 W
>>
0A 0W
0V 4V 8V 12 V 16 V 20 V 23 V
vbias
FIGURE 7.27
Effect of Rshu. Values for Rshu vary from 0.2, 0.5, 0.5, and 1000 W from left to right.
had to be identical and illuminated with identical irradiance. What if we

wanted to simulate the result of one or more cells in a PV module being
shaded (i.e., having less irradiance)? To this end we could create a model
for a single PV cell and then create a schematic containing 36 of these mod-
els, one for each PV cell. Then we could change the irradiance on one or
more PV cells and see how this affects things at the PV cell level and at the
PV module level.
A library element is a reusable component that can take on user-defined
parameters. For example, in the previous section we developed a fairly sophis-
ticated model for a PV cell, complete with photo-induced current (Isc), dark
current for the diode (Io), and two different types of parasitic resistances (Rser
and Rshu) (Figure 7.25).
Let us assume now that we would like to create and use a reusable version
of this model. First we take the circuit description part of the netlist and save
it as a library element—for example, “cell_1.lib.” Then we could create a new
circuit file and instantiate “cell.lib” into the circuit file as many times as we
wished. We could, for example, instantiate it 36 times to create a 36-cell PV
module. Then we could look at what happens at the module level if one of
the series connected PV cells was shaded, or we could look at what the con-
sequences might be if there were a defective PV cell—one whose character-
istics were subpar (e.g., Isc = 20 mA/cm2 under an irradiance of 100 mW/cm2).
□ Create the following netlist for a library element and save it as

“cell_1.lib”:
*cell_1.lib
.subckt cell_1 300 301 302 params: area=1, j0=1, jsc=1
girrad 300 301 value={(jsc*area)*(v(302)/1000)}
d1 301 300 diode
.model diode d(is={j0*area})
.ends cell_1
We see that the library element has three nodes: 300, 301, and 302. We
will later state where these nodes need to be connected in the main circuit.
The first element in our library element is “girrad.” Since the element girrad
begins with a “g,” PSpice recognizes it as a voltage-controlled current source,
the governing voltage being “v(302)” and the resulting current “value.”
“Value” is defined as
value = ( jsc × area) × ( v(302) 1000 )
There is also a diode modeled by the internal model “d.” What follows in
parentheses is a user-defined value for is, which is defined to be
is = ( j0 × area)
Although area is defined to be equal to one in this subcircuit, we are able

to assign “area” a new value when the library element is used in the main
circuit file. If we do not, the value of “area” will remain “1.” Now let us build
a circuit from instances of cell_1.
□ Create the main circuit “irradiance.cir” as shown below.
* irradiance.cir
* sweep irradiance and Vbias
* uses an xref "cell_1 .lib"
* no parasitic resistances
.include cell_1.lib
xcell 0 31 32 cell_1 params: area=232 j0=1.5e-12 jsc=0.031
vbias 31 0 dc 0
.param irradiance=1
virrad 32 0 dc {irradiance}
.step param irradiance list 200 400 600 800 1000
.plot dc i(vbias)
.probe
.dc vbias 0 0.70 0.005
.end
The first functional line tells PSpice® that a library element, “cell_1.lib,” will
be used in the main circuit. The second line instantiates the library element
“cell_1.lib.” The first letter, “x,” tells PSPice that this is an instantiation of a
library element. As part of this specific instantiation, two things are done:
• Internal node “300” is mapped to “0,” internal node “301” is mapped

to “31,” and internal node “302” is mapped to node “32.”
• The parameters are given new values for this instantiation:
area = 232 cm 2
j0 = 1.5 × 10−12 A/cm 2
jsc = 0.0310A/cm 2
If there were a second instance of “cell.lib,” we could map its internal nodes
to different nodes in the main circuit and give it different values. In fact, we
will do just that.
As a result, the diode current is Io = 3.48 × 10 –10 A and the photo-induced
current Isc = 7.19 A (at 1000 W/m2).
We have also included a DC voltage source named “virrad” and assigned
voltage to be a parameter. Then we stepped the parameter through five val-
ues: 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1,000. PSpice® will then simulate the circuit once
for each parameter value and will display them together graphically.
□ Make sure the library element “cell_1.lib” and the main circuit “irr_
PV_no_parasitics_no_sweep.cir” are in the same folder.
□ Open “irr_PV_no_parasitics_no_sweep.cir” and Simulate/Run.
□ Click on “All available sections.”
□ Click on “Trace/Add Trace.”
□ Add “I(vbias)”; click “OK.”
□ Click on “Plot/Axis settings.”
□ Click on “Y-axis/User defined.”
□ Fill in 0A and 8A.
□ Click on “Plot/Add Y-axis.”
□ Click on “Trace/Add Trace.”
□ Add “I(vbias),” click (*), click on “Vbias,” and, finally, click, on “OK.”
□ Click on “Plot/Axis settings.”
□ Click on “Y-axis.”
□ Select “Y-axis/Y-axis number” and select “2.”
□ Select “Data Range/User defined,” fill in “0W” and “4W,” and click
“OK.”
Your graphical display should look like Figure 7.28.

8.0 A 4.0 W
1 2
6.0 A 3.0 W
4.0 A 2.0 W
2.0 A 1.0 W
0A 0W
vbias
1 I (vbias) 2 I (vbias) I (vbias)
FIGURE 7.28
The I-V characteristic, using a library cell, assigning parameters and sweeping the irradiance.
Figure 7.29 shows that the short circuit current is approximately 7.20 A, in

agreement with the 6 in. cell PV modules listed. For irradiance equal to 1000
W/m2, the open circuit voltage is 0.616 V. If there were 36 PV cells in series
with this one cell, the open circuit voltage for the module would be 22.2 V, in
excellent agreement with the 36-cell module tabulated earlier (e.g., 22.4 V).
7.16 The Effects of Shading at the Cell Level

Throughout this laboratory, we have assumed that the current (Isc or Imax)
through a PV cell is proportional to the irradiance. What happens in a PV
module when one or more PV cells become shaded (i.e., receive lower irradi-
ance)? The key to understanding what happens is to remember that all of the
cells in a module are in a single series string and, in a series string, the cur-
rent must be the same through each cell.
Let us say we are using a 6 in. square PV cell (an area of 232 cm2) and an
Isc of 7.19 A at a 1000 W/m2 and 5.03 A at 700 W/m2. If the cell is shaded and
receiving only 700 W/m2, it would have an Isc of 5.03 A, as would all of the
other cells in the string.
In order to understand what is happening to each PV cell in the module
(i.e., its individual voltage and current) we need to
□ Build a circuit model with the appropriate number of instances of

the cell model and connect all of them in series.
□ Pass the appropriate parameters (e.g., irradiance) to each instance of
the cell.
□ Apply the external circuit voltage “Vbias.”
□ Measure the voltage of individual cells.
□ Compute the power generated/dissipated in each cell.
Instead of building a circuit with 36 instances of the cell model, in this labo-
ratory we will create a circuit with just two instances, and we will illuminate
one with 1000 W/m2 and the other with 700 W/m2. We will display the I-V
and P-V characteristics for the two cells. We will use the PV cell that is repre-
sentative of the Renogy RNG-100D.
□ Create the following cell library: “cell_2.lib.”
Your cell library element should look like below.

* cell_2.lib
.subckt cell_2 300 303 302 params: area=1, j0=1, jsc=1
+ rser=1, rshu=1
girrad 300 301 value={(jsc*area)*(v(302)/1000)}
d1 301 300 diode
.model diode d(is={j0*area})
rser 303 301 {rser}
rshu 301 300 {rshu}
.ends cell_2
□ Create a main circuit netlist ““netlist_two_cells_series_diff_irr.cir”

with two instantiations of “cell_2.lib.”
Your main circuit netlist should look like below.
* netlist_two_cells_series_diff_irr.cir
* uses an xref "cell_2.lib"
* irradiance is different for the two cells
.include cell_2.lib
xcell 1 45 43 42 cell_2 params: area=156 j0=1.5e-12
jsc=0.0369 + rser=1.0e-6 rshu=1e6
xcell2 0 45 44 cell_2 params: area=156 j0=1.5e-12
jsc=0.0369 + rser=1.0e-6 rshu=1e6
vbias 43 0 dc 0
virrad1 42 45 1000
virrad2 44 0 700
.plot dc i(vbias)
.probe
.dc vbias 0 1.4 0.01
end
□ Run the simulation and plot the I-V characteristics for both cells in
series and for each cell separately.
The independent variable in this simulation is the external bias voltage

“vbias,” and it is impressed across nodes 43 and 0. “vbias” is swept from
0 to 1.4 V—twice the value of a sweep for a circuit with only one cell. In
Figure 7.31, “vbias” is plotted on the X-axis.
There are three measurement results:
• I(vbias), the external bias current, is plotted on axis Y1.

• V(45), the voltage across the cell with 1000 W/m2 irradiance, is plot-
ted on axis Y2.
• V(43)–V(45), the voltage across the cell with 700 W/m2 irradiance, are
plotted on axis Y2.
Your plot should look like Figure 7.29. This plot will need some careful study.
Begin by looking at the measurement results beginning at Vbias = 1.23 V.
The total I(vbias) current is 0. This is the open circuit voltage for the circuit.
Both V45 and V(43)–V(45) are 0.62 V. This is what we would expect: The total
circuit current and the current through each cell are zero. Both cells are at Voc.
As we move to lower circuit voltage, the two cell voltages begin to diverge:
• The voltage across the cell with 1000 W/m2 drops slightly to 0.59 V
by Vbias = 1.1 V.
• The voltage across the cell with 700 W/m2 drops to zero at Vbias = 0.58 V.
• The voltage across the cell with 700 W/m2 drops all the way to 0.48 V
at Vbias = 0 V.
The fact that the cell with 700 W/m2 irradiance has a negative voltage
means that the cell is dissipating power. In other words, a portion of the
power generated by the cell with 1000 W/m2 irradiance is being fed into the
other cell and not the load.
□ Delete all traces and delete the Y-axis.
8.0 A 800 mV
2
6.0 A 400 mV
External Current
4.0 A 0V
2.0 A –400 mV
>>
0A –600 mV
0V 0.2 V 0.4 V 0.6 V 0.8 V 1.0 V 1.2 V 1.4 V
1 I (vbias) 1 V(45) V(43) – V(45)
vbias
FIGURE 7.29
I-V characteristic of two cells in series with different irradiances. I(vbias) is the external cur-
rent, V(45) is the voltage across the cell with 700 W/m2, and [V(43) – V(45)] is the voltage across
the cell with 1000 W/m2.
□ Add “Traces I(vbias)*V(43), I(vbias)*[V(43)-V(45)], and I(vbias)*V(45).”

□ Click on “Plot” and “Axis” settings and set the Y-axis range to be –4
W to +6 W.
Your plots should look like Figure 7.30, displaying the circuit I-V characteris-
tic, the total power, and the power for individual cells.
• Again, the cell with 700 W/m2 irradiance actually dissipates power
from a circuit voltage of 0 to 0.58 V.
• The lower the circuit voltage is, the greater is the power dissipa-
tion, peaking at the circuit voltage of 0 V. This is the short circuit
condition.
• At a circuit voltage 0.58 V, the total power output is due only to the
cell with 1000 W/m2.
• At a circuit voltage greater that 0.58 V, both cells begin to deliver
power to the external load.
• The external power peaks at 5.25 W at a circuit voltage 1.09 V.
We could continue to add cells to this circuit and perform additional simu-
lations, up to a cell number of 35. This will be left to optional exercises.
8.0 A 6.0 W
7.0 A
4.0 W
6.0 A
5.0 A
2.0 W
Power
4.0 A
0W
3.0 A
2.0 A
–2.0 W
1.0 A
0A –4.0 W
0V 0.2 V 0.4 V 0.6 V 0.8 V 1.0 V 1.2 V 1.4 V
1 I(vbias) 2 I(vbias) * V(43) I(vbias) * V(45) I(vbias) * (V(43) –V(45))
vbias
FIGURE 7.30
I-V characteristic of two cells in series with different irradiances. Plots of power generated/
dissipated in the total circuit and in each cell individually.
7.17 Optional Exercises

The following are additional modeling exercises that could be performed by
the interested student for extra credit:
• The modeling and simulation of a 36-cell PV module: investigate

further the effects of shading one or more modules.
• Investigate the effect of adding bypass diodes between cell 1 and cell
18 and between cell 18 and cell 36.
• The modeling and simulation of a series string (say, 10) of 36-cell
modules: investigate the effects of shading of portions of one or
more modules.
• The modeling and simulation of two (and three) strings: investigate
the effects of shading of portions of one or more modules in one
string.
8
Lead-Acid Absorbent Glass Mat Batteries
8.1 Introduction
This laboratory deals with characterizing absorbent glass mat (AGM) lead-
acid batteries. Because they are sealed, AGM batteries require very little
maintenance and they do not outgas, eliminating the possibility of explosion
and fire and making them a good choice for our laboratory.
We will briefly look at other types of Pb-acid batteries, but will only study
in depth the AGM battery. We will look at battery capacity, discharge rates,
charging algorithms, useful life, and the effects of temperature on battery
performance.

At the end of this laboratory the student will be able to
• Characterize a lead-acid AGM battery and use it as an energy stor-

age device in a photovoltaic system
8.3 Overview of Lead-Acid Batteries

Lead-acid batteries have been around for over 200 years and represent a very
mature technology. Batteries, in general, and lead-acid batteries, in particu-
lar, are quite complicated. This is due to the fact that we are dealing with a
liquid-phase device, with different chemistries and a solid-phase with differ-
ent mechanical configurations.
219
All Pb-acid batteries share a common basic structure and chemistry. Two
sets of plates, referred to as the anode and the cathode, are arranged pair-
wise in cells. A nominal 12 V battery is composed of six series-connected
cells, each cell having a nominal voltage of 2 V. The anode and cathode plates
are immersed in an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid and water (38% H2SO4,
by volume). When a battery is connected to an external load resistor, the load
draws current and results in power delivered to the load:
2
Pload = I load × Vload = I load × Rload
In the process, a reversible chemical reaction takes place converting lead

oxide (on the cathode) and the lead (on the anode) into lead sulfate. The sul-
fate comes from the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte. This is referred to as the
discharge cycle.
When a voltage source or a current source is connected to the battery, and
the external voltage is greater than the battery voltage, the chemical reaction
reverses itself and lead oxide reforms on the cathode and lead reforms on the
anode. This is referred to as the charging cycle.
Another way of looking at batteries is that they convert chemical potential
energy into electrical energy and back again.
8.4 Markets for Pb-Acid Batteries

The basic Pb-acid battery has evolved into different mechanical configura-
tions and chemistries to serve different markets.
8.4.1 The Automotive Market

The conventional automotive market is an important one for Pb-acid bat-
teries. The application is often referred to as starting, lighting, and ignition
(SLI). Internal combustion engines (ICEs), whether spark ignition or diesel,
require a high cranking (starting) current (250–500 A) for brief periods of
time (1–3 s) and then are relegated to powering lighting (and, increasingly,
other electronics) and ignition (spark ignition engines). SLI batteries are not
intended to be deeply discharged, as the alternator and charging circuitry in
vehicles keep the battery at near full charge at all times. SLI batteries tend to
have a high number of thin plates compared to other Pb-acid batteries and
this mechanical configuration increases the surface area and decreases the
internal resistance of these batteries, which is key to fulfilling high-current
requirements.
Lead-Acid Absorbent Glass Mat Batteries 221
Over the past 20 years, the number of automotive components that need
electrical power has increased dramatically. For example, the conventional
ICE-based vehicle has a number of electrical power applications:
• High-power audio, GPS, other infotainment systems

• Displays and indicator lights
• Motorized windows, seats, mirrors, and sunroofs
• Electrification of belt-drive systems: pumps, fans, steering
• Valve control, suspension sensing and control, active steering
These challenges have been largely met with Pb-acid batteries with higher
currents, together with innovative buss architectures.
The advent of hybrid and electric vehicles has transformed the automotive
battery market. Although the first electric vehicles used Pb-acid batteries,
the energy-to-weight ratio of Pb-acid limited the range and performance of
these vehicles. The need for electric propulsion with horsepower and torque
requirements matching conventional vehicles (150 HP and 150 ft.-lb.) has
forced a changeover to lithium battery technology. No electric or hybrid
passenger vehicles today use Pb-acid batteries, and all are based on lithium
technology of one type or another.
Li-based batteries are beyond the scope of this course, but this technology
is becoming more important and is beginning to show up in energy automo-
tive storage systems.1
8.4.2 Conventional Traction Market

Forklifts, pallet trucks, material handling equipment, and golf carts com-
prise the traction market. These batteries are required to provide power for
approximately 4–6 hours per day followed by an overnight charge cycle.
They need to exhibit both relatively deep discharge and high discharge/
charge cycle count. They also need to be relatively low maintenance.
8.4.3 Energy Storage Market

This market includes such applications as the PV market (both off-grid and
grid-tied battery backup) and the uninterruptible power supply market.
The requirements for the off-grid PV market are in some ways similar to
the those for the traction market. Each day the battery system undergoes a
significant discharge/charge cycle. On the other hand, the battery system
should survive a high number of cycles (e.g., 1,800 cycles, or 5 years) before
the capacity of the battery degrades significantly. This requirement in turn
limits the depth of discharge to about 30%. During the evening or overcast
periods, the batteries are discharged to produce a combination of DC and AC
power loads. If the use of a fossil fuel generator is to be avoided, the battery
system must also provide enough energy to survive several overcast days.
This drives the design toward an even shallower daily discharge, to accom-
modate several “days of autonomy.”
Grid-tied battery backup systems and uninterruptible power supplies
(UPSs) share a lot in common. Both are required to supply emergency power
in the event of a power outage. UPS systems often are designed to provide a
few minutes to an hour of backup power for a dedicated piece of electron-
ics. This could be a mission-critical piece of electronics (e.g., Internet server
or medical equipment) or a stairwell lighting system. The 1-hour period
could be used to shut down the system gracefully or to transition over to
another form of backup power such as a fossil fuel generator. The required
number of cycles is few (e.g., 5 per year) and the depth of discharge (DoD)
can be significant (e.g., 70%) in some fraction of the outages. Finally, an
important requirement is a low level of self-discharge for these battery sys-
tems, which may not be continuously maintained in a full-charge state by
utility power.
8.4.4 Lead Alloys
Although 100% lead batteries are commercially available, this battery type
has a low energy density (kWh/kg or kWh/cm3), suffers from significant
self-discharge, and cannot produce large currents.
Lead-antimony batteries (~2% Sb) can produce higher currents and be sub-
jected to repeated discharge/charge cycles without damage. These batteries
are often referred to as deep cycle and are found in the traction market. On
the other hand, Pb-Sb batteries are not well suited for standby applications
due to a phenomenon referred to as “antimony poisoning.”
Lead-calcium batteries today actually have more tin (~2% Sn) than calcium
(~0.1% Ca). But they do perform better in standby or backup applications. On
the other hand, they do not perform well under repeated cycles, even as low
as 20% depth of discharge.
Lead-selenium batteries (1.5% Pb and 0.05% Se) can be seen as a compro-
mise between Pb-Ca and Pb-Sb batteries. They show up to 10 times the cycle
capacity of Pb-Ca and up to 70% of the cycle capacity of Pb-Sb.
For off-grid photovoltaic systems requiring daily discharge/charge cycling
Pb-Sb batteries are used because of their ability to withstand repeated
cycling. Grid-tied PV systems with battery backup favor Pb-Ca so long as
the number of power outages is relatively infrequent (five per year).
8.5 Comparison with Other Battery Technologies
Li-ion Li-ion Li-ion Fe

Specification Lead acid2 NiCd NiMH cobalt manganese3 phosphate4
Cost ($/Wh) 0.17 $2.50 0.65
Energy density 43 45-80 80 143 108
(Wh/kg)
Power density 26 143 108
(W/kg)
Cycle life 200–300 1,000 2,100 500–1,000 500–1,000 1,000–2,000
(~100% DoD)
Fast charge 8–16 1 2–4 2–4 1 1
time (h)
Self-discharge 5 20 3 <10 <10 <10
(%/month)
Cell voltage 2 1.2 1.2 3.6 3.8 3.3
(V)
It can be seen that Pb-acid batteries have the lowest energy density by a large
margin. They are also the cheapest ($/Wh). Under deep discharge, they have
a very limited number of cycles compared to other battery types.
8.6 Characterizing the Pb-Acid Battery

8.6.1 Nominal Battery Voltages
For AGM batteries, the basic building block is a cell, with a nominal cell voltage
of 2.0 V. A battery with six cells is referred to as a 12 V battery. Under various
conditions, however, the cell voltage (12 V battery voltage) can vary over a
considerable range:
• 1.75 V (10.5 V) fully discharged under load

• 1.93 V (11.6 V) fully discharged but at rest for at least 4 hours
• 2.13 V (12.8 V) fully charged, at rest for at least 4 hours
• 2.40 V (14.4 V) 80%–100% charged under absorbent stage charging
conditions
All of these voltages are temperature dependent and the reference tempera-
ture for these voltages and all other battery measurements is 25°C.
8.6.2 Battery Capacity

The maximum amount of charge—the number of coulombs—stored in a bat-
tery is referred to as the capacity (C). It is measured in amp-hours (Ah). 1 Ah
equals 3,600 coulombs. And 1 coulomb equals 6.2 × 1018 electrons.
We will also be interested in the amount of energy—the number of joules—
stored in a battery. The standard unit of measure for energy storage (E) is
watt-hours (Wh) or kilowatt-hours (kWh). To first order, the two quantities
are related by the battery voltage
E(Wh) = C(Ah) × Ebattery (V )
For example, if a 12 V nominal AGM battery has a rated capacity of 84 Ah,

its energy content is 1,008 Wh (~1.0 kWh).
8.6.3 State of Charge and Depth of Discharge

The capacity or the amount of energy remaining in a given battery is typi-
cally expressed in terms of the state of charge (SoC). SoC is the ratio of the
energy remaining in a battery to the maximum possible stored energy, and
it is expressed as a percent. A SoC of 80% means that 80% of the maximum
possible energy still remains in the battery.
Another term that is frequently used is depth of discharge. This is the ratio
of the amount of energy already discharged from the battery to the maxi-
mum possible stored energy. If we have discharged 25% of the energy from
or capacity of a battery, its DoD is 25%. Obviously,
SoC DoD
=1−
100% 100%
As mentioned before, the exact output voltage of a lead acid battery

depends on the amount of energy remaining in the battery, the battery tem-
perature, and the recent (6-hour) history of the battery (charge, discharge,
or rest). In this lab, we will do our best to eliminate the temperature depen-
dence by operating the batteries at an ambient temperature close to 25°C
(77°F). Nonetheless, the actual battery temperature can be higher than ambi-
ent if the battery has been charged or discharged recently. In order to remove
this history effect, we will try to let a battery “rest” for a minimum of 4
hours (preferably 6 hours) at 25°C before making any measurements. Again,
at 25°C, a fully charged and rested 12 V AGM battery has an open-circuit
voltage of 12.8 V and a fully discharged battery has an open circuit voltage
of 11.6 V.
TABLE 8.1
SunXtender PVX-840T Capacity versus Discharge Rate
SunXtender PVX-840T (to 10.5 V end point)
1 h rate 2 h rate 4 h rate 8 h rate 24 h rate 120 h rate
52 Ah 66 Ah 68 Ah 74 Ah 84 Ah 97 Ah
8.6.4 More on Battery Capacity

To further complicate matters, the delivered capacity of a battery (Ah)
depends on the rate at which the battery is discharged. Table 8.1 depicts the
capacity of a SunXtender PVX-840 AGM battery for different discharge rates.
A “1-hour rate” means that the battery starts at 100% SoC and is completely
discharged (0% SoC) to 10.5V in 1 hour. A “24-hour rate” means that the bat-
tery undergoes the same 100% to 0% SoC, to 10.5V in 24 hours. The nominal
capacity published in the literature is usually taken to be the 24 hour rate.
Why does the capacity vary with discharge rate? One of the reasons is that
there is internal resistance in the battery, part of which is due to the electro-
chemical path through the electrolyte and separator (in this case a fiberglass
mat). The higher the current is, the greater is the electrochemical resistance;
the greater the electrical resistance is, the greater is the internal power dis-
sipation (P = I2R). Power that is dissipated within the battery (and turned to
waste heat) is lost and cannot contribute to the power being delivered to an
external load.
8.6.5 Expected Life Cycles

As mentioned before, another consideration when using batteries for energy
storage is the number of these charge/discharge cycles that can take place
before a battery needs to be replaced. The replacement point is usually
taken when a battery can charge and discharge 80% of its original capacity.
Figure 8.1 shows a cutaway view of a Sun Xtender brand AGM battery and
Figure 8.2 depicts the number of cycles versus depth of discharge for a typi-
cal AGM battery.
For example, if the application requires a discharge and charge cycle every
day for 5 years (~1,800 cycles), the depth of discharge should be limited to
30%. However, if the battery is required to provide backup power only five
times a year for 7 years (35 cycles), then the battery could be discharged
down to a depth of discharge of 100% each time that it is required to provide
backup power.
8.6.6 Three-Stage Charging

A three-stage charging for lead-acid batteries is fairly standard in the indus-
try and is depicted in Figure 8.3. Three-stage charging involves the use of a
SEALED, PRESSURE
RELIEF SAFETY LIFTING HANDLES
VALVES
COVER TO COPPER ALLOY
CONTAINER TERMINAL
SEAL
INTERCELL
CONNECTIONS
THICK PLATES
AND HIGH
DENSITY OXIDE
PASTE MATERIAL
ABSORBENT
GLASS MAT (AGM)
SEPARATOR
REINFORCED COPOLYMER
POLYPROPYLENE CONTAINER
POLYETHYLENE AND COVER
ENVELOPE
FIGURE 8.1
Cutaway view of a Sun Xtender brand AGM battery (Courtesy Concorde Battery).
Expected Life Cycles

10000
5000
2000
Cycles
1000
500
200
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Depth of Discharge
FIGURE 8.2
The number of cycles versus depth of discharge for a typical AGM battery (Courtesy Concorde
Battery).
charger that initially charges at constant current (a/k/a “bulk stage”)—typi-

cally C24/10h (beginning of stage 1). Under this condition, the battery voltage
will begin to rise over time. When the battery voltage reaches 14.4 V (end
of stage 1 and beginning of stage 2) a/k/a “absorbent stage,” the charger
begins reducing the charging current to maintain a constant battery voltage
Voltage Current
15.00 60.00
14.50 50.00
14.00 40.00
VOLTAGE (VOLTS)
Current Limit = 50A
CURRENT (AMPERS)
V-absorption = 14.4V
13.50 30.00
13.00 20.00
12.50 10.00
12.00 0.00
11.50 –10.00
0:00:00 0:28:48 0:57:36 1:26:24 1:55:12 2:24:00 2:52:48 3:21:36 3:50:24 4:19:12
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Voltage rises at Voltage peaks, Float charge
constant current current decreases compensates
for self-discharge
Voltage is lowered
FIGURE 8.3
Three-stage charging cycle for a 258-A-h(C/24) A6M battery (Courtesy of Concorde Battery).
of 14.4 V. When the charging current drops to 0.5% of its 24-hour capacity
(C24/200), the charger drops the current even further (a/k/a “float” or “trickle
stage”) to maintain a constant battery voltage of 13.3 V at 25°C.
Higher quality three-stage chargers include a thermometer that monitors
the battery temperature and corrects the charging algorithm to account for
temperature-dependent battery parameters.

8.7.1 Charging the PVX-840T
□ Double-check that the ambient temperature is as close to 25°C as
possible. Using a three-stage charger, such as the Vector 1095A,
begin charging the PVX-840T at 10 A (~C24/8h). Monitor and record
the charge current and voltage over time.
Open
circuit Charging
t 0h 0h 0.5 h 1h 2h 3h 4h 5h 6h
V (V)
I (A) 0A 10 A
P (W) 0
E (Wh) 0
□ Record the current and voltage as dual Y-axis data versus time.
□ Using these charging data, calculate the total amount of charge in
amp-hours, ____ Ah, and the total amount of energy in watt-hours,
____ Wh, that were introduced into the battery during the complete
6-hour charging cycle.
□ How does this compare to the total capacity (84 Ah) and maximum
energy (1008 Wh) of a fully charged battery? Estimate the SoC of the
battery before you began charging it: SoC = ______ %.
8.8 Discharging the PVX-840T

□ Start with a fully charged PVX-840T. Leave the PVX-840T battery
at rest in an air-conditioned room maintained at 25°C for at least
4 hours.
□ Measure Voc, the open circuit voltage: ______ V.
□ Select a load resistance of 1 Ω, 150 W. We have prepared a load com-
prising four each 1 Ω, 50 W power resistors. The load is wired as two
resistors in a series string and then two of these strings in parallel.
See Figure 8.4.
□ If this load resistance is connected to the PVX-840T, what would be
the initial current? ______ A.
1Ω, 50W 1Ω, 50W
1Ω, 50W 1Ω, 50W
FIGURE 8.4
1 W, 200 W load resistor for discharging large (100–250 A-hr) 12 V batteries.
□ What would be the initial power dissipation? ______ W

□ Connect the 1 Ω load resistance to the battery. Immediately begin to
record the voltage and the current being delivered by the battery to
the 1 Ω load. The starting current should be about 12 A (~C24/7h).
Open
circuit Under load
Δt Voc 0h 0.5 h 1h 2h 3h 4h 5h 6h
V (V)
I (A) 0A
P (W) 0
E (Wh) 0
□ Plot these data in your notebook and estimate the elapsed time when
the voltage fell to 10.5 V.
□ Assuming the current to be constant during each Δt time interval,
calculate the number of amp-hours discharged by the battery up to
the 10.5 V point: ______ Ah.
□ Calculate the number of watt-hours discharged by the battery up to
the same point: ______ Wh.
Notes
1. In 2010 Porsche announced the availability of a Li-Fe phosphate battery for its
911 line. The price was around $1,700.
2. Sun Xtender PVX-2580: 12 V; C/24 for energy; 72 kg.
3. Eneloop; 1.2 Ah, 1.2 V.
4. LG Chemical: 6.0 Ah, 3.8 V; C/1 and discharge to 3 V
5. A 1123 Systems: 2.3 Ah, 3.3 V; C/1, and discharge to 2 V
6. This is not exactly true as the voltage drops as the battery discharges. Typically,
when testing a battery for capacity, the end point is taken to be 10.5 V.
9
Off-Grid PV System with DC-Only Loads
9.1 Introduction
This laboratory deals with designing and installing an off-grid system with
DC-only loads. This represents the simplest practical photovoltaic system,
except for direct powering applications (e.g., water pumping). DC loads can
include lighting, refrigerator/freezer, instruments, communications equip-
ment, and personal electronics.
The system we will work with in this laboratory is based on two 100 Wp PV
modules, a 30 A charge controller, and a single 12 V, 250 Ah AGM (absorbent
glass mat) battery. The loads could include a 12/24 VDC powered refrigera-
tor, 12 V LED track lights, and a mix of 5 V USB-powered portable electronic
equipment. The PV modules will be mounted on a top-of-pole racking system.
The entire system will be mounted on a portable 4 in. × 8 in. × 3/4 in. ply-
wood “wall on wheels.” See Figure 9.7 later in the text for a photograph of a
completed system.
As is the case in this laboratory sequence, substitutions may be made for
the PV panels (so long as they are 36-cell modules), and we have left open the
choice of charge controllers since there are a wide variety of 30 A charge con-
trollers on the market. Finally, it is not necessary to purchase a DC-powered
refrigerator for this lab, as a resistor of the same power consumption could
be used to simulate the operation of the refrigerator.

• Assess customer DC energy needs using a load profile analysis.

• Design and integrate an off-grid PV system supporting DC-only loads.
231
9.3 Overall Design Philosophy

Off-grid systems depend 100% on the conversion of solar power into DC elec-
trical power, which is then used directly by various DC loads or is stored in a
battery to provide power at night or at other times when the sun is not shining.
The design of these systems must be conservative for two reasons. First,
the system needs to provide adequate energy to the loads in question on
a daily basis during the winter when the solar resource is at its minimum.
Second, it needs to provide power during periods of no sunshine—for exam-
ple, at night and in overcast skies and storms. These factors define a worst-
case scenario and it is necessary to design to this scenario.
9.4 The Load Profile

As mentioned before, the load profile is an accounting of the power con-
sumption of all of the loads averaged over a suitable length of time. In our
case, we will average together summer energy consumption and average
together winter energy consumption.
In this lab, the DC loads that we will profile include the following:
• A number of 12 V LED track lights

• A 12 V refrigerator/freezer (optional)
• A smart phone
• A tablet computer
• A Li-ion battery with a USB power interface for charging a cell
phone, tablet computer, and other personal electronics
• A charging station for AA/AAA NiMH batteries that can be used in
flashlights, handheld GPS units, and other personal electronics
Figure 9.1 depicts a load profile workbook using MS-Excel that will be used
to capture the power consumption for the different DC loads. The workbook
contains two sheets, one for summer and one for winter. A copy of this work-
book will be made available to each student for use in the laboratory.
9.5 Days of Autonomy and Battery Energy Capacity

We need to estimate the number of days that a system will be able to provide
customers’ daily energy requirements with no solar resource.
Off-Grid PV System with DC-Only Loads 233
Joe Ramirez
California Solar Enterprise Inc.
9876 Main St.
Hollywood. CA 99999
(323)888-9999
Joe.Ramirez@calsolarent.com
Load Profile Calculation
Elvez Presley
1234 Magnolia Ave
Memphis, TN
Don't change without thought.

User must fill in data
User can use this too.
Intermediate calculations.
These are the answers!
Lighting
Lighting average per day 0 hrs
Quantity Listed Make Model Watts Total Wattage KWHs

5 2 10 0.0
5 4 20 0.0
8 6 48 0.0
9 8 72 0.0
10 10 100 0.0
0 0.0
Other Watts Hrs/day KWh/day

Refrigerator#1 450 0 0.0
Refrigerator#2/free 600 0 0.0
Washer 750 0 0.0
Dryer-Gas 750 0 0.0
Microwaveoven 300 0 0.0
TV#1 200 0 0.0
TV#2 200 0 0.0
Stereo 75 0 0.0
Computer 150 0 0.0
Printer 100 0 0.0
5V US Bload#1 0 0 0.0
5V US Bload#2 0 0 0.0
Subtotal 0.0
“X” Energy produced by PV 4 KWh/KW-DC
Kilowatt-hours(kWh) is the product of the watts consumed by the appliance number when it is on and the of
hours a day it is on; divided by 1,000 ( to turn Wh into kWh).
Total Estimated Usage

Per day 0.0
PV System Size
0.0 KW-DC
0 Sq. ft.
PV System size are rough calculations based on the assumption that a PV system produces 4.25 kW/day/kWDC
averaged over one year and PV modules produce 10W/sq.ft.
FIGURE 9.1
Load profile appropriate for off-grid PV systems and DC-only loads.
The maximum period of little or no solar resource is commonly referred

to as days of autonomy (DOA). This is typically chosen to be between 3 and 5
days, with the upper limit typically dictated by economic considerations and
whether or not a fossil fuel generator is available. The required energy storage
of the battery is largely determined from the load profile and the number of days of
autonomy, with minor corrections for system component efficiencies. A sec-
ondary source of power, such as a fossil fuel generator, can be incorporated
into the overall design so as to provide power when the battery subsystem
reaches a predetermined maximum depth of discharge (DoD).
9.5.1 Measuring the Depth of Discharge

One way of measuring DoD is to measure the battery voltage, but as we have
seen, the battery voltage depends on a variety of circumstances: (a) whether
the battery is being charged, discharged, or at rest; (b) if at rest, how long it
has been at rest; and (c) temperature.
One way of keeping track of DoD is to install a battery system monitor
(BSM). A BSM employs a shunt placed in-line between the negative lead of
the battery and the charge controller. This shunt is a high-precision, low-
value resistance, such as 0.10 mΩ. By monitoring the voltage drop across the
shunt, one can determine the current flowing through this positive lead of
the battery; in this case, a current of 100 A would produce a voltage of 10
mV. Although a clamp-on ammeter could be used for the same purpose, the
use of a dedicated shunt and associated electronics allows monitoring and
recording the following:
• Instantaneous current (A)

• Net integrated current over time (Ah)
• Net integrated flow of power (current times battery voltage) over
time (Wh)
By starting with a fully charged battery and downloading the ampacity,

the BSM can display the DoD or state of charge (SoC). In other words, the
BSM can act as an “energy/charge gauge.”
More sophisticated BSMs employ a battery thermometer to make the tem-
perature-dependent corrections to DoD/SoC (Figure 9.2).
9.6 PV System Rating

On the other hand, the size of the PV module subsystem is dictated by matching the
required average daily energy consumption (kWh/day) to the predicted solar energy
FIGURE 9.2
Xantrex battery system monitor.
production, which is a function of the PV modules, the charge controller and

batteries, and the site-specific aspect of the design (microclimate, PV module
orientation, shading).
9.7 System Calculations—The Role

of Energy Conversion Efficiency
Throughout this chapter we will need to take into account power conversion
efficiency. No physical process that converts power from one form to another
does so with 100% efficiency. We will address two conversion processes in
this chapter; others will be covered elsewhere as needed.
9.7.1 Charge Controller Efficiency

Charge controllers do not extract 100% of the available power from the PV
module and deliver that power to the battery. The charge controller that
we will use in this laboratory—Morningstar SunSaver-10 (12/24V, 15A)1—is a
pulse width modulation (PWM) tracking controller. The average efficiency
for this charge controller over a range of 50 to 175 W input power at a nomi-
nal 12 V from the PV module is 96%.
9.7.2 Charging/Discharging Efficiency of AGM Battery

Batteries do not convert 100% of the incoming DC power from the charge
controller into chemical potential energy in the batteries themselves. Nor is
100% of the battery chemical potential energy converted back into DC elec-
trical power and made available to the loads.
We will use a Sun Xtender PVX2580 (12 V, 258 Ah, C/24h) AGM battery for
this laboratory. As long as the charging/discharging currents are less than
20% of the rated 24-hour capacity (i.e., 52 A), AGM batteries are about 95%
efficient in turning input electrical energy from the charge controller into
stored chemical energy and 95% efficient in turning chemical energy back
into electrical energy.
9.7.3 Depth of Discharge and Life Cycles

As discussed in Chapter  8, all lead-acid batteries—AGM batteries included—
exhibit a finite number of charge/discharge cycles before their performance
significantly deteriorates. The number of cycles depends on the depth of
discharge. Figure 9.3 (first introduced as Figure 8.2) depicts the relationship
between the number of expected cycles and the depth of discharge. We will
use this graph to specify the DoD.
Expected Life Cycles

10000
5000
2000
Cycles
1000
500
200
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Depth of Discharge
FIGURE 9.3
Number of charge–discharge cycles versus depth of discharge for Sun Xtender AGM batteries.

9.8.1 Load Profile Calculation
Using the load profile workbook for off-grid systems and 12 VDC-only loads,
make the following entries:
• Track lighting: four each of 12 V, 10 W LED lamps, operating 4 hours

per day during the summer and 6 hours/day in the winter.
• Refrigerator/freezer: Steca PF 166 solar fridge/freezer, 12 V/4–8 A or
24 V/2–4 A, 3°C setting
• 170 Wh/day during the summer (30°C ambient temperature)
• 90 Wh/day during the winter (20°C ambient temperature)
• Smart phone: Apple iPhone 4S. Assume 43 Wh battery needs to be
charged at 5 V/2 A for 2 hours/day.
• Tablet computer: Apple iPad 2. Assume 25 Wh battery needs to be
• NiMH battery charger: GoalZero Guide10Plus battery pack contain-
ing four each of 1.2 V, 2.50 Ah AA NiMH batteries (12 Ah). This char-
ger/battery pack can be used two ways:
• It can provide 5.0 V/1.0 A of USB power (up to 12 Ah total energy)
from either of the two ports.
• Individual AA batteries can be charged and used in flashlights
and other electronics (e.g., handheld GPS unit, weather radio).
Assume that this battery charger needs 5 V/1 A via a mini-USB
charging port for 4 hours a day or 20 Wh per day.
• Li-ion battery pack: Instapark MP 1800 U2: 26 Wh storage capacity;
output two USB 5V @ 1 A and 5 V @ 2.1 A; Input 5 V @ 1 A mini-USB.
Assume that this battery pack needs charging for 3 hours or 15 Wh
per day. This pack does not charge AA batteries but contains about
2× the energy of the goal zero unit and is particularly useful as a
portable power pack to accompany a cell phone or tablet.
• 12 to 5 VDC converter: Assume that this converter supplies all 5
VDC loads (103 Wh/day).
□ What is the total energy requirement per day (summer) for these
loads? ______ Wh
□ What is the total energy requirement per day (winter) for these
loads? ______ Wh
□ Assuming that all 12 V loads are drawing power at the same time,
what is the peak demand for these loads? _____ W and _____ A @ 12 V
9.9 Days of Autonomy

□ Choose the number of days of autonomy: ______ days.
9.10 Total Energy Requirement

□ What is the total energy requirement for these loads over the days of
autonomy? ______ Wh (winter)
□ What is the total energy requirement for these loads over the days of
autonomy? ______ Wh (summer)
9.11 Charging/Discharging Efficiency of AGM Battery

□ Choose a value for battery charging efficiency: ______ %.
□ Choose a value for battery discharging efficiency: ______ %.
9.12 Charging Efficiency of Charge Controller

□ Choose a value for the charging efficiency of the charge controller:
______ %.
9.13 Required Energy Storage in Battery

The following equation relates the required energy stored in the battery to
the energy requirements determined by the load profile:
(Ein,battery × Effcharging ) = (DOA × Eloads per day )
or
Ein,battery = (DOA × Eloads per day Effcharging )

Assuming a nominal 12 V battery,
□ What is the required energy available from the battery? ______ Wh

______ Ah (winter)
□ What is the required energy available from the battery? ______ Wh
______ Ah (summer)
Referring to Figure 9.2, if we cycle this system every day for 5 years, we

need approximately 1,800 cycles.
□ What is the maximum depth of discharge that will result in 1,800

cycles? ______
□ Based on this depth of discharge, what is the minimum rated battery
capacity? ______ Ah or ______ Wh
□ Select a 12 V battery from the SunXtender data sheet that can pro-
vide this rated energy over the chosen number of days of autonomy:
______ (model no.) ______ Ah (C/120).
9.14 Required Energy Delivery by PV System

The following equation relates the energy available from PV modules to
energy flowing into the batteries, which depends on both the charge control-
ler efficiency and the battery charging efficiency:
Einto batteries = (E from PV modules × Effcharge controller × Eff battery charging )
or
E from PV modules = ⎡⎣Einto batteries (Effcharge controller × Eff battery charging ⎤⎦
□ Choose a value for the charging efficiency of the Morningstar SunSaver

charge controller: ______ %.
□ What is the required energy (kWh/day) from the PV modules?
______ kWh/ day (summer)
□ What is the required energy (kWh/day) from the PV modules?
______ kWh/day (winter)
9.15 PV Subsystem Simulation

Based on the required energy for winter and summer days, we now need
to the preceding requirements and determine the size and number of PV
modules needed to supply the required average daily energy production. A
number of tools can provide this number. We will use PVWatts2 in an itera-
tive fashion to determine these two numbers.
We will make an initial guess:
• Two each of 100 W PV modules

• Los Angeles latitude 34° N
• Fixed array
• Oriented due south
• Tilt latitude plus 15° tilt (winter bias)
• Set DC to AC conversion ratio to 1.00 (i.e., no DC to AC conversion)
□ What is the daily energy production for winter months?

______ Wh/day (value for January divided by 31 days)
□ What is the daily energy production for summer months?
______ Wh/day (value for August divided by 31 days)
□ Does this meet the required energy for a winter day?
______ Yes ______ No
□ Does this meet the required energy for a summer day?
______ Yes ______ No
If the answer to both questions is yes, the design exercise is finished. If not,
iterate the number of PV modules until the resulting energy production
meets the required energy for both winter and summer days.
9.16 Document Final System Configuration

Document the final system configuration:
□ Battery: _____________________________ (manufacturer, model number,

nominal voltage, 24-hour capacity)
□ Charge controller: _____________________________ (manufacturer,
model number, nominal voltage(s), maximum charging current)
□ PV module: ____________________________ (manufacturer, model num-

ber, Isc, Voc, Imp, Vmp @ standard test conditions, number)
□ DC load center: _____________________________ (manufacturer, model
number)
□ Circuit breakers for DC load center: ________________________ (manu-
facturer, model number, number and current capacity)
□ Daily energy production at loads: ______ Wh/day (summer)
□ Daily energy production at loads: ______ Wh/day (winter)
□ Fill in the data on the electrical schematic, specifying components
used, wire guage and conduit, and breaker capacities
9.17 Balance of System Components and Conductor Sizing

As mentioned before, there are a number of relatively minor components
that need to be specified. These include the following:
• Battery circuit breaker

• Battery disconnect (may be operated with a key to provide “lock-
out” functionality)
• Distribution panel for the DC loads (should include one or more cir-
cuit breakers)
• Wiring: wire gauge and insulator rating (PV modules, charge con-
troller output, battery output, DC branch circuits)
• PV conductors and connectors
• Battery conductors
• Conduit
9.18 Battery Current

The maximum continuous battery current is equal to the maximum continu-
ous DC current drawn from the loads.
Using the maximum continuous input current, take this number and mul-
tiply it by 1.25 for continuous duty. Choose a wire gauge and insulation type
that will have sufficient ampacity, taking into account maximum ambient
temperature for the battery subsystem and the number of current carrying
conductors in conduit. The wire insulation will need to be rated “wet” if you
expect the environment to be damp/wet. You may choose to oversize this

conductor to accommodate future expansion of the DC loads.
Choose a battery circuit breaker that will protect this conductor from over-
current. Choose the conduit for this part of the system:
□ Battery conductor specification: ______

□ Battery circuit breaker: ______ A (continuous)
□ Conduit size and type: ______ 
Choose a battery disconnect switch, which, for security reasons, should

be operated with a key or should be able to be “locked out” with a padlock:
□ Battery disconnect switch specification: _______________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
(manufacturer, model number, nominal voltage, current)
9.19 PV Circuit Conductors

Choose conductor(s) with sufficient ampacity for the PV source input (and
output circuit if applicable), taking into account maximum PV circuit current
(short circuit current Isc corrected for cloud bounce effect, 125%), continuous
duty 125%, number of current carrying conductors) and environment (tem-
perature, UV exposure, wet).
□ PV source conductor specification: ____________________________

(wire type and gauge)
□ PV output conductor specification: ____________________________
□ Conduit size and type (if any): _____________________________
Choose a conductor with sufficient ampacity for the connection between

the charge controller and the batteries. This is based on the charge control-
ler maximum output current specification. Take into account environment
(temperature, UV exposure, dry/wet).
□ Charge controller output conductor: _________________________

□ Conduit size and type: __________________________ 
9.20 Electrical Schematic and System Layout

Based on the annotated electrical schematic, we need to decide where to place
the various components on the 4 ft. × 8 ft. board, and how to mount the two
PV modules using a top-of-pole mount and connect to the charge controller.
9.21 Layout
□ Draw a 4 ft. × 8 ft. rectangle to 24:1 scale in your notebook (24 in.
equals 1 in.). Sketch the location of each system component within
this rectangle. Sketch in the wiring paths connecting the various
components.
9.22 The Pick List

Make a “pick list” of all components needed for this project. This list should
include major equipment items such as PV modules, racking system, and
charge controller and battery, as well the smaller items such as conductors
and their lengths, conduit, hanging hardware, and wire management.
9.23 Mounting the System Components

Using a cordless drill and supplied wood screws, mount the following sys-
tem components:
□ Battery
□ Battery disconnect switch
□ Battery circuit breaker
□ Battery system monitor
□ PV modules
□ PV input circuit combiner
□ Charge controller
□ Inverter
□ Track lighting
□ 12 to 5 V USB converter (two of each)
Make the following wiring connections. Double-check the wire gauge and
insulation type of wire:
□ Wire track light distribution strip to DC load center.

□ Wire 12 V to 5 VDC USB DC–DC converter inside the DC load center.
□ Wire the battery to the charger controller using the shunt in the neg-
ative leg of the battery and the circuit breaker in the positive leg of
the battery.
□ Insert LED lamps into tracking lighting fixtures.
□ Mount PV modules onto racking system.
□ Mount PV array and racking system on top of the 4 in. diameter
Sch80 pipe.
□ Wire positive lead of PV modules into DC combiner box using 150
VDC/10 A circuit breakers; wire negative leads to negative buss bar.
□ Wire output of PV combiner to “PV Input” of charge controller.
□ Wire positive terminal of “loads Input” of charge controller to posi-
tive buss of DC load panel.
□ Wire positive leads of each of the DC loads to a dedicated DC breaker
as follows:
□ Wire positive lead of refrigerator to 10 A breaker.
□ Wire positive lead of track lighting to 4 A breaker (for up to four each
of 10 W LED lamps).
□ Wire positive lead of 12 V–5 V USB DC to DC converters to 4 A

breakers.
□ Wire negative leads of these four loads to the negative buss bar in the
DC load panel.
□ Use nylon zip-ties to neaten up wiring.
9.24 Documenting the Final System

Prior to actual system testing, the final system configuration should be docu-
mented by a final electrical schematic and a physical layout. These two docu-
ments can be carefully drawn or we can use layout tools such as Google
SketchUp or AutoCAD.
9.24.1 System Certification

To complete the system integration, a series of system measurements should
be performed and recorded. This series of measurements serves as a system
certification, ensuring that the system performs as required and providing
a point of reference should the system need troubleshooting at a later point
in time.
The following is a list of measurements. In the interest of time, some of
these may be eliminated:
□ Make sure that the battery has gone through a full three-stage
charge cycle:
□ Battery voltage: ______ (open circuit, after a minimum of 4 hours’ rest)
□ If a BSM is available, record the battery capacity: _____ Ah, _____ Wh.
□ Position PV modules so that they are pointed at the sun:
□ Record irradiance normal to surface of PV module: ______ W/m2.
□ Record the ambient temperature: ______ °C.
□ Make sure all DC loads are connected to the DC buss.
□ Connect battery to system by closing the battery disconnect switch
(make sure battery circuit breaker is in the “on” position).
□ Using a clamp-on ammeter (or the BSM), measure the total battery
current draw: ______ A.
□ Measure the input current to the charge controller: ______ A.
Monitor this situation for as long as practical (up to 4 hours) and record the
following:
□ Elapsed time: ______ h
□ Battery voltage: ______ V
□ Disconnect battery from system using the disconnect switch.
9.24.2 Photographs
Finally, several photographs should be taken of the system after integration
and certification.
9.25 System Documentation

Five documents—schematic; layout; certification tests; photographs of the
system; and, collectively, the manufacturers’ data sheets—constitute the sys-
tem documentation.
If this system were to be installed for a customer, this documentation pack-
age would also include instructions on the operation and maintenance of the
system, as well as warranty information.
9.25.1 System Schematic

Because it is so important for the purposes of documenting the system, an exam-
ple of a partial system schematic diagram is shown in Figure 9.4. The schematic
should show all of the components and their electrical connections. Annotate
this schematic to include the specification of all of the system components:
• PV modules
• PV combiner box and breakers
• Charge controller
• Battery, battery disconnect, battery circuit breaker, and shunt
• DC load panel and breakers
• Individual DC loads
As well as specifying:
• Wire (e.g., 10 AWG, THHN-2) and conduit (e.g., 3/4 in. liquidtight

flexible non-metalic conduit)
• Ampacity calculation of wire including continuous duty and tem-
perature corrections
• Maximum (PV) voltage calculation and DC voltage rating of DC
components
Renogy 100 W PV module, + 12 V dc Loads
RNG-100 D –
PV Refrig
Combiner DC Load Panel
Renogy 100 W PV module, +
RNG-100 D – + Charge + Track light
Controller
–+ – – 12 V-5 V
Conv
12 V-5 V
Conv
Off-Grid PV System with DC-Only Loads
Circuit Breaker 70 A Shunt 100 A, 100 mV
Battery #1 +
12 V, 250 A-hr–
FIGURE 9.4
System schematic diagram.
247
FIGURE 9.5
System layout.
9.25.2 System Layout

The system layout is a two-dimensional scale drawing showing the placement
and interconnection of the system components. Sketch the system layout on
the 4 ft. × 8ft. board used in the lab, using the space provided in Figure 9.5.
9.25.3 System Certification Sheet

Use Figure 9.6 to record the certification measurements.
9.25.4 Photograph of Integrated System

See Figure 9.7 for an example of a photograph of the completed system.
Off-grid PV System with DC-only Loads

System information
Customer Name Date Certified:

Address Time:
City, State, Zip Certified by:
System Size (kW) Lead Installer
Modules Total # Temperature °C:
Module Model No. Irradiance W/m2:
PV Combiner Breaker(A)
Charge Controller Model
CC Voltage (s)(V) Max Curr. (A)
DC Load #1 Power (W) Breaker (A)
DC Measurements
Battery Voltage (V) Current (A)
All DC load
PV Module Voltage (V) Current (A) No load breakers in
“OFF”
Total DC Load Voltage (V) Current (A) No load position.
Battery Voltage (V) Current (A) Load ET(s)
PV Module Voltage (V) Current (A) Load ET(s)
FIGURE 9.6
Total DC Load Voltage (V) Current (A) Load ET(s)
Certification sheet.

FIGURE 9.7
Example of photograph of completed system.
Note
1. www.morningstarcorp.com
10
Off-Grid PV System with DC and AC Loads
10.1 Introduction
This laboratory builds on Chapter 9, which dealt with an off-grid system
with DC-only loads. This laboratory can be skipped without affecting the
rest of the laboratory sequence. In this laboratory we upgrade certain subsys-
tems as well as add others:
• Adding a 1000 W 120 VAC inverter for AC loads

• Upgrading from 200 Wp to 400 Wp PV subsystem
• Upgrading from a single 12 V/258 Ah battery to two such batteries
• 2000 W 120 V AC gas-powered generator
These additional equipment additions and upgrades in turn allow the fol-
lowing performance improvements:
• Up to 1 kW of 120 VAC equipment loads

• Twice the stored battery energy
• Twice the photovoltaic power (and energy) production
• Ability to switch over to generator power for the AC loads should the
battery subsystem voltage reach the low-voltage limit

• Assess customer DC and AC energy needs using a load profile analysis

• Design and install a PV system to support DC and AC loads and to
employ generator backup power
251
10.3 Overall Design Philosophy

This off-grid PV system is intended to support the use of 120 VAC loads up
to 1 kW of continuous power as well as 720 W of continuous power for 12
VDC loads.
10.3.1 AC Loads
We will assume that the new AC loads include a microwave oven, a blender,
an exhaust fan, a charging station for cordless power tools, and a laptop com-
puter with outboard speakers.
10.3.2 DC Loads
All of the DC loads from Chapter 7 will carry over to this laboratory and we
will add additional DC loads. However, we now have a 24 V battery subsys-
tem and we will need to power the DC loads directly at 24 V or to provide
DC-to-DC converters to supply the 12 V and 5 V power to these loads.
Finally, we will also increase the amount of time that these DC loads will
be powered.
10.3.3 DC-to-DC Converters

DC-to-DC converters are required when the DC loads do not match the bat-
tery subsystem voltage. These components are usually quite efficient (96% to
98%) and inexpensive ($5.00–$10.00).
10.3.4 The Load Profile

As before, we will perform a load profile (Figure 10.1) and then go through
the design exercises of determining the size of the battery subsystem. Since
we now have a combination of 5 VDC, 12 VDC, and 120 VAC loads, we should
first aggregate the energy consumption at these three voltage levels and then
apply a “nominal” energy conversion efficiency to get the energy require-
ments at 24 VDC.
10.3.5 PV System Sizing

At this point, we can determine the minimum size of the PV module subsys-
tem and charge controller subsystem. The reason for this determination is to
make sure that the system can meet the overall annual usage need.
We will also check the peak demand of the AC and DC loads to make sure
that the inverter and wiring ampacity is adequate.
Off-Grid PV System with DC and AC Loads 253
Joe Ramirez
California Solar Enterprise.Inc.
9876 Main St.
Hollywood. CA 99999
(323)888-9999
Joe.Ramirez@calsolarent.com
Elvez Presley
1234 Magnolia Ave
Memphis, TN

User must fill in data
Lighting
Lighting average per day 0 hrs
Quantity Listed Make Model Watts Total Wattage KWHs

5 2 10 0.0
5 4 20 0.0
8 6 48 0.0
9 8 72 0.0
10 10 100 0.0
0 0.0
Other Watts Hrs/day KWh/day

Refrigerator#1 450 0 0.0
Refrigerator#2/free 600 0 0.0
Washer 750 0 0.0
Dryer-Gas 750 0 0.0
Microwaveoven 300 0 0.0
TV#1 200 0 0.0
TV#2 200 0 0.0
Stereo 75 0 0.0
Computer 150 0 0.0
Printer 100 0 0.0
5V US Bload#1 0 0 0.0
5V US Bload#2 0 0 0.0
Subtotal 0.0
“X” Energy produced by PV 4 KWh/KW-DC
Kilowatt-hours(kWh) is the product of the watts consumed by the appliance number when it is on and the of
hours a day it is on; divided by 1,000 ( to turn Wh into kWh).

Per day 0.0
PV System Size
0.0 KW-DC
0 Sq. ft.
PV System size are rough calculations based on the assumption that a PV system produces “X” kW/day per DC kW
averaged over one year and PV modules produce 8W/sq.ft.
FIGURE 10.1
Load profile.
10.3.6 Days of Autonomy

This will remain the same as for Chapter 9.
10.3.7 Number of Battery Cycles

This will remain the same at 1,800 cycles (i.e., 5 years).
10.4 System Calculations

With the exception of aggregating the energy consumption by load voltage,
the calculations for this lab are very similar to those of the previous lab. The
final subsystem specifications include the following:
• PV module STC power rating and number of modules

• Battery ampacity, voltage, and number of batteries
• Charge controller voltage and current ratings
• 120 VAC inverter power rating
• Backup generator power rating
• Wiring and circuit breaker ampacities; DC and AC wiring

10.5.1 Load Profile Calculations
Enter the energy consumption and time of use per day into the load profile
spreadsheet. Separate the loads into four categories, one per load profile.
• 120 VAC loads

• 24 VDC loads
• 12 VDC loads
• 5 VDC loads
The following is a complete list of DC and AC loads. We have included the

power consumption and time of use per day for each item and whether this
is an 120 VAC load, a 24 VDC load, 12 VDC load, or a 5 VDC load.
• Microwave oven: 120 VAC, 700 W max, 10 minutes/day.

• Laptop computer with 120 VAC charging system, assuming 40 W

consumption, 4 hours/day.
• Printer: 120 VAC, 40 W, 0.5 hours/day.
• Cordless tool charger, Makita, 120 VAC, 91 W; charges a single 18 V
3.0 Ah Li-ion battery. Charge four batteries per day on Saturdays and
Sundays; charge one battery per day the other 5 days per week.
• Track lighting: six each 12 VDC, 10 W LED lamps, operating 4 hours/
day during the summer and 6 hours/day in the winter
• Refrigerator/freezer: Steca PF 166 solar fridge/freezer, 12 V/4–8 A
or 24 V/2–4 A, 3°C setting. 170 Wh/day during the summer (30°C
ambient temperature) 90 Wh/day during the winter (20°C ambient
temperature)
• Smart phone: Apple iPhone 4S. Assume 43 Wh battery needs to be
• Tablet computer: Apple iPad 2. Assume 25 Wh battery needs to be
• Li-ion battery pack: Instapark MP 1800 U2; 26 Wh storage capacity;
output two USB 5 V @ 1 A and 5 V @ 2.1 A; input 5 V @ 1 A mini-USB.
Assume that this battery pack needs charging for 3 hours or 15 Wh
per day.
• NiMH battery charger: GoalZero Guide10Plus battery pack con-
taining four each 1.2 V, 2.50 Ah AA NiMH batteries. This charger/
battery pack can be used two ways: (a) providing 5.0 V/1.0 A USB
power and (b) charging individual AA batteries that can be used
in flashlights and other electronics (e.g., Garmin GPS unit, weather
radio). Assume that this battery charger needs 5 V/1 A via a mini-
USB charging port for 4 hours or 20 Wh per day.
□ What is the total energy requirement per day (summer) for these DC
and AC loads? _____ Wh
□ What is the total energy requirement per day (winter) for these DC
and AC loads? _____ Wh
□ What is the 24 VDC to 5 VDC conversion efficiency? _____ %
□ What is the 24 VDC to 12 VDC conversion efficiency? _____ %
□ What is the 24 VDC to 120 VAC inverter efficiency? _____ %
□ Assuming that all 24 VDC, 12 VDC, and 5 VDC loads are draw-
ing power at the same time, what is the peak demand for these DC
loads? _____ W and _____ A @ 24 VDC
□ Assuming that the microwave oven, the laptop computer, and the
cordless tool charger are all drawing power at the same time, what
is the peak demand for these 120 VAC loads? _____ W and _____ A
@ 120 VAC
10.5.2 Days of Autonomy

□ Choose and record the number of days of autonomy: _____ days
10.5.3 Total Energy Requirement

□ What is the total energy requirement for all DC and AC loads over
the days of autonomy? _____ Wh
10.5.4 Sizing the Battery Subsystem

Since we know the total energy consumption for our loads over the days of
autonomy, we can now size the battery subsystem. Before we do, however,
we need to determine the discharging efficiency of the battery (for all loads)
and the inverter efficiency for the 120 VAC loads:
□ Choose value for battery discharging efficiency: _____ %.

□ Choose value for inverter efficiency: _____ %.
The following equation relates the required energy stored in the battery to
the energy requirements determined by the load profile:
(Ebattery × ηdischarging ) = (DOA × Eloads per day )
or
Ebattery = (DOA × Eloads per day ηdischarging )
□ Assuming two nominal 12 V batteries, wired in series, what is the

required energy storage for each battery? ____ Wh ____ Ah (C/120 rate)
If we cycle this system every day for 5 years, we need approximately
1,800 cycles.
□ Referring to Figure 9.2 in Chapter 9, what is the maximum depth of
discharge that will result in 1,800 cycles? _____
□ Based on this depth of discharge, what is the minimum rated battery
capacity? _____ Wh _____ Ah
□ Select a 12 V battery from the SunXtender data sheet that can pro-
vide this rated capacity (C/120, i.e., a 5-day period) ______ 
10.5.5 Sizing the PV Module and Charge Controller

Let us review what we have determined up to this point in time:
• Battery manufacturer and model number

• Nominal voltage 12 VDC
• Ampacity @ C/120
• Number of batteries
• Depth of discharge
We now need to determine the size of the PV module and charge controller
subsystem that will power all DC and AC loads and will fully recharge the
battery subsystem during a “worst-case day.” Determining this day requires
comparing energy usage (a load profile calculation) versus PV energy produc-
tion (a PVWatts2 or similar calculation).
The following equation relates the energy available from PV modules to
energy flowing into the batteries, which depends on both the charge control-
ler efficiency and the battery charging efficiency:
Ein batteries = (E from PV modules × ηcharge controller × ηbattery charging )
or
E from PV modules = ⎡⎣Ein batteries (ηcharge controller × ηbattery charging ) ⎤⎦
□ Choose a value for the charging efficiency of the BlueSky SolarBoost

charge controller: ______ %.
□ Because some of the loads are seasonal, we have previously calcu-
lated the average daily energy consumption during the winter and
summer:
□ Summer: what is the required energy (kWh/day) from the PV mod-
ules? ______ kWh/day
□ Winter: what is the required energy (kWh/day) from the PV mod-
ules? ______ kWh/day
10.5.6 PV Subsystem Simulation

We now need to determine the size and number of PV modules needed to
supply the required average daily energy production. There are a number
of tools that can provide this number. We will use PVWatts2 in an iterative
fashion to determine these two numbers.
We will make an initial “guess”:
• Four each 100 W PV modules

• Los Angeles latitude 34° N
• Fixed array
• Roof mount
• Oriented due south
• Tilt latitude plus 15° tilt (winter bias)
• Set DC-to-AC conversion ratio to 1.00 (i.e., no DC, to AC conversion).
This is not exactly true because some of the loads are AC. We can
make a correction later.
□ What is the daily energy production for a winter month (January)?

______ Wh/day
□ Does this meet the required energy in a winter day? ____ Yes ____ No
□ What is the daily energy production for a summer month (August)?
______ Wh/day
□ Does this meet the required energy in a summer day? ____ Yes ____ No
If the answer to both questions is yes, the design exercise is finished. If not,
iterate the design until the resulting energy production meets the required
energy for both winter and summer.
10.5.7 Document the Final System Configuration

□ Batteries: ______ each ______ Ah ______ V
______________________________________ (manufacturer, model number)
□ Charge controller ____________________ (manufacturer, model number)
_______ maximum current + ______ A (24 V battery subsystem)
□ PV module ______ number __________________________________________ 
(manufacturer, model number, Isc, Voc, Imp, Vmp @ STC)
□ Daily energy production at loads: ______ Wh/day (summer)
□ Daily energy production at loads (worst case) ______ Wh/day (winter)
□ Fill in the data on the electrical schematic, specifying components
used, wire gauge and conduit, and breaker ampacities.
10.5.8 Electrical Schematic and System Layout

Annotate the electrical schematic and decide where to place the various com-
ponents on the 4 ft. × 8 ft. board as well as the four PV modules on the top of
the pole mount.
10.5.9 System Layout

Since this is a modification of the off-grid system with DC-only loads, we
need to find space for the additional components:
□ From the off-grid system with DC-only loads, update the existing
layout to accommodate the new pieces of equipment. Sketch the wir-
ing paths connecting the new equipment using the space provided
in Figure 10.2.
FIGURE 10.2
System layout.
10.5.10 Mounting System Components
Using a cordless drill and supplied wood screws, hang the following system
components:
□ Inverter
□ DC load panel
□ 24 to 12 V DC–DC converter
□ 24 to 5 V DC–DC converter
□ AC load panel
□ AC duplex outlets (four each)
□ Mount the four PV modules on upgraded array racking
□ Mount PV array and racking system on the top of the 4 in. Sch. 80 pipe
Make the following wiring connections. Be careful to use the proper type
and gauge of wire depending on whether the load is AC or DC and of suf-
ficient ampacity:
□ PV modules to PV combiner box; use 15 A breakers

□ PV combiner to charge controller
□ Charge controller to 24 VDC buss
□ 24 VDC buss to 24 V load panel
□ 24 VDC to 12 VDC converter
□ 24 VDC to 5 VDC converter; use 4 A breaker
□ Refrigerator to DC load panel; use 10 A breaker
□ Track light distribution strip to DC load center; use 4 A breaker
□ Inverter to 24 VDC buss
□ Inverter to AC load panel; use 1/2 in. Liquid-tight non-metallic flex-
ible conduit (LNFC)
□ Inverter to AC breakers; use 1/2 in. LNFC
□ AC breakers to AC jack for generator; use 1/2 in. LNFC
□ AC load panel to one duplex; 15 A breaker for branch circuits; use
1/2 in. LNFC
□ Insert LED lamps into track lighting fixtures
□ Use nylon zip-ties and conduit clamps to neaten up wiring
10.6 Documenting the Final System

Prior to actual installation, the final system configuration should be docu-
mented by an electrical schematic and a physical layout. After the installation, a
series of certification measurements is recorded on a standard form and one
or more photographs taken of the system.
10.6.1 Electrical Schematic

The electrical schematic has been largely filled out already; however, it is
necessary to
□ Record wire gauge and type used and breaker values. Document
any “as-built” modifications to equipment.
10.6.2 Physical Layout

□ Sketch out the final layout, showing interconnections with single lines.
10.6.3 Certification Measurements

Once the system has been integrated, a series of detailed measurements
should be performed and recorded. This series of measurements serves as a
system certification, ensuring that the system performs as required and pro-
viding a point of reference should the system need troubleshooting.
□ Fill out the certification sheet (Figure 10.3) for this system.
10.6.4 Photographs
□ Take one or more photographs of the system after integration and
certification.
10.7 Owner’s Manual

These four documents and the manufacturers’ data sheets for each compo-
nent together form the system documentation that should be included in an
owner’s manual along with instructions on operation and maintenance.
• Electrical schematic
• Physical layout
• Pick list
• Certification sheet
Off-grid PV System with DC-only Loads

System information
Customer Name Date Certified:
Address Time:
City, State, Zip Certified By:
System Size (kW) Lead Installer
Modules Total # Temperature ºC:
Module Model No. Irradiance W/m2:
PV Combiner Breaker (A)
Charge Controller Model
CC Voltage(s) (V) Max Curr. (A)
DC Measurements
Battery Voltage (V) Current (A) No Load All DC load
PV Module Voltage (V) Current (A) No Load breakers in
Total DC Load Voltage (V) Current (A) No Load “OFF” position.
Battery Voltage (V) Current (A) Load ET (s)
PV Module Voltage (V) Current (A) Load ET (s)
Total DC Load Voltage (V) Current (A) Load ET (s)
AC Measurements
Battery Voltage (V) Current (A) No Load All AC load breakers
PV Module Voltage (V) Current (A) No Load in “OFF” position.
Battery Voltage (V) Current (A) Load ET (s) 0
Total AC Load Voltage (V) Current (A) Load ET (s)
FIGURE 10.3
11
2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System
with Microinverters
11.1 Introduction
This laboratory and the one in the following chapter together represent the
“capstone” of the 10 preceding chapters in the textbook. The earlier labs
involved (a) acquiring basic skills in computational methods, (b) understand-
ing and applying electrical circuitry concepts, (c) understanding the sun as
a resource, (d) the site survey, (e) characterizing PV modules, (f) demonstrat-
ing the basic skills of mechanical and electrical installation, (g) designing
and simulating PV systems, and (h) designing and installing an off-grid PV
system.
Ironically, the design and integration of small off-grid systems represent
a greater challenge than small grid-tied systems, because an off-grid system
must be able to stand alone, providing both peak power and total energy
over 1 or more days.
This lab covers the design, simulation, installation, monitoring, and cer-
tification of a grid-tied PV system using microinverters and a monitoring
system. This chapter alone will probably require approximately 16 contact
hours to cover the material adequately.
In keeping with the philosophy of offering additional material suited
for a student studying engineering at a 4-year college, we have included in
this chapter more sophisticated methodologies for calculating roof loading.
The basic methodology, based on the Unirac publication SolarMount, Code-
Compliant Planning and Assembly with California Building Code Certification,
Installation Manual 214 (2004),1 was covered in Chapter 5.
This more sophisticated approach involves over 10 separate calculations
and is based on the Unirac publication Unirac Code-Compliant Installation
Manual 227.3.2 This latter approach meets the structural requirements of IBC
2009, ASCE 7-05, and California Building Code 2010.
As mentioned before, if the precursor chapters have been completed, this
lab requires a minimum of 16 contact hours. This can be conveniently cov-
ered by approximately 4 contact-hour lab sessions. Students are required to
263
document essentially all of their work—sketches, calculations, and measure-

ments—in a quad-ruled laboratory notebook (e.g., Ampad #22-156), which
will be submitted for grading at the end of the semester. The only exceptions
to this rule are reports generated by computer programs, typically in .pdf
format, such as those by SolarPathfinder, SunEye, and PVWatts, and they
may be submitted in a companion small-ring binder or folder.
This chapter is organized into the following sections:
• The setup—equipment to be used in this laboratory

• High-level design
• Site assessment
• Shading analysis—SolarPathfinder and SolmetricSunEye
• Identifying and documenting obstructions
• Simulating AC energy production using PVWatts
• Mechanical loading: live loads, dead loads, snow loads, and wind
loads; attachment strength of standoffs
• Fire marshal setbacks
• Final PV layout
• Single-line diagram
• Installing mechanical subsystem—standoffs, flashing, and rails
• Installing modules, grounding clips, microinverters, and AC cabling
• Balance of electrical system
• Monitoring system
• System certification
• Troubleshooting

• Perform a high-level system design based on customer require-

ments, including specification of PV modules, inverter, and monitor-
ing system
• Conduct a virtual site survey (using aerial imaging) and an on-site
survey documenting the customer’s residence or place of business
• Perform shading analysis using SolarPathfinder and SunEye
instruments
2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with Microinverters 265
• Perform final system layout of modules, AC cabling and conduit

runs, and balance of system components
• Create single-line and four-line electrical diagrams
• Analyze system for annual electricity production using PVWatts
• Analyze system for wind and live/dead loading
• Install complete PV system including monitoring system
• Perform system certification
• Analyze and correct system faults (troubleshooting)
11.3 Setup
11.3.1 The Roof
This lab requires a roof on which to install the photovoltaic system. Prior
to teaching this course for the first time, the instructional staff will have
designed and built a suitable roof.
In Appendix III we have documented a 12 ft. × 18 ft. composition shingle
roof, with a 3:12 pitch. See Figures 11.1 and 11.2 and Google SketchUp model
FIGURE 11.1
PV mock roof on wheels: front view.
FIGURE 11.2
PV mock roof on wheels: rear view.
(Roof_No_1_PV_no_dim.skp). This roof includes an area on the back to install

a built-in service panel for back-feeding the solar power produced by the PV
system; the service panel is capable of being connected to the grid (if only
temporarily). The roof is built with 2 in. × 8 in. rafters on 16 in. centers. The raf-
ters are supported at their ends and at their midpoints (~6 ft.) by load-bearing
walls. These walls transfer the load to a single 4 in. × 4 in. bottom plate. The
bottom plates are supported by fifteen 8 in. pneumatic casters. This way, the
roof can be fabricated and refurbished indoors and rolled outdoors, as needed.
11.3.2 Racking Equipment

For the racking subsystem, we chose FastJack™ standoffs from Professional
Solar Products, Oatey elastomeric flashing, and right angle brackets and rails
from Unirac. Module-to-rail bonding and bonding jumpers for rail splices
were provided by WEEB™ clips.
We specifically chose Unirac SolarMount™ rails for this PV system
because we focused on the Professional Solar Products rail in Chapter 5 and
we wanted to introduce the student to a second racking system in this labo-
ratory. Other choices for the mechanical fastening system, the detailed speci-
fications, and the calculations describing the PV system design will differ
accordingly, but it should not take a great deal of work to redesign the lab.
The following are the codes for different WEEB products used in this
laboratory:
• WEEB-UMC: bonding PV modules to SolarMount rails

• WEEB-PMC: bonding Enphase microinverters to SolarMount rails

• WEEB-BNDJMP6.7: bonding two sections of spliced rail
• WEEB-LUG-6.7: bonding an equipment grounding conductor to a rail
11.3.3 Choice of PV Module

We chose the Renogy RNG-240D PV module. The physical dimensions are as
follows: L = 1650 mm (65.0 in.), W = 990 mm (39.0 in.), and T = 50 mm (2.0 in.).
The output power of this module is tested at standard test conditions (STC)
and then “binned” into three overlapping power ranges—240, 245, and 250
Wstc with a tolerance of –0%/+3%. This means, for example, that a module
rated at P = 245 Wstc may have tested between 245 W and 252.3 Wstc and a
module rated at 250 Wstc may have tested between 250 W and 257.5 Wstc. This
module comprises 60 monocrystalline cells with linear dimensions of 156
mm (6.1 in.) square.
There is a large number of other 245 W class, 60-cell PV modules available,
including the Yingli 60-cell series (235 to 255 Wstc), the Sharp ND-240QCJ
(240 Wstc), the Trina TSM-PC/PA05 (235 to 250 Wstc), and the Mitsubishi
PV-MLU250/255HC (255 to 255 Wstc). The Yingli, Sharp, and Trina modules
all have the same 1650 mm (65.0 in.) by 990 mm (39.0 in.) dimensions, while
the Mitsubishi model measures 1625 mm (64.0 in.) by 1091 mm (40.1 in.).
This lab should work with just about any 245 W class, 60-cell PV module
and, given the fact that we are using microinverters, the actual choice of PV
module should not require any changes in the overall design or installation.
11.3.4 Choice of Microinverter

We chose the M-215 microinverter from Enphase. It is important to note that
the current M-215 has isolated DC and AC circuitry and is internally bonded
on the AC side. This microinverter therefore does not require additional
bonding, either to the PV rail or to the PV module.
Enphase lists the commonly available 60-cell PV modules that are com-
patible with the M-215. For completeness, we have included the M-215 DC
parameters specifications in Table 11.1. If a specialty PV module is contem-
plated, these specifications can be used to evaluate the suitability of the
M-215 microinverter.
The Enphase system comes with an AC cable—Engage™—for connecting
the microinverters together and a communications gateway—Envoy—that
processes the information from the microinverters and provides a link to the
customer’s local area network and the Internet if desired.
TABLE 11.1
Enphase M215 Microinverter Specifications
Topic Unit Min. Typical Max.
DC Parameters
MPPT voltage range V 22 36
Operating range V 16 36
Max DC input voltage V 45
Min./max. start voltage V 22 45
Max DC input short circuit current A 15
Max DC input current A 10.5
Ground fault protection mA 1000
Max input source back-feed current to input source A 0
11.3.5 Simulation of PV Performance and Monitoring

We chose the simulation program PVWatts V2 to simulate AC energy pro-
duction. The monitoring system is the Enphase Envoy. These choices will
be discussed at the beginning of the appropriate sections of this chapter. A
high-speed Internet connection is needed to take full advantage of the Envoy
monitoring system and the PVWatts 2 simulator.
11.3.6 Personal Protective Equipment

Prior to the actual installation of the system, there will be a short review about
safety including personal protective equipment (PPE) and fall prevention.
The following PPE materials are needed for this course and should be pro-
vided to the student:
• Safety glasses or goggles, OSHA approved

• Safety gloves
• Hard hat
11.3.7 Materials and Tools

The following materials are needed for the design exercises:
• Notebook (Ampad 22-156 or equivalent with 1/4 in. grid)

• Pencil and eraser
• Ruler (12 in.)
• Calculator (Casio fx-260 solar)
• Sharpie, fine
The following tools are needed for the installation:
• Chalk snap line

• Crayon (white or yellow)
• Cordless drill
• 3/16 in. bit (6 in. minimum length)
• 1/4 in. bit (standard length)
• Cordless impact wrench
• Socket wrench with 1 in. extender
• Regular 9/16 in. and 11/16 in. sockets
• Converter from hex to 3/8 in. square driver for sockets
• Unibit (large enough for 3/8 in. holes)
11.4 High-Level Design

The goal of this section is to decide the approximate size of the PV system.
This is typically based on customer needs. The customer’s annual energy
consumption is the natural starting point. If, in real life, the building is of
new construction, then there is no historical usage to rely on and there are
two alternative approaches: usage based on the square footage of living
space or usage based on a load profile.
Once we arrive at an estimate of annual electricity consumption, we then
decide what fraction of this consumption is to be offset by the PV system. In
reality, this is a fairly complicated tradeoff involving budget, available space
on the roof, and the avoided cost of electricity.
The avoided cost of electricity depends on the rate structure, which can
be quite complicated because of seasonal (winter vs. summer), monthly
(i.e., tiers), and daily (i.e., time of use) rate components. It is assumed that
these rates have been discussed in the lecture component of this course, and
we will take the simplifying assumption that there is a flat rate for electricity.
We will assume that the customer wishes to offset 100% of annual energy
consumption.
What remains is to estimate the approximate size of the PV system in kWstc
required to offset the desired percentage of annual energy consumption, and
then to determine whether or not there is enough roof space to do so, consis-
tent with the customer’s budget.
11.4.1 Estimated Consumption Based on Electricity Bill History

Obtain a year’s worth of electricity bills and determine the total electricity
consumption for 1 consecutive year.
□ Record client annual historical energy consumption: ____ kWh/year.

□ Calculate and record the historical average daily electricity con-
sumption: ____ kWh/day.
□ Are there any factors that would predict greater/less electricity con-
sumption? This could include a change in number of members in the
family, new electricity-consuming appliances, or an electric vehicle.
If so, we need to correct the historical usage.
□ Record the estimated electricity consumption going forward:
____ kWh/day.
11.4.2 Estimated Consumption Based on Square Footage of Living Space

□ Determine and record the square footage of living space: ____ m2
____ ft.2.
□ A good rule of thumb is that a home requires a PV system of approx-
imately 22 W/m2 of living space.
□ Multiply the square footage of living space by 22 W/m2: ____ kW DC.
This is the size of the PV system that would eliminate the electricity
bill.
11.4.3 Estimated Consumption Based on Load Profile

For new construction or a significant remodeling, a more accurate estimate
of energy consumption is called for. In this case a load profile is the best
approach. We have already used the load profile calculator. In the case of a
residence or commercial building, this load profile may be quite extensive:
electrical appliances, lighting, entertainment and communication electron-
ics, computers, HVAC equipment, a pool pump.
Again, the load profile specifies the power consumption and the average
number of hours per day that each piece of equipment is “on.”
Figure 11.3 shows the results of an energy audit. We will enter these data
into the load profile. The load profile we will be using is implemented using
an MS Excel spreadsheet. The empty spreadsheet is shown in Figure 11.4.
The first section of the spreadsheet contains the heating/cooling equipment
and supports up to three separate HVAC (heating, ventilation, air condition-
ing) zones and a whole house fan. The second section supports a pool pump.
We will assume that our house does not have a pool. The third section con-
tains all of the lighting. We will assume CFL (compact fluorescent lamp) and
Quantity Power (W) Hrs/day

Heating and Cooling
Whole house fan 1 480 2.00
Lighting
Bulb 20 9 4.00
Bulb 15 13 4.00
Bulb 22 19 4.00
Bulb 12 26 4.00
Appliances
Refrigerator 1 450 2.00
Washer 1 425 1.50
Dryer 1 750 1.00
Garbage Disposal 1 350 0.10
Microwave oven 1 900 0.25
Toaster Oven 1 1,225 0.25
Trash Compactor 1 200 0.10
Garage Door Opener 1 500 0.10
TV 1 115 2.00
Stereo 1 75 2.00
Computer 1 90 2.00
iPad Tablet 1 25 2.00
Smart Phone Charger 1 10 2.00
Printer/Scanner/Fax 1 150 0.30
Shop tools 1 750 1.00
FIGURE 11.3
Results of energy audit.
LED luminaries. The fourth section contains all of the kitchen appliances,
home office and entertainment electronics, shop tools, and other equipment.
□ Enter the power consumption and hours per day into the load profile
for each item using the data from the energy audit.
Comments on power consumption: in the more moderate climate zones

of Southern California (4 to 20 miles from the coast, e.g., California Energy
Commission Climate Zone 6), the average number of hours of day operation
for heating and cooling equipment will be close to 4 hours per day, with
smaller numbers near the coast and larger numbers in the more inland parts
of Southern California. This number can be changed if desired.
We can also estimate the number of hours that the lighting is on. Although
this number depends on the number of people in the home, again a fairly accu-
rate estimate is 4 hours per day. This number can also be changed if desired.
The third section of the spreadsheet captures the energy consumption of
kitchen appliances, entertainment electronics, and other equipment. The
Peter T. Parrish
SolarGnosis
1107 Fair Oaks Ave.
South Pasadena, CA 91107
(323) 839-6108
petertor@pobox.com

Rocky Balboa, 415 Pasadena Ave.
North Hollywood, CA 91602
Heating/Cooling
Heating/Cooling average per day 4 hrs

User must fill in data.
HVAC equipment Model Tons/HP Amps Volts Watts Hrs./yr. kWh

Air Conditioner #1 0 0 240 0 730 0
Air Conditioner #2 0 0 240 0 730 0
Whole house fan 0 0 240 0 730 0
Furnace 0 0 240 0 730 0
Subtotal 0
Pool pump
Pool pump on average per day 0 hrs
Pool Pump 8 240 1,920 0 0
Subtotal 0
Lightning
Lightning average per day 4 hrs
Quantity listed make model Watts Total Wattage Hrs/yr KWHs
0 1,460 0.0
0 1,460 0.0
0 1,460 0.0
0 1,460 0.0
0 1,460 0.0
0 1,460 0.0
Subtotal 0.0
FIGURE 11.4
Load profile using MS Excel spreadsheet. (continued)
Other Equipment Watt Hrs/day kWh/yr

Refrigerator 0
Washer 0
Dryer–Gas 0
Dishwasher 0
Garbage disposal 0
Microwave oven 0
Toaster oven 0
Refrigerator 0
Washer 0
Dryer–Gas 0
Dishwasher 0
Other Equipment 0
Shop tools 0
iPad tablet 0
Printer 0
Fax 0
Garage Door opener 0
Computer 0
TV 0
Smart phone charger 0
Trash Compactor 0
Stereo 0
Subtotal 0
HVAC 0
Pool 0
Lighting 0
Appliances 0
Kilowatt-hours (kWh) is the product of the watts consumed by the appliance

when it is on, times the number of hours per day that it is on, divided by 1,000
(to turn Wh into kWh) times the number of days which in this case is 365 to get
an annual number.

Per year 0
Per day 0.0
PV System Size
0.0 KW-DC
0 Sq. ft.
PV System size are rough calculations based on the assumption that a PV system produces
4.25 kW/day per DC kW averaged over one year and PV modules produce 110 W/sq.m.
FIGURE 11.4 (CONTINUED)

Load profile using MS Excel spreadsheet.
power consumption and average number of hours of usage are typical, but
again these numbers can be changed if desired.
Each of these three sections has its own subtotals, so relative comparisons
can be made. This allows an understanding of what classes of equipment
(heating/cooling, lighting, kitchen appliances, home office, and other equip-
ment) are consuming how much electricity.
The spreadsheet then sums the energy consumption into one grand total,
and it then uses this grand total to determine the PV system size to eliminate
the electricity bill (using 4.25 kWh/day/kWstc)3 and the required roof space
(using 110 Wstc/m2 for pitched roofs or 85 W/m2 for flat roofs).4
□ What is the estimated size of the PV system that will eliminate the
electricity bill? ______ kWstc.
□ What is the roof area required to install this system? ____ m2 ____ ft.2.
□ Is our roof capable of supporting this PV system? ____ Yes ____ No
Information on the PV array: determine which PV module is to be used in

this laboratory:
□ Record PV module manufacturer ______ and model number ______ .

□ Record module dimensions: L = _____ mm (_____ in.); W = _____ mm
(_____ in.).
□ Record the power of the PV module: ______ Wstc.
□ Calculate the required number of PV modules ______ using PV sys-
tem size kWstc = (number of modules) × Pstc ÷ 1,000 and round down
to the nearest integer.
□ Record the final PV system size: ______ kWstc.
11.4.4 System Size for This Laboratory

In Sections 11.4.1, 11/4.2, and 11.4.3, we discussed three methods for deter-
mining the size of the PV system, which would eliminate the electricity bill.
However, the system size to be used for this laboratory is limited by the size
of our roof, 21' × 18'. Using the dimensions for the Renogy RNG-240D module
(39" × 65"), we need to calculate the maximum number of PV modules that
can fit on this roof. Assuming that the PV modules will be set in portrait
format (long dimension up-and-down roof pitch), no spacing between rows,
3/4" spacing for mid-clamps, and 1-1/2" spacing for end-clamps, calculate
the maximum number of PV modules in each row and the number of rows.
□ Number of modules per row: __________

□ Number of rows: __________
11.5 Site Assessment

In Chapter 4, we covered site surveys in some detail, including the virtual
site survey. As a reminder: A virtual site survey is one that is done without
actually visiting the site. Imaging programs such as Google Earth, Zillow, or
Google Maps are used to assess the roof area, tilt, and azimuth. EagleView
(http://www.eagleview.com/) has a product, SolarReport, which provides
roof measurements, azimuth, and orientation to support a PV energy simula-
tion like PVWatts. Because of the accuracy of the roof measurements (includ-
ing AutoCAD and Google Sketch-Up compatible DXF files), SolarReport can
also support PV module placement.
During the virtual site survey, a brief telephone interview with the cus-
tomer is typically conducted while looking at an image of the roof and sur-
rounding property. Since in this chapter we are using the same roof that we
used in the site survey work of Chapter 4, we will recap the data that was
recorded during that site survey.
(At this point in time, the instructor will temporarily place a number of
obstructions on the roof—for example, a 2 in. sewer vent, a 5 in. hot water
heater vent, or a satellite dish.)
Based on our actual site survey,
□ Measure and record the length and width of the roof section(s) pro-
posed for PV modules.
□ Make a careful sketch of the roof sections in your notebook, using a
scale of one grid equal to 1 ft.
□ Identify one point on the roof as the “origin” of your coordinate system.
□ Identify obstructions and shading objects, creating a legend with
length/width/height and location information—for example, A:
vent pipe, 2 in. dia., 13 in. high; x = 8 ft., 3 in., y = 9 ft., 11 in.
□ Place legend identifiers on the roof sketch for each obstruction or
shading object—for example, “A.”
□ Record roof azimuth: ______ (true) using compass and correction for dec-
lination, using a GPS-based compass, or using a map with true bearings.
□ Record roof pitch __° (using the pitch and angle locator).
□ Record rafter/truss material and center-to-center spacing:  ___________.
□ Can we use 5/16 in. × 4 1/2 in. lag screws with this roof? ______ Yes
______ No
□ Record the anticipated distance between the bottom of the PV mod-
ules and the roof deck: ______ in.
□ Eliminate from consideration those sections of the roof with
obstructions.
11.5.1 Perform Shading Analysis

For each candidate roof section, take five shading measurements: one at each
corner of the roof and one in the middle of the roof. Eliminate from consid-
eration those roof sections with shading factors less than 90%. (For the pur-
poses of this laboratory, we will use only one roof section—the mock roof.)
□ Average the individual shading factors and record this average

shading factor for the roof: ______ 
11.5.2 Final PV Module Layout

Based on the calculations of Section 11.4.4 and the roof space free of obstruc-
tions and with annual shading factors of 90% or more, determine the num-
ber of rows of PV modules and the number of PV modules per row:
□ What PV module format will be used? _____ portrait _____ landscape

□ Row 1: ______ modules
□ Row 2: ______ modules
Using the previously prepared sketch of the roof sections, add the loca-
tions of the modules, again to scale. If you cannot accommodate the final
system size due to new roof size limitations, make certain to note this fact.
11.6 Roof Loading Calculations

The engineering task that needs to be performed at this point in time is called
a roof loading calculation. In principle, there are five basic calculations:
• Dead load
• Live load
• Wind load
• Snow load
• Seismic load
In this chapter we will cover only dead, live, and wind loading. We will not
cover snow loading, even though it can be as high as 20–30 lb./ft.2 in areas
that receive significant amounts of snow. Most racking manufacturers have
technical reports that cover this topic.5 We will now determine the maxi-
mum dead and live loads that our mock roof can withstand.
For the purposes of this laboratory, we will assume the following:
• Maximum downward force on the roof is the sum of the dead load
and the wind load.
P(psf ) = 1.0D(dead load) + 1.0Pnet
• Maximum upward force on the roof is a portion of the dead load

minus the wind load.
P(psf ) = −0.6D + 1.0Pnet
11.7 Mechanical Loading—The Live and Dead Loads

A live roof load is based on temporary loading due to construction or main-
tenance and includes workers, their equipment, tools, and materials. A dead
load is based on the materials and equipment that will be placed perma-
nently on the roof.
11.7.1 Live Loads

Assume that each installer weighs 82 kg (180 lb.):
□ How many installers will be on the roof at any point in time? _____

□ Calculate and record the total weight of all installers:  _____  kg  _____  lb.
□ Calculate and record the total weight of all safety equipment: _____ kg
_____ lb.
□ Calculate and record the total weight of all tools and equipment:
_____ kg _____ lb.
□ Sum the individual weights of the preceding components: _____ kg
_____ lb.
This is the live load.
□ Calculate and record the area of the roof in question: ____ m2 ____ ft.2.

□ Calculate the live load (per unit area): _____ kg/m2 _____ lb./ft.2.
11.7.2 Dead Loads—PV System and Roof

To determine the PV system dead load, we need to determine and record the
following data:
□ PV modules, weight: _____ kg _____ lb. each

□ ProSolar FastJack standoff, including 5/16 in. × 3/4 in. SS lag bolt, 5/16
in. SS washer, base unit and 4 1/2 in. post: _____ kg _____ lb. each
□ Oatey flashing: _____ kg _____ lb. each
□ Unirac “L foot” 5/16 in. SS bolt, weight: _____ kg _____ lb. each
□ Unirac SolarMount rail (standard height), weight: _____ kg/m
_____ lb./ft.
□ ProSolar end-clamp: _____ kg _____ lb. each
□ ProSolar mid-clamp: _____ kg _____ lb. each
□ Enphase M-215 microcontroller, weight: _____ kg _____ lb. each
□ Enphase AC cable, weight: _____ kg _____ lb. each section for one module
Assume panels in portrait format:
□ Calculate the total area of PV array, assuming 14 mm (9/16 in.)

between PV modules in a row, 38 mm (1 1/2 in.) at the ends of each
row, and 0 in. between rows: _____ m2 _____ ft.2.
□ Sketch this area in your field notebook.
Determine the number of each of the preceding components that make up

the PV array. Calculate the total weight for each of the class of components
and sum this for the entire array:
□ PV modules’ total weight: _____ kg _____ lb.

□ Microinverters’ total weight: _____ kg _____ lb.
□ AC cable total weight: _____ kg _____ lb.
□ Rails’ total weight: _____ kg _____ lb.
□ End-clamps’ total weight: _____ kg _____ lb.
□ Mid-clamps’ total weight: _____ kg _____ lb.
□ Standoffs’ total weight: _____ kg _____ lb.
□ Flashing total weight: _____ kg _____ lb.
□ Sum the individual weights of the preceding component classes:
_____ kg _____ lb. This is the dead load for the PV system.
□ Calculate and record the total dead load for the PV system per unit
area: _____ kg/m2 _____ lb./ft.2.
Assuming that the live and dead loads are distributed evenly over the area
of the modules,
□ Calculate and record the dead load for PV system: _____ kg/m2

_____ lb./ft.2.
11.7.3 Dead Load of the Roof Material

In addition to the live loads and dead loads due to the PV system, the roof is
subject to the dead load of the existing roof material: underlayment (5/8 in.
OSB), felt (30 lb.), and composition shingles (30 year). Table 11.2 lists the loads
for these materials.
11.7.4 The Total Dead Load

□ Add the dead load of the PV system to the total dead load of the roof
material: _____ kg/m2 _____ lb./ft.2.
The interested student might want to inquire with the local building authori-
ties to understand how they treat the combinations of dead and live loads on
a roof.
11.7.5 Calculation of Maximum Horizontal Span of a Roof Rafter

The American Wood Council has developed a calculator6 that determines
the maximum horizontal span of roof rafters based on specific live and dead
loads (e.g., 20 lb./ft.2 and 10 lb./ft.2, respectively), wood species (e.g., spruce–
pine–fir, south), grade (e.g., no. 2), size (e.g., 2 in. × 8 in.) and standard val-
ues for modulus of elasticity, bending strength, bearing strength, and shear
strength. For example, using the preceding values, the maximum horizontal
span is 14 ft., 3 in. with a minimum bearing length of 0.57 in. at each end of
the member.
□ Run the calculator for our roof, based on the variables listed before
and determine the maximum horizontal span: _____ ft.
□ Will our roof sustain the total dead load? _____ Yes _____ No
□ Will our roof sustain the total dead loads plus the live loads? _____ Yes
_____ No
TABLE 11.2
Load per Unit Area of a Typical Composition Shingle Roof
5/8 in. OSB 30 year composition
sheathing 30 lb. felt shingles Total
10.2 kg/m2 1.5 kg/m2 13.7 kg/m2 25.4 kg/m2
(2.1 lb./ft.2) (0.3 lb./ft.2) (2.8 lb./ft.2) (5.2 lb./ft.2)
11.8 Wind Loading

11.8.1 Design Wind Pressure for the Site
The following section will be based on a publication by Unirac that uses
English units (pounds and feet). This section will then be one of the few
exceptions to using metric units in this laboratory course: We will use English
units during these wind load calculations and then convert to metric units at
the end and compare wind loads and to our live and dead loads at the end.
The document that we will base our wind loading measurements on is
SolarMount Code-Compliant Installation Manual 227.3 (Unirac Publication
120220-1cc, February 2012).2 This document incorporates three factors in
determining wind loading:
• Basic wind speed

• Effective wind area
• Roof zone
• Topographic factor
• Exposure category
• Roof height
• Importance factor
These factors culminate in a determination of the design wind load.
11.8.2 The SolarMount Code-Compliant Installation Manual 227.3

Before we work through this approach, we should point out that it is appli-
cable only to flush mounts, defined as “…panels parallel to the surface (or
with no more than 3 in. difference between ends of assembly) with no more
than 10 in. space between the roof surface and the bottom of the PV panels.”
This approach is also subject to the following ASCE 7-05 limitations:
• The building height must be less than 60 ft., h < 60.

• The building must be enclosed—not an open or partially enclosed
structure (e.g., a carport).
• The building is a regular shape with no unusual geometrical irregu-
larity in spatial form—for example, a geodesic dome.
• The building is not in an extreme geographic location such as a nar-
row canyon or steep cliff.
• The building has a flat or gable roof with a pitch less than 45° or a hip
roof with a pitch less than 27°.
If the installation does not conform to these requirements, you will need to
consult a professional engineer.
11.8.3 Basic Equation for Design Wind Loading

for Components and Cladding
Design Wind Load = pnet (psf ) = λ × K zt × I × Pnet30
where
λ = adjustment factor for building height and exposure category
Kzt = Topographic Factor at mean roof height, h(ft)
I = importance factor
Pnet30(psf) = net design wind pressure for Exposure B, height = 30 feet, I = 1.0
11.8.3.1 Additional Information Needed
Basic wind speed = V (mph), the largest 3-second gust of wind in the
last 50 years
h (ft.) = total roof height for flat roof or mean roof height for pitched
roof
Roof pitch (degrees)
In the process of using this approach we need to develop some intermedi-

ate quantities:
Effective wind area (sf) = min. total continuous area of modules being

installed
Roof zone = area of roof where you are installing the PV system
Roof zone dimension = a (ft.)
Exposure category
Step 1: determine basic wind speed, V (mph). Locate the job site on the
map in Figure 11.5 and determine the basic wind speed or consult your local
building department.
□ Record the basic wind speed: _____ mph.
Step 2: determine effective wind area. The effective wind area is the
smallest area of continuous modules on a run of rails, not to exceed 100 ft.2. If
less than 100 ft.2, round down using values in Tables 11.3 and 11.4.
□ Record the effective wind area: _____ ft.2.

282
90 (40)
100 (45)
85 mph
(38 m/s) 110 (49)
120 (54)
90 mph
(40 m/s)
90 mph
(40 m/s)
130 (58)
140 (63)
Miles per hour

(meters per second)
130 (58)
140 (63) 140 (63)

140 (63)
150 (67)
150 (67)
Special Wind Region
90 (40)
100 (45) 130 (58)
110 (49) 120 (54)
FIGURE 11.5
Wind speed map.
TABLE 11.3
Net Design Wind Pressure, pnet30 (psf)
Effective 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 170
wind
Zone area (sf) Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift
1 10 5.9 –14.6 7.3 –18.0 8.9 –21.8 10.5 –25.9 12.4 –30.4 14.3 –35.3 16.5 –40.5 21.1 –52.0
1 20 5.6 –14.2 6.9 –17.5 8.3 –21.2 9.9 –25.2 11.6 –29.6 13.4 –34.4 15.4 –39.4 19.8 –50.7
1 50 5.1 –13.7 6.3 –16.9 7.6 –20.5 9.0 –24.4 10.6 –28.6 12.3 –33.2 14.1 –38.1 18.1 –48.9
1 100 4.7 –13.3 5.8 –16.5 7.0 –19.9 8.3 –23.7 9.8 –27.8 11.4 –32.3 13.0 –37.0 16.7 –47.6
2 10 5.9 –24.4 7.3 –30.2 8.9 –36.5 10.5 –43.5 12.4 –51.0 14.3 –593 14.5 –47.9 21.1 –87.2
2 20 5.6 –21.8 6.9 –27.0 8.3 –32.6 9.9 –38.8 11.6 –45.6 13.4 –52.9 15.4 –60.7 19.8 –78.0
2 50 5.1 –18.4 6.3 –22.7 7.6 –27.5 9.0 –32.7 10.6 –38.4 12.3 –44.5 14.1 –51.1 18.1 –65.7
2 100 4.7 –15.8 5.8 –19.5 7.0 –23.6 8.3 –28.1 9.8 –33.0 11.4 –38.2 13.0 –43.9 16.7 –56.4
3 10 5.9 –36.8 7.3 –45.4 8.9 –55.0 10.5 –65.4 12.4 –76.8 14.3 –89.0 16.5 –102.2 21.1 –131.3
Roof 0 to 7 degrees
3 20 5.6 –30.5 6.9 –37.6 8.3 –45.5 9.9 –54.2 11.6 –63.6 13.4 –73.8 15.4 –84.7 19.8 –108.7
3 50 5.1 –22.1 6.3 –27.3 7.6 –33.1 9.0 –39.3 10.6 –46.2 12.3 –53.5 14.1 –61.5 18.1 –78.9
3 100 4.7 –15.8 5.8 –19.5 7.0 –23.6 8.3 –28.1 9.8 –33.0 11.4 –38.2 13.0 –43.9 16.7 –56.4
1 10 8.4 –13.3 10.4 –16.5 12.5 –19.9 14.9 –23.7 17.5 –27.8 20.3 –32.3 23.3 –37.0 30.0 –47.6
1 20 7.7 –13.0 9.4 –16.0 11.4 –19.4 13.6 –23.0 16.0 –27.0 18.5 –31.4 21.3 –36.0 27.3 –46.3
2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with Microinverters
1 50 6.7 –12.5 8.2 –15.4 10.0 –18.6 11.9 –22.2 13.9 –26.0 16.1 –30.2 18.5 –34.6 23.8 –44.5
1 100 5.9 –12.1 7.3 –14.9 8.9 –18.1 10.5 –21.5 12.4 –25.2 14.3 –29.3 16.5 –33.6 21.1 –43.2
2 10 8.4 –23.2 10.4 –28.7 12.5 –34.7 14.9 –41.3 17.5 –48.4 20.3 –56.2 23.3 –64.5 30.0 –82.8
2 20 7.7 –21.4 9.4 –26.4 11.4 –31.9 13.9 –38.0 16.0 –44.6 18.5 –51.7 21.3 –59.3 27.3 –76.2
2 50 6.7 –18.9 8.2 –23.3 10.0 –28.2 11.9 –33.6 13.9 –39.4 16.1 –45 7 18.5 –52.5 23.8 –67.4
2 100 5.9 –17.0 7.3 –21.0 8.9 –25.5 10.5 –30.3 12.4 –35.6 14.3 –41.2 16.5 –47.3 21.1 –60.8
3 10 8.4 –34.3 10.4 –42.4 12.5 –51.3 14.9 –61.0 17.5 –71.6 20.3 –83.1 23.3 –95.4 30.0 –122.5
Roof > 7 to 27 degrees

3 20 7.7 –3.43 9.4 –39.6 11.4 –47.9 13.6 –57.1 16.0 –67.0 18.5 –77.7 21.3 –89.2 27.3 –114.5
3 50 6.7 –29.1 8.2 –36.0 10.0 –43.5 11.9 –51.8 13.9 –60.8 16.1 –70.5 18.5 –81.0 23.8 –104.0
3 100 5.9 –26.9 7.3 –33.2 8.9 –40.2 10.5 –47.9 12.4 –56.2 14.3 –65.1 16.5 –74.8 21.1 –96.0
283
(continued)
284
TABLE 11.3 (CONTINUED)

Net Design Wind Pressure, pnet30 (psf)
Effective 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 170
wind
Zone area (sf) Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift Downforce Uplift
1 10 13.3 –14.6 16.5 –18.0 19.9 –21.8 23.7 –25.9 27.8 –30.4 32.3 –35.3 37.0 –40.5 47.6 –52.0
1 20 13.0 –13.8 16.0 –17.1 19.4 –20.7 23.0 –24.6 27.0 –28.9 31.4 –33.5 36.0 –38.4 46.3 –49.3
1 50 12.5 –12.8 15.4 –15.9 18.6 –19.2 22.2 –22.8 26.0 –28.9 31.4 –33.5 36.0 –38.4 46.3 –49.3
1 100 12.1 –12.1 14.9 –14.9 18.1 –18.1 21.5 –21.5 25.2 –25.2 29.3 –29.3 33.6 –33.6 43.2 –43.2
2 10 13.3 –17.0 16.5 –21.0 19.9 –25.5 23.7 –30.3 27.8 –35.6 32.3 –41.2 37.0 –47.3 47.6 –60.8
2 20 13.0 –16.3 16.0 –20.1 19.4 –24.3 23.0 –29.0 27.0 –34.0 31.4 –39.4 36.0 –45.3 46.3 –58.1
2 50 12.5 –15.3 15.4 –18.9 18.6 –22.9 22.2 –27.2 26.0 –32.0 30.2 –37.1 34.6 –42.5 44.5 –54.6
2 100 12.1 –14.6 14.9 –18.0 18.1 –21.8 21.5 –25.9 25.2 –30.4 29.3 –35.3 33.6 –40.5 43.2 –52.0
3 10 13.3 –17.0 16.5 –21.0 19.9 –25.5 23.7 –30.3 27.8 –35.6 32.3 –41.2 37.0 –47.3 47.6 –60.8

3 20 13.0 –16.3 16.0 –20.1 19.4 –24.3 23.0 –29.0 27.0 –34.0 31.4 39.4 36.0 –45.3 46.3 –58.1
3 50 12.5 –15.3 15.4 –18.9 18.6 –22.9 22.2 –27.2 26.0 –32.0 30.2 –37.1 34.6 –42.5 44.5 –54.6
3 100 12.1 –14.6 14.9 –18.0 18.1 –21.8 21.5 –25.9 25.2 –30.4 29.3 –35.3 33.6 –40.5 43.2 –52.0
4 10 14.6 –15.8 18.0 –19.5 21.8 –23.6 25.9 –28.1 30.4 –33.0 35.3 –38.2 40.5 –43.9 52.0 –56.4
4 20 13.9 –15.1 17.2 –18.7 20.8 –22.6 24.7 –26.9 29.0 –31.6 33.7 36.7 38.7 –42.1 49.6 –54.1
4 50 13.0 –14.3 16.1 –17.6 19.5 –21.3 23.2 –25.4 27.2 –29.8 31.4 –34.6 36.2 –39.7 46.6 –51.0
4 100 12.4 –13.6 15.3 –16.8 18.5 –20.4 22.0 –24.2 25.9 –28.4 30.0 –33.0 34.4 –37.8 44.2 –48.6
4 500 10.9 –12.1 13.4 –14.9 16.2 –18.1 19.3 –21.5 22.7 –25.2 26.3 –29.3 30.2 –33.6 38.8 –43.2
Wall
5 10 14.6 –19.5 18.0 –24.1 21.8 –29.1 25.9 –347 30.4 –40.7 35.3 –47.2 40.5 –54.2 52.0 –69.4
5 20 13.9 –18.2 17.2 –22.5 20.8 –27.2 24.7 –32.4 29.0 –38.0 33.7 –44.0 38.7 –50.5 49.6 –64.9
5 50 13.0 –16.5 16.1 –20.3 19.5 –24.6 23.2 –29.3 27.2 –34.3 31.6 –39.8 36.2 –45.7 46.6 –58.7
5 100 12.4 –15.1 15.3 –18.7 18.5 –22.6 22.0 –26.9 25.9 –31.6 30.0 –36.7 34.4 –42.1 44.2 –54.1
5 500 10.9 –12.1 13.4 –14.9 16.2 –18.1 19.3 –21.5 22.7 –25.2 26.3 –29.3 30.2 –33.6 38.8 –43.2
TABLE 11.4
Roof Overhang Net Design Wind Pressure, pnet30 (psf)
Effective Basic Wind Speed V (mph)
wind
Zone area (sf) 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 170
2 10 –21.0 –25.9 –31.4 –37.2 –43.8 –50.8 –58.3 74.9
Roof 0 to 7 degrees
2 20 –20.6 –25.5 –30.8 36.7 –43.0 –49.9 –57.3 73.6

2 50 –20.1 –24.9 –30.1 –35.8 –42.0 –48.7 –55 9 –71.8
2 100 –19.8 –24.4 –29.5 –35.1 –41.2 –47.8 –54.9 –70.5
3 10 –34.6 –42.7 –51.6 –615 –72.1 –83.7 –96.0 –123.4
3 20 –27.1 –33.5 –40.5 –48.3 –56.6 –65.7 75.4 –96.8
3 50 –17.3 –21.4 –25.9 –30.8 –36.1 –41.9 –48.1 –61.8
3 100 –10.0 –12.2 –14.8 –17.6 –20.6 –23.9 –27.4 –35.2
2 10 –27 2 –33.5 –40.6 –48.3 –56.7 –65.7 –75.5 –96.9
2 20 –27.2 –33.5 –40.6 –48.3 –56.7 –65.7 –75.5 –96.9

2 50 –27.2 –33.5 –40.6 –48.3 –56.7 –65.7 –75.5 –96.9
2 100 –27.2 –33.5 –40.6 –48.3 –56.7 –65.7 –75.5 –96.9
3 10 –45.7 –56.7 –68.3 –81.2 –95.3 –110.6 –126.9 –163.0
3 20 –41.2 –50.9 –61.6 –73.3 –86.0 –99.8 –114.5 –147.1
3 50 –35.3 –43.6 –52.8 –62.8 –73.7 –85.5 –98.1 –126.1
3 100 –30.9 –38.1 –46.1 –54.9 –64.4 –74.7 –85.8 –110.1
2 10 –24.7 –30.5 –36.9 –43.9 –51.5 –59.8 –68.6 –88.1
2 20 –24.0 –29.6 –35.8 –42.6 –50.0 –58.0 –66.5 –85.5

2 50 –23.0 –28.4 –34.3 –40.8 –47.9 –55.6 –63.8 –82.0
2 100 –22.2 –27.4 –33.2 –39.5 –46.4 –53.8 –61.7 –79.3
3 10 –24.7 –30.5 –36.9 –43.9 –51 5 –59.8 –68.6 –88.1
3 20 –24.0 –29.6 –35.8 –42.6 –50.0 –58.0 –66.5 –85.5
3 50 –23.0 –28.4 –34.3 –40.8 –47.9 –55.6 –63.8 –82.0
3 100 –22.2 –27.4 –33.2 –39.5 –46.4 –53.8 –61.7 –79.3
Source: ASCEISEI 7-05 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, Chapter 7,
p. 44, July, 2012.
Step 3: determine roof/wall zone. Based on Table 11.5, determine the roof/

wall zone, dimension (a). Roof zone dimension length (a) is equal to 10% of
the least horizontal dimension or 0.4 h (height), whichever is smaller, but not
less than 4% of the least horizontal dimension or 3 ft. of the building.
□ Record roof/wall zone, dimension (a): _____ ft.
Using the roof zone dimension (a) and Figure 11.6, determine the roof zone
location according to roof type, gable, hip, or monoslope:
• Zone 1, or interior zone

• Zone 2, or end zone
286
TABLE 11.5
Determine Roof/Wall Zone, dimension (a) according to building width and height
Roof Least Horizontal Dimension (ft)
Height
(ft) 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 300 400 500
10 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 7 8 12 16 20
15 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 8 12 16 20
20 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 16 20
25 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 10 10 10 12 16 20
30 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 12 12 12 12 16 20
35 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12.5 14 14 14 14 16 20
40 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12.5 15 16 16 16 16 20
45 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12.5 15 17.5 18 18 18 20
50 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 20 20 20
60 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 24 24 24
Note: a = 10 percent of the least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of the least horizontal dimension or 3 ft
of the building.
Source: ASCE/SEI 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, Chapter 6, Figure 6-3, p. 41, July 2012.
Flat Roof Hip Roof (7° < θ ≤ 27°)
a
h h
YP
aT
a a
a a
a a
Gable Roof (θ ≤ 7°) Gable Roof (7° < θ ≤ 45°)
h a a
h
a
a
a a
a a
Interior Zones End Zones Corner Zones
Roofs-Zone I/Walls -Zone 4 Roofs-Zone 2/Walls-Zone 5 Roofs-Zone 3
FIGURE 11.6
Roof zone.
• Zone 3, or corner zone
□ Record roof zone location: _____ .
Step 4: determine net design wind pressure, pnet 30 (psf). Based on the
effective wind area, roof zone location, and basic wind speed, look up the
appropriate net design wind pressure from Table 11.3 or 11.4.
□ Record pnet30 (psf): _____ .
Step 5: determine the topographic factor, Kst. For the purposes of this
chapter, this factor is equal to 1. More generally, if the ground is level (<10%
slope), this factor is equal to 1, but if the site is not surrounded by level ground,
we would need to consult ASCE 7-05 and the local building authority.
□ Record the topographic factor Kst: _____ .
Step 6: determine the exposure category (B, C, D). ASCE/SEI 7-05 defines
these categories as follows:
• B: urban/suburban, wooded, terrain with closely spaced obstruc-

tions having the size of a single family dwelling
• C: open terrain, scattered obstructions generally less than 30 ft.;
water in hurricane-prone regions
• D: flat, unobstructed area and water surface outside hurricane-prone
regions, such as mud/salt flats and unbroken ice
ASCE 7-05 on pages 287–291 has a further explanation and explanatory

photographs. When in doubt, always consult your local building authority.
□ Record the exposure category: _____ .
Step 7: determine adjustment factor for height and exposure category, λ.

The adjustment factor, λ, is based on exposure category and mean roof
height. Use Table 11.6 to determine λ.
□ Record adjustment factor: _____ .
Optional step. At this point in time, we will see how much of the data that
are needed to support these calculations can be gleaned from a combination
of Google Earth, Google Maps, and Zillow imaging tools. Each student will
be given a site address and a set of GPS coordinates for the site. Using a com-
bination of these imaging tools, locate the site and determine the following:
□ Exposure category: _____ 
□ Topographic factor: _____ 
TABLE 11.6
Adjustment Factor for Building Height and Exposure, λ
Exposure
Mean roof
height (ft) B C D
15 1.00 1.21 1.47
20 1.00 1.29 1.55
25 1.00 1.35 1.61
30 1.00 1.40 1.66
35 1.05 1.45 1.70
40 1.09 1.49 1.74
45 1.12 1.53 1.78
50 1.16 1.56 1.81
55 1.19 1.59 1.84
60 1.22 1.62 1.87
Source: ASCE/SEI 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
Other Structures, Chapter 6, Figure 6-3, p. 44, July, 2012.
□ Roof zones: _____ 
□ Roof height: _____ 
Based on either the site address or the GPS co-ordinates, use Google Earth
to zoom in on the property. Assess the site in terms of wind speed, buildings,
trees, and terrain. The student may use other imaging tools at their disposal.
□ Perform an image capture, and print and place this image in your
notebook.
Step 8: determine the importance factor. This is a very interesting factor

as it tries to differentiate between buildings that present low risk to human
life in the event of failure (e.g., agricultural facilities), standard risk, increased
risk (e.g., schools, hospitals), and essential facilities (e.g., police stations, emergency
operation centers).
Use Table 11.7 to determine the occupancy category importance factor of the
building we are using for our installation of PV modules (non-hurricane-prone
regions, hurricane regions with basic wind speed of 85–100 mph, and Alaska).
□ Record occupancy category importance factor: _____ .
Step 9: Calculate the design wind load, pnet(psf). We can now calculate
the design wind load, pnet (psf), using the following formula:
Design Wind Load = pnet (psf ) = λ × K zt × I × Pnet30
□ Record the design wind load pnet (psf): _____ .
11.8.4 Total Design Load (Downforce and Uplift)

In order to calculate the total design load, we need to take into account the
following:
• The design wind load, pnet (psf)

• The PV system dead load, D (psf)
• The snow load, S (psf) (which will not be included in this laboratory)
As mentioned before, we perform the downforce calculation as follows:
P(psf ) = 1.0 × D + 1.0 × pnet
where P(psf) is positive for a downforce.
□ Record the downforce: _____ psf.

290
TABLE 11.7
Occupancy Categories
Non-Hurricane
Prone Regions
and Hurricane
Prone Regions
with Hurricane Prone
V = 85–100 mph Regions with
Category Category Description Building Type Examples and Alaska V > 100 mph
I Buildings and other structures • Agricultural facilities 0.87 0.77
that represent a low hazard • Certain Temporary facilities
to human life in the event of • Minor Storage facilities
failure, including, but not
limited to:
II All buildings and other 1.00 1.00
structures except those
listed in Occupancy
Categories I, III, and IV.
III Buildings and other • Buildings where more than 300 people congregate 1.15 1.15
structures that represent a • Schools with a capacity more than 250
substantial hazard to • Day cares with a capacity more than 150
human life in the event of • Buildings for colleges with a capacity more than 500
a failure, including, but • Health care facilities with a capacity more than 50 or more
not limited to: resident patients
• Jails and detention facilities
• Power generating stations
• Water and sewage treatment facilities
• Telecommunication centers
• Buildings that manufacture or house hazardous materials
(continued)
TABLE 11.7 (CONTINUED)
Occupancy Categories
Non-Hurricane
Prone Regions
and Hurricane
Prone Regions
with Hurricane Prone
V = 85–100 mph Regions with
Category Category Description Building Type Examples and Alaska V > 100 mph
IV Buildings and other • Hospitals and other health care facilities having surgery or 1.15 1.15
structures designated as emergency treatment; fire, rescue, ambulance and police stations
essential facilities, designated earthquake, hurricane, or other emergency shelters
including, but not limited • Designated emergency preparedness communication, and
to: operation centers
• Power generating stations and other public utility facilities
required in an emergency
• Ancillary structures required for operation of Occupancy
Category IV structures
• Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers and emergency
aircraft hangars
• Water storage facilities and pump structures required to maintain
water pressure for fire suppression
• Buildings and other structures having critical national defense
functions
Source: IBC 2009.Table 1604.5. Occupancy Category of Building and Other Structures, p. 281: ASCE/SEI 7-05. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures. Table 6.1. p. 77
291
As mentioned before, we perform the uplift calculation as follows:
P(psf ) = −0.6 × D + 1.0 × pnet
where P(psf) is positive for an uplift.
□ Record the uplift: _____ psf.
11.8.5 Calculating Uplift Force on Each Standoff and

Comparing to Pullout Strength of Fasteners
If we assume that the standoffs are uniformly spaced under the PV array and
that dead load and design wind load are uniformly distributed over the PV
array, the uplift force on each standoff is given by
Fbracket = ⎣⎡ P(psf) × PV Area(ft 2 ) ⎤⎦ N brackets
where N brackets is the total number of brackets supporting the PV array.
□ Calculate and record the value of Fbracket: _____ lb./standoff.
The pullout (withdrawal) capacity (in pounds) of the attachment hardware

must exceed the uplift force.
□ Measure the thread depth into the rafters of the 5/16 in. SS lag bolt used
with the FastJack standoff: _____ in.
□ Identify the wood species for the rafter/truss lumber: _____ .
Referring to Table 11.8:
□ Choose a wood type and record the lag bolt pullout (withdrawal)
capacity: _____ lb./standoff.
□ Does the lag bolt capacity meet or exceed the standoff force? _____ Yes
_____ No
11.8.6 The Concept of Design (Safety) Margin

It is important at this point in time to understand the concept of design mar-
gin (a/k/a safety margin). This means that the withdrawal capacity of the
attachment hardware should exceed the expected force by some margin.
Commonly employed design margins are 60% and 100% (above the pub-
lished capacity). It is important to understand if the published capacity tables
have already incorporated this design margin or not. If not, the minimum
recommended safety margin should be 60%.
TABLE 11.8
Log Pull-Out Capacity (lbs.)
Lag screw specifications
Specific 5/16" shaft,*
gravity per inch thread depth
Douglas Fir, Larch 0.50 266

Douglas Fir, South 0.46 235
Engelmann Spruce, Lodgepole Pine

(MSR 1650 f & higher) 0.46 235
Hem, Fir, Redwood (close grain) 0.43 212
Hem, Fir (North) 0.46 235

Thread
Southern Pine 0.55 307 depth
Spruce, Pine, Fir

(E of 2 million psi and higher
grades of MSR and MEL) 0.50 266
Note: * Use flat washers with lag screws.
The reasons for design margins include:
• Incompetent rafter or truss lumber due to knots, termites or powder

post beetles, rot, or manufacturing defects
• Split rafters or trusses caused by poor attachment procedure
• Improper installation techniques such as oversize or undersize pilot
hole or overtorquing the lag bolt
11.9 Fire Marshal Setbacks

The California Fire Marshal’s Office published a document titled, “Solar
Photovoltaic Installation Guideline” (draft April 22, 2008).8 In May 2010, the
International Code Council (ICC) approved a revised version of the guide-
line for inclusion in the 2012 version of the International Fire Code (IFC),
which, among other things, makes the guideline legally binding.
The 2012 International Fire Code may be purchased at http://www.iccsafe.
org/Store for $76.50.
The solar photovoltaic guideline makes a number of recommendations as
to markings, access to the roof, pathways on the roof, provisions for smoke
ventilation, and emergency egress from the roof. After review of the guideline:
□ Record the California fire marshal setback requirements:

_____ ft. from ridge
_____ ft. from gable ends
_____ ft. from hips
_____ ft. from valleys
_____ ft. from eaves
□ Will our design conform to the California fire marshal setbacks?
_____ Yes _____ No
11.10 Layout of PV System

At this point in time, we have arrived at a code-compliant PV system layout.
It is important that this layout be recorded in your notebook. During the
detailed design, the engineering team will locate the standoffs so that they
are centered on rafters/trusses. The installation team must locate the rafters/
trusses and make sure that they are used to anchor the standoffs. The follow-
ing is a quick review of the determinations that we have made:
□ Can the roof withstand the wind, dead, and live loads? _____ Yes
_____ No
□ Does the pullout strength of the lag bolt meet or exceed the point
uplift load? _____ Yes _____ No
□ Do all standoffs coincide with rafter/trusses? _____ Yes _____ No
□ Does our design conform to the California fire marshal setbacks?
_____ Yes _____ No
11.11 Single-Line and Four-Line Diagrams

The electrical representation of a grid-tied PV system can be captured at two lev-
els of detail, commonly referred to as single-line diagrams (SLDs) and four-line
diagrams (FLDs). These two documents are typically used for different purposes.
The SLD is often submitted to an electrical utility and serves as the refer-
ence document for a utility interconnection agreement or a rebate applica-
tion. In this latter regard, there may be a requirement for a production meter,
which in theory tracks the production of renewable energy for the purposes
of being credited toward a renewable portfolio standard (RPS) or renewable
energy credits (RECs).
The FLD is typically submitted as part of an electrical/building permit

application to a city or county building department, and can be used by an
installation team.
11.11.1 A Single-Line Diagram

The SLD contains the major components (with identification of manufacturer
and model number) of the PV system. It includes the customer’s service panel,
the utility meter, the utility service, and usually a PV system production meter.
The SLD is shown in Figure 11.7.
11.11.2 A Four-Line Diagram

We will now develop a four-line diagram (a/k/a an electrical schematic), which
is an electrical representation of the PV system components and their electri-
cal interconnections. Raceways are specified. Temperature- and irradiance-
dependent ampacity calculations are included for conductors and overcurrent
protection devices. Maximum system voltages and currents are calculated. In
order to include all relevant system components, we will refer to the Enphase
Microinverter Model M215—Installation and Operation Manual.9
The FLD is shown in Figure 11.8.
Before we go further, we need to introduce two organizations: the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) and Underwriters
Laboratory (UL).
11.11.3 National Electrical Manufacturers Association

NEMA sets standards for the manufacture of safe and effective electrical
enclosures. NEMA has developed a rating system that grades the level of
protection of electrical enclosures from the environment. Environmental
substances include solid foreign objects (dirt), water, and snow/sleet. In
addition to the issue of environmental contamination, NEMA ratings ensure
that electrical enclosures provide limited protection to personnel by restrict-
ing their access to hazardous parts. The two most frequently encountered
NEMA ratings are NEMA 1 and 3:
• NEMA 1: These are indoor-use enclosures that protect internal com-

ponents from solid foreign objects and contaminants (like falling
dirt); they also provide limited protection to personnel by restricting
their access to potentially hazardous components.
• NEMA 3: These are indoor- or outdoor-use cabinets that limit per-
sonnel access to hazardous parts and protect enclosed equipment
from the ingress of contaminants like wind-carried dust and fall-
ing dirt, as well as moisture in the form of rain, sleet, or snow. In
296
PV
PV
PV
PV
Module
Module
Module
Module
Main panel
M AC Production
10 PV
Disconnect Meter modules and
Micro-
Micro-
Micro-
Micro-
inverter
inverter
inverter
inverter
Attic Junction Roof Junction microinverters.
Box Box Not all shown.
M
Termination
AC cable
PV System: kWstc
Production meter: mfgr p/n
AC disconnect: Aac Vac
Backfeed breaker at main panel: Aac
FIGURE 11.7
Single-line diagram for 2.4 kW PV system.
Main panel N
A
PV
PV
PV
PV
Module
Module
Module
Module
Production + – + – + – + –
M AC Meter J
Disconnect
L Attic Juction Roof Juction
Box G Box D B
Micro-
Micro-
Micro-
Micro-
inverter
inverter
inverter
inverter
M
M K I F
L2
H E
L1
N N C
G Termination
10 PV
Four wire cable
modules &
(L1, L2 N, Gnd)
microinverters.
Notes: Not all shown.
A: PV module Renogy RNG-240D, Voc= Isc=
B: Enphase M-215
C: Enphase AC cable: AWG insulation
D: Roof j-box splice: mfgr p/n
E: Splice mfgr p/n
F: AWG insulation
G: Attic J-box splice: mfgr p/n

H: Splice mfgr p/n
I: AWG insulation
J: mfgr
K: AWG insulation
L: mfgr ampacity volts
M: AWG insulation
N: mfgr ampacity disco
O: A Vac
FIGURE 11.8
Four-line diagram for 2.4 kW PV system.
297
addition, type 3 enclosures are designed to remain undamaged even

if ice forms on their outer surfaces.
• NEMA 3R: These are enclosures that are used indoors or outdoors
and not only provide workers with a degree of protection against
making contact with hazardous parts, but also protect interior com-
ponents from solid contaminants; water ingress in the form of rain,
sleet, or snow; and the formation of ice on the cabinet’s exterior.
It goes without saying that every enclosure used in a PV system that is

used outdoors must have a NEMA 3R rating and that components used
indoors must have a NEMA 1 rating.
11.11.4 Underwriters Laboratory

UL is a safety consulting and certification company. Although UL performs
a number of services, the one most relevant to our work is product safety.
Using standards developed by other organizations such as the Institute of
Electronics Engineers (IEE), UL tests a wide variety of electrical products
including lamps; wire and cable; conduit, couplers, and connectors; condu-
lets; junction/pull boxes, disconnects; meter enclosures; and service panels.
Every electrical component used in a PV system must be listed by the UL
for its intended purpose. The UL certification mark, shown in Figure 11.9, must
be affixed to the component in question.
UL used to be the “only game in town.” However, today UL is just one of
many nationally recognized testing laboratories (NRTLs). The OSHA web pages
list all of the recognized NRTLs including each NRTL’s scope of recognition. The
following are the organizations currently recognized by OSHA as NRTLs:
• Canadian Standards Association (CSA) (also known as CSA

International)
FIGURE 11.9
UL mark.
• Communication Certification Laboratory, Inc. (CCL) (DBA Nemko-

CCL, Inc.)
• Curtis-Straus LLC (CSL)
• FM Approvals LLC (FM) (formerly Factory Mutual Research
Corporation)
• Intertek Testing Services NA, Inc. (ITSNA) (formerly ETL Testing
Laboratories, Inc.)
• MET Laboratories, Inc. (MET)
• NSF International (NSF)
• QPS Evaluation Services Inc. (QPS)
• SGS U.S. Testing Company, Inc. (SGSUS) (formerly U.S. Testing
Company, Inc./California Division)
• Southwest Research Institute (SWRI)
• TUV Rheinland PTL, LLC (TUVPTL)
• TÜV SÜD America, Inc. (TUVAM)
• TÜV SÜD Product Services GmbH (TUVPSG)
• TUV Rheinland of North America, Inc. (TUV)
• Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL)
11.11.5 The Difference between Four-Line and Single-Line Diagrams

As mentioned before, the FLD is an electrical representation of the PV sys-
tem. It contains the following elements:
• The components (modules, inverters, junction boxes, switches/dis-

connects, relays, meter, panel boards)
• The electrical connections:
• DC wiring—positive, negative (PV and charge controller circuits
as well as battery circuits)
• AC wiring—L and N (120 VAC); L1, L2, and N (240 VAC)
• Callouts for wire gauge and insulation type, conduit size, and type
(or cable)
• Conduit (or cable designation)
• Equipment grounding conductor, grounding electrode conductor,
grounding electrode
• Overcurrent protection: breakers and fuses
• Annotations for each of the components, including manufacturer, part
number, and critical performance specifications (e.g., ampacity)
• The interconnection of the components
Annotations of the interconnections specifying, for example, the wire being

used (e.g., 10 AWG THHN-2) as well as the conduit (3/4 in. electrical metal
tubing) or the cable7 being used (e.g., MC10-4)
□ Sketch an FLD of the final PV module layout from PV modules to

service panel interconnection.
□ See Figure 11.8 for an example of an FLD.
Include the following components:
□ PV module
□ Microinverter
□ AC cable
□ Junction box (on the roof)
□ Conduit from roof junction box to attic junction box
□ Attic junction box (on the roof)
□ Conductor and conduit (or cable) used to connect the attic junction
box to the AC disconnect
□ AC disconnect
□ Conductor and conduit (or cable) used to connect the AC disconnect
to the production meter
□ Production meter
□ Conductor and conduit (or cable) used to connect the production
meter to the service panel
□ PV breakers in service panel
Record the following information as annotations:
□ Type (e.g., THWN-2) and size (e.g., 10 AWG) of current carrying and

grounding conductors and conduit, or type and size of cable; calcu-
lation of the ampacity of wire, taking into account corrections for
cloud bounce, continuous duty, operating temperature, and number
of current carrying conductors in conduit:
□ Markings affixed to conductors and conduit, or cable
□ Make and model of the PV modules
□ Make and model of the microinverters
□ Record the AC cable run (in this case, the Enphase engage cable)
between drop connectors and from last drop connector to the on-
roof junction box: _____ .
□ Record the other AC wiring _____ and conduit _____ to be used from

roof-junction box to the AC disconnect and to the production meter.
production meter to AC disconnect.
AC disconnect to the service panel.
□ Confirm compatibility of PV module and microinverter. This should
include the following:
• Maximum source voltage (input voltage to inverter) at coldest
temperature recorded at site in the past 30 years _________ V
• Minimum operating source voltage (input voltage to inverter) at
average high daily temperature at site _________ V
□ Specify the WEEB grounding clips used: _____ .
□ Specify equipment grounding conductors: _____ .
□ Specify system grounding electrode conductor: _____ .
□ Specify grounding electrode: _____ .
□ Specify customer service panel, including manufacturer: _____ ,
model number: _____ , ampacity of main disconnect: _____ , ampacity
of panel rails: _____ , and size of PV system breaker: _____ .
□ Calculate the maximum permissible ampacity of photovoltaic sys-
tem breakers (from 120% rule): _____ .
□ Specify the details of the subpanel (if necessary): _____ .
11.12 Installing Mechanical Subsystems—

Standoffs, Flashing, and Rails
11.12.1 Sketch of Layout in Notebook
□ Refer to your layout sketch of the system.
□ Allow for 5/8 in. between modules and 1 1/2 in. at the end of each
row for mid-clamps and end-clamps, respectively. Assume there is
no gap between rows.
□ Sketch the location of the rails using the 25%/50%/25% rule.
□ Sketch the location of the standoffs assuming 48 in. spacing between
standoffs. Make sure that the end PV module cantilevers no more
than one-half module width beyond the last standoff.
□ Sketch the location of the roof penetration, which will accommodate
the AC wiring.
11.12.2 Transfer Sketch to Roof

□ Draw an outline of the PV array on the roof with crayon or chalk.
□ Verify that this outline respects the fire department setbacks.
□ Locate the rafters using a 20 oz. framing hammer (or sighting the
rafter tails) and mark with crayon or chalk. Snap vertical lines up
and down the roof to locate the entire length of the “reference” rafter.
□ Using the 25%/50%/25% rule, carefully locate rail positions with
chalk and snap lines for each rail location. Use the bottom of the roof
(eaves) as a reference to make sure the snap lines are parallel to the
roof line and to each other.
□ Taking into account that the Unirac SolarMount rail is limited to 48
in. standoff-to-standoff separations (120 lb. per linear foot), locate
the standoffs on rafters. Make sure that the rail ends containing PV
modules cantilever no more than one-half module width beyond the
last standoff.
11.12.3 Attach Standoffs, Flashing, Rails, and AC Cable

□ Locate the reference rafter as accurately as possible, using rafter tails
and the “20 oz. framing hammer” techniques.
□ Snap a line indentifying the location of the reference rafter.
□ Using the 25% rule, snap a line at right angles to the rafter, locating
the two rails for the first row of modules.
□ At the intersection of the reference rafter and the lower snap line,
use a 6 in. long, 3/16 in. drill bit to drill a (60%) pilot hole for the
5/16 in. lag bolt. Use drill guide provided in the body of the FastJack.
Make sure that the depth of the hole into the rafter is as deep as the
lag bolt will penetrate the rafter. The composition shingles, felt, and
composition shingles could easily be 1 1/8 in. in thickness. Drill this
hole in two passes, clearing the bit in between passes.
□ Make sure that the entire length of this pilot hole is into the rafter.
This can be determined by looking at the wood shavings that come
out with the bit. You can also determine if this is not the case if the
drill suddenly slips after drilling only ~1 in., indicating that the hole
has gone through the shingles, felt, and decking, but not into a rafter.
I recommend using a 70% pilot hole. In this case, follow the 3/16 in.
pilot hole with a 7/32 in. hole, again making sure that the depth of
the hole is as deep as the lagbolt.
□ Attach the standoff using a generous amount of Sika 1A caulking
in the pilot hole and on the bottom of the standoff. Use an impact
driver to make sure the lag bolt is tightly anchored into the rafter.
Correct
FIGURE 11.10
Proper cutout in composition shingle roof for weatherproof flashing (Courtesy Professional
Solar Products).
□ Report “spinners” to the instructor and use a “rafter locator” tool to

determine on which side of the rafter the hole is. Drill a second hole
based on the relative distance between the first hole and the near
side of the rafter. Remember that you are trying to hit the center of
the rafter, which is 1 1/2 in. wide.
□ Use the flashing template and a utility knife with a hook blade (or
sheet metal shears) to cut the composition shingle to accommodate
the flashing. This U-shaped cut should allow you to slip an Oatey
flashing underneath two layers of composition shingle. If there is
a nail in the way, remove it. See Figure 11.10 for the correct method
of cutting a shingle so that no water can enter the standoff location.
Use the post threader tool to screw a post into the standoff without having
to remove the flashing.
□ Continue this procedure until all standoffs are attached. Calculate

the rail length need for five RNG-245D PV modules, four mid-
clamps, and two end-clamps: _____ .
Because the standard rail length is 11 ft., 2 in., one rail is not enough to sup-
port five RNG-245D PV modules.
□ Follow the instructions in the installation manual for splicing

together two rails using the rail splice and self-drilling screws sup-
plied. Make sure that the rail is supported by more than one standoff
on both sides of the splice.
□ Attach an electrical bonding jumper at the rail splice.

□ Locate the rail next to the standoffs and locate one L-foot next to each
standoff.
□ Attach an L-foot to the rail using the captive bolts and nut with ser-
rated base, leaving the nut “finger tight.”
□ Attach the L-foot to the standoffs using the 3/8 in. SS bolts and wash-
ers, leaving the bolt “finger tight.”
□ Repeat this process for all four rails.
□ Verify that all four rails are aligned properly and of the correct length.
□ Tighten all bolts and nut bolts connecting the L-feet to the rails and
standoffs using an impact driver.
11.12.4 Documenting the Mechanical Subsystem—Standoffs,

Flashing, and Rails Inputs from Roof Details—Optional
□ Obtain a copy of the instructor-supplied SketchUp drawing file
21x12_roof.skp of roof.
□ Open this file and add your standoffs and rails, using predefined
models for the standoffs, rails, and splice blocks. Make sure that the
rails are of the correct length.
11.13 Installing PV Modules, WEEB Grounding

Clips, Microinverters, and AC Cabling
This is a two-man job; do not attempt to do this alone. The sequence required
to attach the modules, microinverters, AC cable, WEEB clips, and module
clamps properly is quite complex. After performing the sequence a few
times, however, it should become second nature!
NOTE: With current Enphase microinverters it is no longer necessary to
employ a grounding electrode conductor (GEC) as the DC side of the circuit
is isolated and insulated from ground.
11.13.1 The First Row

□ Lay out the AC cable alongside the rails.
The termination of this cable can be made here or at the far end of the array
of modules. We will choose to make the termination at this point.
□ Adjust the cable so that the drop connectors are located at the points
where the microinverters will be attached to the rail. The AC cable
itself can be pressed into a groove in the Unirac rails and zip-tied
every 2 ft. or so to the rail as we go along. Since our PV layout con-
sists of a compact 2 × 5 array of modules, we will not need to worry
about extension cabling.
For the first module,
□ Start at the lower right-hand corner of the array.

□ Attach the first microinverter to the upper rail so that it will be
located just to the right of the PV module junction box.
□ Connect the drop connector to the microinverter and secure the AC
cable.
□ Place the first module on the rails.
□ Connect the DC leads of the module to the microinverter. Use wire
clips to make sure the DC leads clear the roof surface by a large margin.
□ Note the status LED on the underside of the microinverter. This
LED will blink green six times to indicate normal start-up operation
approximately 1 minute after DC power is applied.
□ Adjust this module so that it conforms to the 25%/50%/25% rule.
Make sure it is located the proper distance from the end of the rails
and is “square” with the rail.
□ Attach the end-clamps (bolt, split washer, and captive nut) to the left
of the first module, making the attachments “finger tight” for the
time-being. Do this for both end-clamps.
□ Attach the mid-clamps (bolt, lock washer, WEEB clip, and captive
nut) for the first mid-clamps to the right of the first module. Do this
for both mid-clamps.
□ Slide each of the mid-clamps up to the edge of the first module. Lift
the first module to make sure the edges of the WEEB clips are located
under the module.
For the second module,
□ Attach the second microinverter to the upper rail.

□ Connect the drop connector to the microinverter and secure the AC
cable.
□ Locate the second module on the rails, making sure it aligns with the
first module and overlaps the WEEB clip.
□ Connect the DC leads of the PV module to the microinverter. Use

wire clips to make sure the DC leads clear the roof surface by a large
margin.
□ Attach a second set of mid-clamps to the right of this module, “fin-
ger tight.” No WEEB clips are required! Torque down the first set of
end-clamps with an impact driver.
For the third module,
□ Locate the third module. Double-check the position and relative

alignment of all three modules. This can be done by sighting along
the modules. Ask your instructor how to do this if you are unsure.
□ Attach the third set of mid-clamps (bolt, lock washer, WEEB clip,
and captive nut) “finger tight” to the right of this module. Torque
down the second set of mid-clamps.
For the fourth module,
□ Place the fourth module. Double-check the position of all four modules.
□ Attach the fourth set of mid-clamps (bolt, split washer, WEEB clip,
and captive nut) “finger tight” to the right of this module. Torque
down the third set of mid-clamps.
If we were going to continue adding modules indefinitely, we would not

need a WEEB clip here. However, the next module—the fifth module—needs
WEEB clips. Therefore, we will have to place them here because we cannot
use WEEB clips under an end-clamp.
For the fifth module,
□ Place the fifth module, making sure it aligns with the first four mod-
ules and overlaps the WEEB clip.
□ Attach the final set of end-clamps (bolt, lock washer, and captive nut)
“finger tight” to the right of this module.
□ Make one final check on alignment
□ Torque down the third, fourth, and fifth sets of mid-clamps.10
For the second row,
□ Install a roof penetration to accommodate a 1 in. rigid conduit.

□ Install an outdoor rated junction box (e.g., Bell P/N 5324-0) on the
roof.
□ Install a junction box in the attic space at the other end of the 1 in.
rigid conduit.
□ Use a weatherproof gland/strain-relief connector with the roof junc-

tion box for AC cable and equipment grounding electrode.
□ Wire equipment grounding conductor to the junction boxes.
If the AHJ requires an AC disconnect before penetrating the roof:
□ Install a 240 VAC-rated switch in the junction box of adequate ampac-

ity (20 AAC continuous).
□ Install a cover plate with a hinged lever that can actuate the switch.
□ Make sure that the AC cable has been properly secured to the upper
rail for the second row.
Repeat the process used for the first row:
□ Start at the left-hand side of this row and install microinverters,

WEEB clips, and PV modules, working left to right.
□ Leave about 1/4 in. gap between the two rows, to prevent one row from
exerting a force on the other and to allow rain to course off the upper
row onto the roof as opposed to being carried to the row below it.
11.14 The Installation Map Monitoring System

The installation map is a diagram of the physical layout of the PV array sub-
system. A sample installation map is shown in Table 11.9.
□ Identify each PV module with its serial number and the serial num-
ber of the microinverter. If they are available, use the peel-off labels
from each microinverter.
□ Fill all relevant data into Table 11.9.
□ Make a photocopy of this map once it is created.
11.15 Installing Balance of System

□ Starting with the junction box in the attic space, install a conduit to
the production meter enclosure.
□ Install a conduit from the production meter enclosure to the AC
disconnect.
□ Install a conduit from the AC disconnect to the service panel.
TABLE 11.9
Installation Map Data
Using your four-line diagram as a guide:
□ Wire from the roof junction box to the production meter, to the AC dis-
connect, and to the dedicated breaker in the service panel. Use wire of
appropriate ampacity and rating for the environmental conditions.
□ Install production meter and lock ring.
In areas that are chronically damp (e.g., within 3 miles of a large body

NO T E :
of water), AHJs may require the use of PVC schedule 80 conduit on outdoor
(but not attic) and wet-rated wire (e.g., THWN-2) for these runs.
11.16 Lightning and Surge Protection

Although Enphase claims to have internal surge protection, the company
nonetheless recommends the deployment of additional lightning and surge
protection devices. See Enphase Installation and Operation Manual (141-00012
Rev 05) for devices suitable for residential applications and larger commer-
cial applications.
11.17 Installing the Enphase Monitoring System

The Enphase is much more than a simple monitoring system. Each microin-
verter has an identification number and each communicates with a commu-
nications gateway, referred to as the Envoy™. Two connections to the Envoy
are required: a conventional AC power (120 VAC) and an Ethernet connec-
tion to a broadband router with Internet access.
11.17.1 Connecting the Gateway to Enphase Internet Site

□ Measure and record the line voltage at the service panel: _____ VAC.
This voltage needs to be within 211 to 264 VAC (for 240/120 V split-phase service).
□ Mount the Envoy on a conveniently located wall.

□ Connect Envoy to a 120 VAC receptacle.
□ Connect the Envoy to the customer’s broadband router.
At this point in time the gateway may retrieve an automatic update from
Enphase, which may take up to 20 minutes.
11.18 Energizing the System

□ Turn on the (optional) AC disconnect located on the roof for each
branch circuit.
If there are two or more branch circuits, they will be combined in a subpanel,
with each branch back-feeding the subpanel via a dedicated breaker. If this
is the case,
□ Turn on the main disconnect of the subpanel (if one exists).

□ Turn on each of the branch circuit breakers.
□ Turn on the AC disconnect next to the service panel (if one exists).
□ Turn on the dedicated solar breaker in the service panel.
□ Wait 5 minutes for system to energize.
It may take anywhere from a quarter of an hour to a full hour for all of the
modules to communicate to the Envoy.
11.19 Activating the System

□ Log onto (or register the first time for) the Enlighten website.
□ Click on the “Systems” tab.
□ At the right, click on “Activations.”
□ Enter “System” information.
□ Enter “Owner” and “Location” information.
□ Under “Envoy,” select type of Internet connection and serial number.
□ Enter information on number of modules and module manufacturer.
□ Select “rack mount” for “Attachment Type.”
□ Select “fixed tilt” for “Array Type.”
□ Upload the file showing the installation map and give map a “label.”
□ Enter estimated system production data.
□ Save data and go to systems page.
11.20 Certification Testing

Once the system is up and communicating with the Envoy and Enlighten
website, use Table 11.10 to fill out the certification sheet for Enphase systems.
This document is titled “PV System Certification Sheet.”
TABLE 11.10
PV System Certification Sheet
SolarGnosis - PV System Certification Sheet
System Information
Customer Name: Date Confirmed:
Address: Certified: Lead Installer:
City/State/Zip: AC Disconnect(s) (roof) AC Disconnect (main)
System Size kW-dc Size Size
Modules Total # Model: Make Make
Main Panel PV Breaker Size: Model # Model #
Time: Irradiance (weather): Temperature (est.) ºF
Inverter Make: Model no.:

Inverter # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inverter Ser. #
Module Ser. #
A/C Watts (now)
Inverter # 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Inverter Ser. #
Module Ser. #
A/C Watts (now)
Inverter # 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Inverter Ser. #
Module Ser. #
A/C Watts (now)
Inverter # 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Inverter Ser. #
Module Ser. #
A/C Watts (now)
A/C Test Data

AC String # 1 2 3
Vac @ L1-L2
Vac L1 - gnd
Vac L2 - gnd
Other Notes:
This document is very important because it provides a reference point that

can be referred to at a later date if there is concern about the operation of the
PV system.
11.21 Troubleshooting
As mentioned before, the status LED on the underside of the M215 blinks
green six times to indicate normal start-up operation approximately 1 min-
ute after DC power is applied. Six short red blinks after DC power is first
applied to the microinverter indicate a failure during microinverter start-up.
11.21.1 Post-Start-Up LED Indications

Use a handheld mirror to view indicator lights on the undersides of the
microinverters:
• Flashing green: normal operation

• Flashing orange: microinverter not receiving messages from the
Envoy
• Flashing red: microinverter not operating normally
• Solid red: GFDI fault
If the indicator light indicates anything but flashing green, consult the
troubleshooting section of the M215 installation and operation manual (141-
00012 Rev05).
The instructor may at this point introduce one or more system faults. These
faults may be indicated by the Envoy or the Enlighten website. It will be up to
individual instructors to fashion a custom section on troubleshooting.
Notes
1. Unirac Pub 040316-1ii, March 2004.
2. Unirac Pub 120220-1cc, February 2012.
3. This number can be confirmed using PVWatts2 (http://pvwattsbeta.nrel.gov/)
and 1 kWstc, DC-to-AC derate factor of 0.80, south facing flush mount roof array,
18° tilt and a Southern California zip code. In other areas of the United States
(Seattle, Denver, Austin, Miami, Philadelphia, and Boston), this number can be
recalculated using a more appropriate zip code.
4. This assumes that approximately 70% of a south-facing roof can be fitted with
14% DC-efficient PV modules.
5. See Unirac.
6. http://www.awc.org/calculators/span/calc/timbercalcstyle.asp
7. Cable is a premanufactured combination of one or more wires enclosed in a
protective metal sheath (e.g., metal clad cable, a/k/a type MC, which has one
interlocking (usually metal) sheath and one insulating (usually nylon) sheath
surrounding the conductors.
8. Solar Photovoltaic Installation guideling draft, http://osfm.fire.ca.gov/pdf/
reports/solarphotovoltaicguideline.pdf
9. Enphase document 141-00012, Rev. 05
10. Note: “Squaring-up” the modules is a very important task as it prevents the
module row from “walking off” and requiring the modules to be repositioned.
If you have attached the WEEB clips and you have torqued down the clamps,
you will need to dispose of those clips and use new ones!
12
2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System
with String Inverter
12.1 Introduction
This laboratory shares a great deal in common with Chapter 11. The use
of one string inverter instead of many microinverters has the following
consequences:
• Instead of one PV module per microinverter, we employ strings of

photovoltaic (PV) modules wired in series—and possibly several
strings together in parallel—and one central inverter.
• A single monitoring system is employed to track production.
• Each string needs to be sized; that is, there are minimum and maxi-
mum numbers of modules per string depending on ambient tem-
peratures expected at the site and the maximum DC input voltage
for the inverter.
• All strings that are combined together in parallel and then fed into
the same inverter must have the same numbers of PV modules and,
for all practical purposes, identical PV modules.
• All PV modules in a string should have the same orientation (azi-
muth and tilt angle).
• If there are more than two strings combined together, each string
must have overcurrent protection.
• Compared with using microinverters, greater care needs to be taken
with string inverters to avoid shading, as the shading of one module
in a string has a negative consequence on the performance of all of
the other modules in the string.
The physical design and almost all of the installation steps are the same.
If this chapter follows the design and installation of a microinverter-based
system, it should require a total of 4–6 hours to redesign the PV system, remove
the microinverter-specific equipment, and install the string inverter equipment.
315
This chapter is organized into the following sections:
• Simulation of AC energy production using PVWatts

• Creation of a four-line diagram (FLD) schematic
• Installation of modules, wire management, grounding clips, junc-
tion box, inverter (with integral DC and AC disconnects), production
meter, AC disconnect, back-fed circuit breakers
• Installation of a monitoring system
• Performing system certification
• Conducting troubleshooting

• Take a high-level design requirement and develop a detailed design

for a string-inverter-based PV system, including string sizing, source
circuit combining, and estimation of AC energy production
• Install a complete PV system including monitoring system
• Perform system certification
• Analyze and correct system faults (i.e., troubleshooting)
12.3 High-Level Design Requirement

In order to gain some familiarity designing with string inverters, we shall
increase the average daily usage to 10 kWh/day (averaged over 1 year).
□ Using PVWatts, zip code 90405, 14° module tilt, 180° orientation, sys-
tem losses 15% and inverter efficiency, calculate the PV system DC
power rating that will produce 10 kWh/day _____ kWstc .
□ Calculate the required number of Renogy RNG-240D PV modules
_____ using PV system size kWstc = (number of modules) × Pstc ÷ 1,000;
round down to the nearest integer.
□ Record this PV system size: _____ kWstc.
2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with String Inverter 317
12.4 Setup
We will use the daily usage of 10 kWh/day only to accommodate our roof
and physical layout of the PV module array will be the same as in the previ-
ous chapter, including the choice of PV module (RNG-240D), the number of
modules, and the racking system.
We choose the SMA Sunny Boy SB3000US. This model incorporates inte-
grated DC and AC disconnects and arc fault circuit interruption (AFCI) and
meets the 2011 National Electrical Code (NEC) section 690.11.
The monitoring system will be the TED (the Energy Detective) 5003C
monitor. A local area network will be used to take full advantage of the
TED system.
We will use the same personal protective equipment (PPE), fall preven-
tion/protection, materials, and tools used in Chapter 11.
12.5 String Sizing

String sizing involves calculation of the minimum and maximum numbers
of PV modules on a string, based on inverter specifications. All inverters
specify the following voltages:
• Maximum input voltage (usually 600 VDC in the United States)

• Minimum MPP (maximum power point) start voltage
• Minimum MPP sustain voltage (usually a few tens of volts less than
the start voltage)
□ What is the number of PV modules required from the design require-

ment (Section 12.3)? _____ 
□ What is the maximum DC system voltage for the SB3000US? _____ V
□ What is the zip code for the installation site? _____ 
12.5.1 Resources for Weather Data for the Installation Site

We are interested in the following weather data for a given site:
• Record low temperature

• Maximum average daily high temperature
These data are available from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), but the interfaces at the NOAA website are some-
what awkward.
Wikipedia lists the record low temperatures for many US cities. See http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los-Angeles#climate.
We can use the NREL Solar Redbook. This resource has a single page for
each of 239 US cities, including insolation data for fixed and tracking flat-
plate collectors and concentrating collectors, and site weather data (http://
rredc.nrel.gov/solar/pubs/redbook/PDFs/Manual.pdf).
This site returns a record low temperature of 24°F (–4.4°C) and an average
high temperature of 84°F (24.8°C), in agreement with Weather.com.
12.5.2 Checking for Maximum System Voltage

The maximum system voltage is the Voc for the PV string, and it usually
occurs in the early morning (at dawn or just before it). At this point in time, it
is possible to have enough irradiance for the PV modules to exhibit Voc, while
the inverter is still loading the PV module string with something approxi-
mating an open circuit (high-load impedance).
□ What is the lowest temperature of record for the last 30 years for the
zip code in question? _____ 
□ What is the value of Voc at STC for the PV module in question? _____ V
□ What is the value of the temperature correction factor for this PV
module? _____ (%/°C)
□ What is the temperature-corrected value of Voc, for a single pv mod-
ule, taking into account the lowest temperature on record for this
site? _____ V
□ Taking into account the maximum DC system voltage and the tem-
perature-corrected value for Voc, what is the maximum number of
modules per string? _____ 
□ Round this number down to the closest integer value. _____
Using the number of PV modules from the design requirement, investigate

to see if there is a combination of (a) number of strings per module and (b)
number of strings that meets this requirement. If this is the case:
□ Based on the total number of modules, see if you can divide up the
modules into one or more strings, each with the same number of
modules per string.
□ What is the number of modules per string? _____ And what is the
number of strings? _____ 
□ If this is not the case, what combination of number of modules per

string _____ and number of strings _____ comes closest to meeting
this requirement?
In reality, a certain amount of consultation with the client and review of

the available roof surface is in order so that the total number of modules can
be installed.
12.5.3 Checking for Maximum Operating Temperature of Inverter

We will be using the SMA SB3000US string inverter. See Figures 12.1 and
12.2 for an image of the inverter and operating characteristics.
□ What is the maximum operating temperature for the SB3000US in

MPP mode? _____ 
□ What is the average maximum daily temperature for the zip code?
_______ (http://www.weather.com/weather/climatology/monthly)
12.5.4 Checking for Minimum Start Voltage

We now need to understand whether or not the temperature-corrected
operating voltage, Vmp, is greater than the minimum start voltage; other-
wise, the inverter will not turn on. The data sheet for the PV module MAY
NOT include a temperature coefficient for Vmp. In this case, use the tem-
perature correction for Voc. Using the average maximum daily temperature,
correct Vmp:
□ What is the maximum monthly average minimum temperature?

______ (°F) ______ (°C)
□ What is value of Vmp @ STC? _____ V
□ What is the temperature correction factor for Vmp for this module?
______ V/C
□ What is the value of Vmp at the average daily temperature? ______ V
□ What is the temperature correction value for Vmp for the string?
______ V/C
□ What is minimum start voltage? _____ V
□ Is this value of Vmp greater than the minimum MMP start voltage?
_____ Yes _____ No
If no, what can be done to increase the value of Vmp?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
□ What is the maximum input voltage for MPP operation? _____ V
□ Is the temperature-corrected Vmp greater than the maximum MPP

voltage? _____ Yes _____ No
□ If yes, reduce the number of PV modules per string and possibly
increase the number of strings, while keeping the total number of
modules close to the design requirement.
□ If yes, what is the new value of PV modules per string _____ and the
total number of strings? _____ 
12.6 Monitoring
We will employ the TED monitoring system, which measures real-time
power flow in the customer’s electrical system. TED can make up to 32 sepa-
rate circuit measurements, including the PV system output circuit and the
utility feed, as well as other branch circuits (i.e., customer loads). In our case,
we will use TED to measure
• The power flow from the inverter into the customer’s service panel
(PPV)
• The power flow at the utility point of connection into (or out of) the
same service panel (PUTIL)
Since TED measures the magnitude and direction of power flow, it can
also calculate the total (“vector sum”) of the power consumed by the branch
circuits (PLOADS) and the PV system; that is,
PUTIL = PLOADS − PPV or PLOADS = PUTIL + PPV
When the PUTIL is positive, the power consumed by the loads is greater than
the power generated by the PV system. When the power flow is negative, the
power generated by the PV system is greater than the power consumed by
the loads.
How does TED accomplish this task? TED is based on two sensors: a voltage
sensor and two current transformers that measure the current flowing in the
L1 and L2 legs of a 240 V circuit. In this manner, TED can measure the instan-
taneous power flowing in the circuit, including the direction of the power flow
in the circuit. Figure 12.1 shows the case where the utility power and the PV
system output power are both being measured. Wiring TED into the PV sys-
tem and setting up TED will be discussed in Section 12.12.
Utility
Solar
Wind
Your Inverter
MTU MTU
FIGURE 12.1
TED system monitoring the utility power and inverter output power (Courtesy of Energy, Inc.).
12.7 Four-Line and Single-Line Diagrams

for the String Inverter System
As in Chapter 11, we will now develop a four-line diagram. Make sure to
include the following:
• PV module
• Junction box (on the roof, if required)
• PV combiner box with overcurrent protection (if required)
• DC disconnect (manufacturer and model number)

• Wire gauge and type for all DC (PV) runs
• Conduit from roof junction box to inverter, including wire gauge
and type
• Inverter
• Production meter
• AC disconnect
• PV breakers in service panel
• Conductor and conduit (or cable) used to connect to the inverter, pro-
duction meter, AC disconnect, and service panel
• Ground electrode
• Ground electrode conductor
• Equipment grounding conductors
Record the following information as annotations:
□ Type (e.g., THWN-2) and size (e.g., 10 AWG) of all current-carrying

and grounding conductors and conduit, or type and size of cable,
calculating the ampacity of wire taking into account corrections for
cloud bounce, continuous duty, operating temperature, and number
of current-carrying conductors in conduit
□ Markings affixed to conductors and conduit, or cable
□ Make and model of the PV modules
□ Make and model of the microinverters
□ Record the AC cable run (in this case the Enphase Engage cable)
between drop connectors and from last drop connector to the on-
roof junction box: _____ .
the roof-junction box to the AC disconnect and to the production
meter.
the production meter to AC disconnect.
the AC disconnect to the service panel.
□ Confirm compatibility of PV module and inverter. This should
include:
□ Maximum source voltage (input voltage to inverter) at coldest tem-
perature recorded at site in the past 30 years: _____ V.
□ Minimum operating source voltage (input voltage to inverter) at
average high daily temperature at the site: _____ V.
□ Specify the WEEB™ grounding clips used: _____ .

□ Specify equipment grounding conductors: _____ , _____ , and _____ .
□ Specify system grounding electrode conductor: _____ .
□ Specify grounding electrode: _____ .
□ Specify customer service panel, including manufacturer _____ ,
model number _____ , ampacity of main disconnect _____ , ampacity
of panel rails _____ , and size of PV system breaker _____ .
□ Calculate the maximum permissible ampacity of photovoltaic sys-
tem breakers (from 120% rule): _____ .
□ Specify the details of the subpanel (if necessary): _____ .
□ Specify main service panel, including manufacturer _____ , model
number _____ , ampacity of main disconnect _____ , ampacity of panel
rails _____ , and actual size of PV system breaker _____ .
Include the following information as annotations:
□ Markings (i.e., labels) affixed to conductors and conduit, or cable

□ Markings affixed to equipment
□ Specify customer service panel; calculate the maximum permissible
ampacity of photovoltaic system breakers (from 120% rule): _____ .
□ Is there room in the panel board to accommodate the back-fed
breakers from the PV system? _____ ? If not, come up with a solution.
Solutions may include one use of “twin” or “quad” breakers or may
require the use of a sub-panel or even a new main service panel.
12.8 Modifying the Mechanical Subsystem

As mentioned before, we will use the same physical layout as in Chapter 11.
We will need to remove the microinverters from the system and, in their
place, we will wire the modules together into series strings.
The RNG-240D PV module comes with two cables approximately 36 in.
long with MC-4 connectors, the PV positive and negative connections. Each
string of PV modules will need a pair of “home runs” fabricated out of USE-2
or PV wire to bring the PV input circuit to a junction or combiner box.
In the case of a single string, we will use a junction box (Figure 12.2) to
make a transition from USE-2 or PV wire to 90°C rated wire such as THHN
or THWN-2 using a simple splice. Figure 12.3 shows the splices used to con-
nect the two wire types.
FIGURE 12.2
Waterproof junction box (Courtesy of Hubbel, Inc.).
FIGURE 12.3
Splice for two wires (Courtesy of Bundy, LLC.).
In the case of two strings, two source circuits will need to be wired together
with the THHN/THWN-2 wire in a junction box. In this case, we simply use
a splice that can accommodate three wires. See Figure 12.4.
In the case of three or more source circuits, we will need to use a combiner
box and protect the positive lead of each source circuit with overcurrent pro-
tection, usually a DC-rated circuit breaker. Figure 12.5 shows a combiner box
with six circuit breakers, a negative buss (left), and a ground buss (right).
The breaker current rating is specified by the PV module manufacturer
and is usually listed on the back of the module as the “maximum series fuse
rating.”
In our case, however, we have only a single string or at most two strings
and will not need the combiner box, just a junction box. Assuming that we
are starting with a PV system using microinverters, the following tasks need
to be accomplished:
FIGURE 12.4
Splice for three wires (Courtesy of Bundy, LLC.).
FIGURE 12.5
Combiner box showing circuit breakers for six PV source circuits, negative and ground busses
(Courtesy of Midnite Solar, Inc.).
□ Remove all modules, WEEB clips, and module clamps.

□ Remove Enphase microinverters and Engage cable.
□ Replace the modules, WEEB clips, and module clamps, following the
instructions in Chapter 11.
□ Wire the PV modules together as you go, using the MC-4 locking
connectors. Use wire management clips to take up any slack in the
PV cable so that the cable does not touch the roof.
□ Sketch the location of the junction box on the roof. A good location
for the junction box is under a PV module and at a point convenient
for penetration of the attic space.
□ Measure the distance from the first and last PV modules in the string
to this junction box.
□ Make up two home runs—one for the negative lead of the last PV
module and one for the positive of the first PV module, using these
distance measurements. Only one end of this cable needs a connec-
tor, as the other end will enter the junction box and be terminated
with a splice.
12.9 Attic Penetration

We need to carry the PV output circuit to the DC disconnect and inverter.
As mentioned before, most of this run may be made in the attic space of the
house. In this case, a penetration of the attic may have already been made in
the last laboratory.
Again, we will use a waterproof junction box and 1 in. rigid conduit,
and we will flash this penetration with the same technique as we did for
flashing the footings in Chapter 11. Once inside the attic, we can make a
transition to EMT (electrical metallic tubing), flexible metal conduit (FMC),
or MC cable.
At the end of the attic run, the exterior wall of the building will be pen-
etrated and a vertical run can be made down to the DC disconnect and
inverter. This final external vertical run is usually made in EMT.
Starting with the j-box in the attic, make the DC run to the DC disconnect.
Document the wire, cable, and conduit used:
□ From the attic j-box to the point of penetration of the exterior wall:
_____ 
□ From the exterior wall to the DC disconnect of the inverter: _____ 
12.10 Installing Balance of System

□ Starting with the output of the inverter, install conduit from the
inverter to the production meter enclosure.
□ Install conduit from the production meter enclosure to the AC
disconnect.
□ Install conduit from the AC disconnect to the breakers back-feeding
the main service panel.
Using the FLD as a guide, use wire of appropriate ampacity and type rating
for the environmental conditions:
□ Wire from the attic junction box to the DC disconnect.

□ Wire from the inverter to the production meter to the AC disconnect.
□ Wire from the AC disconnect to the dedicated back-feeding breakers
in the service panel.
□ Install production meter and lock ring.
NOTE: In areas that are chronically damp (e.g., within 3 miles of a large body
of water), the authorities having jurisdiction (AHJs) may require the use
of PVC schedule 80 conduit on outdoor (but not attic) and wet-rated wire
(e.g., THWN-2) for the outdoor runs.
12.11 Lightning and Surge Protection

At this point in time, lightning and surge protection devices may be deployed
at the DC disconnect and AC disconnects.
See the manufacturers’ instructions for installation instructions.
12.12 Installing the TED Monitoring System

All of the work in this section must be carried out using the following per-
sonal protective equipment:
• Electrical gloves
• Face shield
12.12.1 Preparing the Main Service Panel

□ Switch off the main disconnect. This will de-energize the panel
board.
□ If possible, remove the security ring and unplug the utility meter.
This will de-energize the wiring from the output jaws of the meter
socket to the main disconnect. Doing so may require the permission
of the utility company.
□ Remove the cover to the panel board.

□ The instructor will create access to the L1 and L2 feeds from the util-
ity meter to the panel board. Caution: if it is not possible to remove
the utility meter, the utility wiring is not de-energized and extreme
care needs to be taken when working in the vicinity of this wiring.
In any event, only the instructor will work with this circuit.
12.12.2 Installing the MTU and Current Transformers

□ The instructor will measure and record the line voltage at the service
panel: _____ VAC. This voltage needs to be within 216 to 264 VAC (for
240/120 V split phase service).
□ Record the serial number of the MTU: _____ .
□ Connect the black and red wires to spare L1 and L2 circuit breakers.
It is a violation of the NEC to “double load” circuit breakers. You may
be lucky enough to be permitted to “piggyback” your wiring onto a
circuit breaker servicing an existing branch circuit by the AHJ.
Later, if deemed necessary due to low signal strength conditions, the red
wire may be removed and covered with electrical tape.
□ The current transformers are now installed on the L1 and L2 con-

ductors leading from the output jaws of the meter socket to the main
disconnect. Make sure the red dots on the CTs are pointing toward
the meter jaws.
□ Install current transformers on the L1 and L2 conductors from the
SB3000US inverter.
□ Connect the CTs to the MTUs using the cable provided. Note that
plugs on this cable are polarized.
□ Attach the MTU to the inside of the service panel using the double-
sided tape (provided) or sheet metal screws.
□ Plug the utility meter back in, install the security ring, and turn on
the main disconnect.
The MTU will blink approximately 10 times when power is first applied.
12.12.3 Installing the Gateway

□ Plug the gateway into a dedicated 120 V outlet. If there is other elec-
tric equipment on this branch circuit, it may be necessary to install a
filter, which comes with the TED system.
The gateway will blink approximately five times when power is first applied.
□ Plug an Ethernet cable into the gateway and plug the other end of the
cable into the Internet router
12.12.4 Remote Display

□ Plug the display power supply into a 120 V outlet, plug the power
supply cable into the back of the display charging stand, and insert
the display into the display charging stand.
□ After 15 seconds remove the display and reinsert it back into the
stand. The display will be fully charged in 24 hours.
□ Record the display ID code: ___________ .
12.12.5 Footprints Software Setup

The TED system can be configured and monitored via a browser interface
(IE, Firefox, Chrome, or Safari).
□ Download the TED 5000 installation instructions and install the

software.
□ Open a browser window and type in the following URL: http://
TED5000.
This will open the Footprints software program and allow us to configure
the TED hardware. We will configure two MTUs:
□ Click on the Edit tab.

□ Choose “System Setting Software” at the top of the Footprints screen.
□ Click on the “System Layout” tab.
□ Enter two MTUs and one display.
□ Set display voltage as 240 V and MTU connection type as
“120/240V(BK, WH, RD)” for both MTU 1 and MTU 2.
□ Check that you would like to modify the MTU configuration: “Yes.”
□ Configure MTU 1 to be “Adjusted Load.”
□ Configure MTU 2 to be “Generation.”
□ Click on the “Product Identification” tab and enter the following IDs
and descriptions:
□ MTU 1 ID: ___________ ; description: Utility
□ MTU 2 ID: ___________ ; description: PV System
□ Display product: _____ .
□ Click “Next” and fill in “Operational Settings.”
□ Click “Next” and fill in “Display Settings.”
□ Click “Next” and fill in “Footprint Settings.”

□ Click “Next” and click “Update” under “Apply Setting to the Gateway.”
□ Click “Finish.”
The TED dashboard should now display the power in the two circuits—PV
and utility feed.
12.13 Certification Testing

Once the system is up and real-time data can be seen displayed on the dash-
board, it is time to fill out the certification sheet.
The following information needs to be recorded on the certification sheet
(Figure 12.6):
□ Customer name, address, system size

□ Date of certification, person performing certification, lead installer
□ Time, irradiance perpendicular to modules, ambient temperature
□ Model number of DC and AC disconnects; modules
□ Model number of PV breaker and ampacity
□ Inverter(s) model number
□ AC watts now for each inverter
□ Vac L1 neutral, Vac L2 neutral
□ Vac L1 ground (gnd), Vac L1 gnd
□ PV input circuit (string) details: Voc (±), V(+) to gnd, V(–) to gnd
12.14 Troubleshooting
The instructor may at this point introduce one or more system faults. These
faults may be indicated by the inverter LEDs and or error codes.
One commonly encountered system fault involves a blown GFCI 1 A fuse
at the input of the inverter. The instructor can replace a good fuse with a
blown fuse and create a ground fault on one of the PV input circuits.
□ Observe the middle (B) LED. If it is glowing red, there is a ground

fault. Perform appropriate troubleshooting procedures.
□ Observe the bottom (C) LED. If it glows yellow for 5 s, goes out for
SolarGnosis—PV System Certification Sheet
System Information
Customer Name: Date Confirmed:
Address: Certified: Lead Installer:
City/State/Zip: DC Disconnect(s) AC Disconnect
System Size kW-dc Size Size
Modules Total # Model: Make Make
Main Panel PV Breaker Size: Model # Model #
Time: Irradiance (weather): Temperature (est.) °F
Inverter #1 1 2 3
Inverter Make
Inverter Model
Inverter Ser #
A/C Watts (now)
A/C Test Data

Inverter # 1 2 3
Vac @ Inv (L1–L2)
Vac L1 - gnd
Vac L2 - gnd
D/C Test Data

String number
Source Ckt ID
Inverter #
Total # modules
Voc (+/–)
V (+) to gnd
V (–) to gnd
D/C Test Data (MegOhmMeter)

String number
Mohms (+) to gnd
Mohms (–) to gnd
Other Notes:
FIGURE 12.6
3 s, and then blinks twice, there is a grid failure. Check the grid volt-
age and frequency to see if it is within specification.
Other error codes are documented in the SB3000 US Installation Guide,

Chapter 10, “Troubleshooting.”
It will be up to individual instructors to fashion other troubleshooting
exercises.
Appendix I:
Small Mock Roofs
This appendix documents the design of three commonly encountered roof

types: composition shingle, flat concrete tile, and one-piece S-tile. The small
mock roof is based on two 4 ft. × 8 ft. × 3/4 in. sheets of CDX plywood and
2 × 4 studs on 16 in. centers.
This is a snapshot of the Google SketchUp model for the small mock roof.
This is a picture of a stack of framed small mock roofs. Each of the roofs
will be covered with 30# felt.
333
334 Appendix I: Small Mock Roofs
This is a finished composition shingle roof with a 20-year class composi-

tion shingle roofing.
This is a small mock roof with 30 lb. felt and furring strips (a/k/a battens),
finished with S-tile. The furring strip spacing is dictated by the length of the
tile and the required tile-to-tile overlap. Note the nail in the upper right-hand

corner of this image that shows how the tile is attached to furring strips.

Appendix I: Small Mock Roofs 335
Small mock roof with 30 lb. felt, furring strips, and flat concrete tile. These
tiles have been laid out without nailing. However, two holes at the tops of
each tile can be clearly seen, which can be used for nailing to the battens.
Appendix II:
Roll-Around Walls

This appendix documents the design of a roll-around wall, which can be

used to mount relatively small PV systems. Specifically, we will use this wall
to mount two off-grid systems that use top-of-pole mounts.
This is a snapshot of the Google SketchUp model of the roll-around
wall. The basic wall is identical to the small mock roof wall—two sheets of
4 ft. × 8ft. × 3/4 in. CDX plywood—but now we have added vertical support-
ing structures and a set of four casters.
8ft.
4ft.
6' 4 1/4''
This is an image of a finished roll-around wall. Note that the final version
of this wall includes a shelf that creates a space for batteries, supplies, or even
a fossil fuel electric generator.
337
Appendix III:
21 ft. by 18 ft. Roof
AIII.1 Introduction
This appendix covers the specification of a roof big enough to accommo-
date a 1.85 kW DC PV system (10 each Mitsubishi 185 W DC modules). Later,
the PC module was changed to a Renogy 240 W DC module, resulting in a
2.5 kW PV system.
The roof is outfitted with casters so that it can be brought through a high-
bay, roll-up door. The modules were oriented in portrait format and the array
was composed of two rows of five modules each. On the roof, there was
essentially no room to maneuver around this array, as we were not able to
provide a full 3 ft. access on both sides and at the top of the array. There is a
Google SketchUp model for this roof included on a CD.
AIII.2 Overall Description of Roof

The roof was constructed in most cases to standard building codes, with
some important exceptions. The roof design was approved by a California
licensed professional engineer (PE). This PE report is included as part of this
appendix. The overall roof dimensions were as follows:
339
340 Appendix III: 21 ft. by 18 ft. Roof
• Width: 18 ft., 2 1/2 in.

• Depth: 21 ft., 7 3/4 in.
• Height: 5 ft., 2 5/16 in. (including wheels but not counting safety railing)
• Pitch: 4:12 (18.4°)
• Weight: 2,655 lb. (not including PV system); 684 lb. for PV system
The height of this roof is less than 6 ft. and as such is not subject to OSHA
regulations, including fall protection. Nonetheless, we outfitted the roof
with a safety rail, although the rail did not conform to the full OSHA safety
specification (more on this later).
AIII.3 Sill Details

The three sills comprised a double course of 2 × 4, glued and nailed every 12
in., and with lap joints at each corner. “Cross sills” of double 2 × 4s spanned
the three sills as well.
AIII.4 Wheels
The entire roof was supported by 15 pneumatic swivel caster tires outfit-
ted with locks. There were five casters on each of the left-to-right sills. Tire
dimensions were 8 in. diameter by 3 in. width. Each wheel was rated at a
load of 300 lb., for a total capacity of 4500 lb.
Appendix III: 21 ft. by 18 ft. Roof 341
AIII.5 Roof Details

The roof itself was composed of 2 × 8 rafters on 16 in. centers, sheathed with
3/4 in. plywood and 30# felt. The roof material was 20-year asphalt composi-
tion shingles. So that the roof could handle removing the support brackets
and reinstalling them several times, 3/4 in. plywood was chosen over more
standard 5/8 in. OSB board.
Besides having load-bearing points at the sill and the ridge of the roof, we
chose to add a cripple wall midway between these two load-bearing walls.
This obviously made for a much stiffer roof able to sustain considerable live
and dead loads.
All four edges of the roof were trimmed with aluminum trim.
Both the back wall and the cripple wall were sheathed with 3/4 in. CDX
plywood, principally to hand equipment. They also strengthened the walls
considerably. It was not necessary to sheath these walls to meet the struc-
tural load requirements.
The safety rail was made up of 1 in. aluminum tubing and Hollendar fit-
tings. This rail system met all OSHA requirements except for the side load-
ing of 200 lb. at the two bottom edges of the roof. At that point the distance
from the roof deck to the ground was 1 ft., 3 in.
AIII.6 Semipermanent Installation

The wheels allowed for the indoor construction, weather sealing of the
exposed lumber, and subsequent moving of the roof to a semipermanent,
outdoor location. Once deployed outdoors, the roof was jacked up and pieces
of redwood 4 × 4 posts 11 in. long were placed adjacent to each wheel. This
takes the load off the wheels. The 4 × 4 posts were anchored to the sills using
Simpson ties (BC post caps, 6-SD #10x 1-1/2 screws).
AIII.7 Live and Dead Loads

As mentioned before, the PV system proper (modules, microinverters, rails,
brackets, AC cable, and other minor components) weighed a total of 684 lb.
This represents the dead load. The live load was estimated to be four install-
ers @ 170 lb. each and a total of 75 lb. of equipment and tools for a total live
load of 755 lb.
342 Appendix III: 21 ft. by 18 ft. Roof
AIII.8 Wind Load Calculations

The appropriate wind loading is performed in laboratory 10 as part of the
2.4 kW PV system design process.
Engineering – Electrical
“This book helps fill a shortage in modern support material for technical education
and training for the rapidly growing photovoltaics systems industry.”
—Richard Corkish, School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering,
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
“… a very well-written book that can be integrated into most solar photovoltaic
(PV) training applications. It covers concepts in a well-thought-out manner that
follows a logical progression that builds on basics and works upward from there.”
—Daniel M. Sherry, Alamo Colleges, St. Philip’s College, San Antonio, Texas, USA

Off-the-Shelf Equipment is the only textbook that offers students the
opportunity to design, build, test, and troubleshoot practical PV systems
based on commercially available equipment. Complete with electrical
schematics, layouts, and step-by-step installation instructions, this
hands-on laboratory manual:
• Promotes “safety first” by covering working in extreme weather

conditions, personal protective equipment, working at heights,
electrical safety, and power tool safety
• Includes chapters on trade math, DC/AC electrical circuits, and
assessing a property for a photovoltaic system (e.g., surveying the
available space, shading, and solar harvest)
• Discusses aspects of mechanical and electric integration specific to
different roof types, and characterizing a PV module under different
levels of irradiation and ambient temperature
• Addresses the design, installation, and testing of off-grid PV systems
with DC-only loads and with DC and AC loads, as well as 2.4 kw DC
grid-tied PV systems with microinverters and string inverters
• Trains students on exactly the sort of equipment that they will
encounter in the field, so they gain valuable experience and skills
that translate directly to real-world applications

Off-the-Shelf Equipment provides in-depth, project-driven instruction on
everything from attaching brackets and flashing to modeling PV cells,
modules, and arrays. This textbook is ideal preparation for those seeking a
career in the PV industry—from system installers and designers to quality
assurance and sales/marketing personnel.
K23486
ISBN: 978-1-4822-4443-4
90000
9 781482 244434

Photovoltaic Laboratory Peter T. Parrish

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Engineering – Electrical

Photovoltaic Laboratory: Safety, Code-Compliance, and Commercial

• Promotes “safety first” by covering working in extreme weather

Photovoltaic Laboratory: Safety, Code-Compliance, and Commercial

Peter T. Parrish, PhD

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

© 2016 by Peter T. Parrish

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4444-1 (eBook - PDF)

and the CRC Press Web site at

2 Trade Math for PV—Measurements, Units, and Calculations............. 33

3 Measurements of DC and AC Electrical Circuits................................... 53

3.3.2 Electrical Components........................................................... 55

4 The Site Survey.............................................................................................. 85

4.4.2 Sample Module Rows............................................................. 87

5 Racking Systems—General Considerations.......................................... 109

5.9 Wind Forces on Roofs........................................................................ 118

6 Characterization of a PV Module............................................................. 149

6.4.5 Digital Infrared Thermometer............................................ 155

7 Modeling the PV Cell, Module, and Array............................................ 173

7.13 The Spice Netlist................................................................................. 195

8 Lead-Acid Absorbent Glass Mat Batteries............................................. 219

9 Off-Grid PV System with DC-Only Loads............................................ 231

9.7.2 Charging/Discharging Efficiency of AGM Battery......... 236

10 Off-Grid PV System with DC and AC Loads........................................ 251

10.5.4 Sizing the Battery Subsystem.............................................. 256

11 2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with Microinverters....................... 263

11.8.2 The SolarMount Code-Compliant Installation

12 2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with String Inverter....................... 315

12.5 String Sizing....................................................................................... 317

I have been involved in teaching courses on energy since 2010, principally at

I would like to thank a number of individuals without whom the spring

If students and instructors have any comments or suggestions, they can

Peter T. Parrish, PhD

1. NSF Award Number: 1002653

This textbook comprises 12 chapters, each one representing a well-defined

• The laboratory skills would focus on design and installation of code-

Although our spring 2012 laboratory included only a grid-tied system

To cover all 12 of these chapters in two standard 18-week semesters is the

As mentioned in the preface, this laboratory textbook is designed to be used

Completed examples are frequently discussed prior to the section detail-

• Small_mock_roofs.skp. This CAD file describes the small roof sec-

Peter Parrish is an adjunct professor in the Earth Science Department at

1.2 Student Learning Objectives

• Appraise a job situation and take appropriate measures to mitigate

1.3 Working in Extreme Weather Conditions

1.3.1 The Hot, Dry Climate

1.3.2 The Cold Climate

1.4 Understanding Heat Stress

• High ambient temperatures

In the absence of illness causing fever, vomiting, or diarrhea the cause of

• The body is using up more water through breathing, sweating, and

• Cold ambient temperatures, especially accompanied by wind

1.4.1 Heat Exhaustion—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses

• Headache, nausea, dizziness, weakness (self-diagnosis)

If you develop one or more of these symptoms or recognize them in a co-

• If on a roof, remove worker immediately to ground level.

1.4.2 Heat Stroke—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses

If you recognize one or more of these symptoms in a co-worker, you should

1.4.3 Dehydration—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses

Severe symptoms of dehydration include:

If you recognize one or more of these symptoms in a co-worker, you should

• If on a roof, remove worker immediately to ground level.

So, instead of writing 1,930,000,000, we may write 1.93 × 109 and, rather

1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 × 60 seconds = 3,600 seconds

1 kWh = 103 × watts × 3.6 × 103 seconds = 3.6 × 106 Ws = 3.6 × 106 joules. The

2.6 Rational Fractions, Decimal Fractions,