WORK ENVIRONMENT DESIGN – VISUAL
SENSE
INTRODUCTION
Vision is the most valuable human sense.
Humans are visually directed and depend on their
eyesight every waking minute of the day. The way they
use their eyes can define how well they learn, work, and
perform throughout their lives. Eyes are dependent on
light and lighting, one of the most overlooked and
underemphasized components of workplaces.
Continuously increasing, tasks are done at close viewing
distance and employees work under a variety of
workplace conditions. Employees’ visual systems must
adjust to these changes to function optimally. Whether
the job is being done at a computer or in a warehouse,
the field of vision must be free of reflections and glare.
Lighting is effective in the workplace when it allows the
worker to see the details of a given task easily and
accurately. Lighting and vision are mutually dependent,
and both must be considered when designing a working
environment for maximum efficiency.
VISION AND THE EYE
THE HUMAN EYE
The human eye is the organ that gives us the
sense of sight and allows us to observe and learn more
about the surrounding
VISUAL DEFECTS
Many people have difficulties in focusing on
objects due to
 myopia (near-sightedness),
 hyperopia (far-sightedness),
 astigmatism (the vision along the vertical axis
is different from the horizontal axis),
 presbyopia (changes due to age).
 Refractive errors are caused by the shape of the
eye and by the changes in the lens of the eye.
ASTHENOPIA is diminished visual acuity
associated with eyestrain, pain in the eyes, and headache.
MYOPIA referred to as ‘nearsightedness’
because the near point is closer to the eye in myopic
people (for an equal amount of accommodation) than it
is to a healthy eye.
HYPERMETROPIA referred to as
‘farsightedness’ because the near point is farther away
from the eye (for an equal amount of accommodation)
than it is in a healthy eye.
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN LIGHTING
IMPROPER?
SYMPTOMS FROM TOO MUCH LIGHT INCLUDE:
irritation, burning, tearing, and redness of the eyelids.
reduced sharpness of vision and sensitivity to contrast.
SYMPTOMS FROM TOO LITTLE LIGHT
INCLUDE:
 Double vision and headaches.
 Reduced ability to quickly adjust focus between
near and far objects.
 Reduced sharpness of vision and sensitivity to
contrast.
 Musculoskeletal problems from adapting poor
postures to compensate for the inadequate light.
EFFECTS ON WORK INCLUDE:
decrease in productivity
decrease in accuracy
decrease in quality of work.
increase in accidents.
Poor lighting is also a workplace security
hazard, especially for shift workers who may not have
coworkers nearby or must walk to a bus or parking lot
after dark.
ELEMENTS OF LIGHT
QUANTITY OF LIGHT
ILLUMINANCE
The level of quantity of light falling on a surface
QUALITY OF LIGHT
There are several elements of light quality that
must also be accounted for when determining the proper
lighting for a workstation or work environment. These
include luminance, reflectance, contrast, glare, and color.
LUMINANCE
amount of light reflected or coming from a light
source or surface.
REFLECTANCE
The percentage of light falling on a surface that
is reflected.
CONTRAST
The relationship between the light coming from
an object and the immediate background, such as words
on paper.
GLARE
occurs when there is too much direct or reflected
light within the field of view.
ELEMENTS OF LIGHT
 Color can affect both the mood and the
perception of size in a workplace.
 Blues and greens are considered relaxing or
soothing.
 Orange, yellow, and brown colors are thought to
IS
be stimulating.
 Red and violet are considered alarming or
aggressive.
 Pastel colors reduce the impact of color.
 Cool colors such as blues and greens can make a
space seem larger.
 Reds and oranges can make a space seem
smaller.
 Different types of lights will influence how
colors are perceived. If the light source is not
coordinated with the color of a work area colors may be
perceived as off or strange. Visibility may be different.
VISUAL ACUITY
Visual acuity depends on the shape of the object
and on the wavelength, illumination, luminance,
contrast, and duration of the light stimulus.
VISIBILITY
is the clarity with which a human can see an
object.
Visual angle: the size of the target on the retina;
the angle the image takes up on the retina.
Contrast: relative difference in luminance (light
reflected) for two surfaces.
Lmax −Lmin
Contrast=
Lmax
Where L is the luminance of each surface.
MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT
The measurement of light is known as
photometry. The main photometric units are luminous
intensity, luminous flux, luminance, and illuminance.
ILLUMINANCE
Lighting intensity is measured in candalas (cd),
or lumens, where 1 cd = 12.57 lumens.
Illuminance is the amount of light shining on an
object, measured in foot candles (fc):
intensity
Illuminance= 2
d appropriate positioning of light sources.
where d is in feet.
Intensity is foot-candles (fc)
luminous intensity is candela, luminous flux is
lumens.
Illuminance can be measured also in lux =
cd/m2.
LUMINANCE
the amount of light reflected from an object,
It impacts our ability to see objects,
It is measured in foot-lamberts (fL):
Luminance can be measured by a photometer
(pointed at the surface).
Luminance=illuminance × reflectance
Illuminance (fc) = intensity/d2
1 meter = 3.281 ft
LIGHTING DESIGN
PRINCIPLE OF LIGHTING DESIGN
1) Provide enough lighting to ensure an adequate
level of visibility for the tasks that will be
performed.
2) Less illumination is needed when the visual
acuity needed to perform the task is low, or
when the contrast between a visual detail and the
background is high.
3) Provide general illumination over a room for the
most typical tasks and supplement with auxiliary
light sources for more exacting visual tasks.
4) More illumination and contrast are often helpful
to people who are older or visually impaired.
5) More illumination or contrast is needed when
viewing times are short. This is also true if the
critical visual details are on moving targets, or if
their location or presence is unpredictable.
6) Increasing either the contrast between an object
and its background or the size of critical details
can be a better strategy than increasing the
amount of illumination.
7) Ambient illumination of luminous displays such
as CRTs and LEDs should be minimized to
improve contrast. Light sources should be placed
so they do not directly illuminate the surface of
luminous displays.
8) Eliminate or try to minimize direct sources of
glare or shadows by using indirect lighting or by
9) Avoid or minimize extreme transitions in
illumination levels between adjoining areas of
the task or environment.
10) Match the color and color rendering properties
of light sources to the task-related needs of the
people using the environment.
STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY SAVINGS AND
EFFICIENCY
1) more efficient lamps, ballasts, and fixtures.
2) better placement and arrangement of light fixtures,
shields, and shades.
3) use of daylight.
4) timers and occupancy sensors that turn lights off
when they are not needed.
5) on-off and dimmer switches in convenient locations
so that people can turn off or reduce unneeded
lighting.
6) photoelectric sensors that sense the amount of
daylight in the room and either switch lamps on or
off or adjust the lamp brightness accordingly.
7) localized lighting in areas where more light is
needed.
8) reduced lighting levels in nonproduction
areas.
9) regular cleaning of lamps, fixtures, windows,
skylights, walls, and ceilings.
10) placing lights in better locations.
STRATEGIES FOR AMBIENT ILLUMINATION
1) Providing shades and window curtains to keep
direct sunlight off the surfaces of CRTs or other
displays.
2) Placing shades on lamps and light fixtures.
3) Locating light sources well above the work
surface so they are not directly casting their light
on the screen.
4) Providing dimmer switches so people can adjust
the light levels downwards.
5) Changing the orientation of workstations to
reduce reflections off of the display surface.
IMPROVING VISIBILITY
One can improve visibility in several ways:
 Increase source intensity (increase wattage,
change to more efficient type: florescent,
halogen)
 Bring the target closer to the viewer
 Bring the target closer to the light source
 Increase contrast
 Increase target size (big print books)
Solutions to Glare
 Change to indirect lighting,
 Change lighting angle, or work surface
angle,
 Use non-glare surfaces,
 Use polarizing filters on light sources or
eyewear
ISO FOR LIGHTING DESIGN AND
REQUIREMENTS
ISO 8995-1:2002 (en) Lighting of workplaces
— Part 1: Indoor. This International Standard was
prepared jointly by CIE-TC 3-21 and ISO/TC 159/SC 5.
It replaces publication CIE 29.2-1986 and deals with
Lighting Requirements for Indoor Workplaces. BSI
Standards Publication_ Light and Lighting of
Workplaces.pdf
WORK ENVIRONMENT DESIGN – AUDITORY
SENSE
OUR EARS
The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to
the pharynx (part of our breathing apparatus). When the
tube is open, it allows the air pressure in the middle ear
to remain equal to the external air pressure. But when
the tube is obstructed, such as in the case of a cold or an
ear infection, pressure equalization may not function,
and one feels pressure in the ear, even pain, and cannot
hear well.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE EAR
The ear converts sound waves in the air into
nerve impulses, which travel along the auditory nerve to
the brain.
Hearing requires three main steps. In each, energy is
converted from one form to another:
1) Pressure variations due to longitudinal waves in
the environment are guided into the external
auditory meatus where they cause a mechanical
vibration of the tympanic membrane (eardrum).
The tympanic membrane is connected to three
small bones (ossicles) in the middle ear which,
in turn, are caused to vibrate.
2) Mechanical vibration of the auditory ossicles is
converted to wave motion in the cochlear fluid at
the oval window.
3) Wave motion in the cochlear fluid is converted
to nerve impulses in the auditory nerve by hair
cells in the cochlea.
Hearing Sounds
 Sound is a vibration that stimulates an auditory
sensation.
 A sound contains a mixture of frequencies,
whereas a tone is a single-frequency oscillation.
 The measurement unit of frequencies is hertz
(Hz; oscillations per second).
 We often describe our personal perception of
tone frequencies as pitch.
Noise and its Health Effects
 Noise is any unwanted and objectionable sound,
loud or quiet: many aspects of noise are
psychological and subjective.
 Noise surrounds us, day and night: at home, at
work, anywhere.
 Any sound may be annoying and thus feel like
noise. The threshold for noise annoyance varies
depending on the conditions, including the
sensitivity and the mental state of the individual.
Noise can:
 Create negative emotions, feelings of surprise,
frustration, anger, and fear.
 Delay the onset of sleep, awaken a person from
sleep, or disturb someone’s rest.
 Make it difficult to hear desirable sounds.
 Produce temporary or permanent alterations in
body chemistry.
 Interfere with human sensory and perceptual
capabilities and thereby degrade the
performance of a task.
 Temporarily or permanently change one’s
hearing capability.
Noise Effect in Working Environment
There are four different aspects that can make
noise unacceptable in the working environment:
1. Noise can cause hearing loss.
 2. Noise can affect performance and
productivity.
3. Noise can be annoying.
4. Noise can interfere with spoken
communication.
Health Effects of Noise
 Short-term exposure can cause a temporary loss of
hearing, normally referred to as a temporary
threshold shift.
Prolonged exposure to noise over a period of years
generally causes permanent loss of hearing.
The noise-caused change in the hearing
capability of sound is physical, not merely
psychological.
Hearing Loss
High-intensity noise can cause damage in
hearing. In industrialized countries, noise-induced
hearing loss (NIHL) usually occurs around 4000 Hz.
Prolonged noise exposure can cause hearing
loss due to auditory nerve damage, also called neural
hearing loss.
Safe exposure levels
In the USA, OSHA has specified 90 dB(A) as
the maximum permissible exposure to continuous noise
for an 8-hour shift.
Many other countries, including those in the EU,
also regard 90 dB(A) as the maximum permissible level.
However, there is a modern trend worldwide to
reduce daily exposures to below 90 dB(A). An exposure
level of 85 dB(A) is regarded as the first action level at
which workers must be informed and offered ear
protection.
Measurement of Sound
A dosimeter - summarizes the noise exposure over one
working day, providing a measure for assessing whether
an individual, with his or her particular work habits, has
been overexposed to noise.
Sound level meter to analyze the working environment
and obtain readings of the noise produced by various
machines.
Noise Dose
Noise dose is total exposure to any sound above
80 dBA during an 8-hour day.
If exposure varies over the day, a noise dose (D)
is calculated as follows:
D = 100 x (C1/T1 + C2/T2 + ... Cn/Tn) ≤ 100 %
Where
D = noise dose during an 8 hr. day,
Ci = Hours spent at a given noise level,
Ti = Hours permitted at a noise level
D must be kept below 100 % of the permissible noise
dose.
Time Weight Noise Exposure Calculation
The TWA shows a worker's daily exposure to
occupational noise (normalized to an 8-hour day),
considering the average levels of noise and the time
spent in each area. This is the parameter that is used by
the OSHA Regulations and is essential in assessing a
worker's exposure and what action should be taken.
Before working out the worker's TWA, you
must measure the different high noise levels that the
worker is subjected to throughout a normal working day.
Once you have the Dose% figure, you can
calculate the TWA using the following equation:
TWA=16.61 log 10 ( 100D )+90
Where:
TWA is the 8-hour Time Weighted Average
Sound Level
D is the Dose % as calculated above (or
measured with a dosimeter)
Log10 is the Logarithm to base 10
Noise Control Strategies
Ergonomics designers can and should do a
number of things to reduce noise levels. Noise control
strategies are given in the order of their probable
effectiveness. Some suggested design principles are as
follows:
1. Reduce the noise level of the source itself.
This solution is without doubt the best choice to start
with, and it is likely to be the most cost-effective.
Identify why the machine makes noise and then examine
the possibility of making design changes to achieve
those objectives. At times the effectiveness of the
machine is tied to the noise it makes and so little can be
done on this strategy.
2. Enclose the source. This potential solution
stops the sound emission at the source, but enclosures
can make machine tending or maintenance operations far
more difficult. Also, machine enclosures can cause the
machines to overheat unless additional cooling is
developed. Before enclosing machines, check with the
manufacturers of the machines to see if there is any
downside to enclosing. Consider going to a heavier wall
construction or a double wall construction so that
structural members on the inside of the wall near the
machines are separated from those in the wall away from
the machines.
3. Increase the distance between the source and
nearby people. Moving the machine operation away
from nearby personnel or moving the personnel away
from the operation will help attenuate the sound before it
reaches the people around it. Remember, noise levels
decrease approximately with the square of the distance
between the source and the receiver.
4. Place sound-absorbing and reflecting barriers
in the noise path. Absorbing materials will help reduce
the sound level energy and reflecting barriers will direct
some of that energy away from surrounding personnel so
that the sound wave will need to go a large distance
before encountering people and, hence, attenuate.
Noise Control Measures
Industrial Noise Control
Several approaches to noise control can be
identified:
1. Eliminate the threat to hearing by redesigning the
machine or using a less noisy machine.
2. Remove personnel from the noisy environment.
3. Protect personnel by issuing earplugs or muffs or
building an acoustic refuge.
Noise Impact Assessment
A noise impact assessment is a detailed noise
survey that is often required for planning applications.
These are requested by local authorities in order to
establish the environmental noise impacts of a
development.
A noise impact assessment will typically involve
an assessment of the existing noise environment and a
comparison of the predicted noise level generated by the
proposed development.
ISO 1996-1:2016
ISO 1996-1:2016
-defines the basic quantities to be used for the
description of noise in community environments and
describes basic assessment procedures. It also specifies
methods to assess environmental noise and gives
guidance on predicting the potential annoyance response
of a community to long-term exposure to various types
of environmental noises.
WORK ENVIRONMENT DESIGN – VESTIBULAR
SENSES
The Vestibular Sense
The vestibular sense contributes to our ability to
maintain balance and body posture and also the position
of the eyes when head movements occur. The major
sensory organs of the vestibular system are located next
to the cochlea in the inner ear.
Human Response to Vibration
The human response to vibration can be
classified using a range of descriptors, generally humans
are exposed to localized vibration (hand-arm) or whole-
body vibration.
If hand-arm vibration is experienced for long
enough and over time then Hand-Arm Vibration
Syndromes (HAVS) can develop, with the most
commonly known syndrome being the vibration white
finger.
Motion sickness can occur when real or illusory
movements of the body or the environment lead to
ambiguous inferences as to the movement or orientation
of the human body.
Symptoms and effects of HAVS can be serious, and
disabling and can include:
 Tingling, and numbness in fingers, resulting in an
inability to do fine work or everyday tasks.
 The fingers go white (blanching) and become red
and painful on recovery.
Loss of strength (grip strength) in the hands
 Loss of light touch
 Pain and cold sensations between periodic white
finger attacks
 Bone cysts in fingers and wrists
Raynaud’s Disease
Raynaud's disease is a rare disorder of the blood
vessels, usually in the fingers and toes. It causes the
blood vessels to narrow when you are cold or feeling
stressed.
Performance Effects of Vibration
 Vibration and motion can interfere with the
acquisition of information, the output of
information or the complex central processes
that relate input to output.
 Effects of oscillatory motion on human
performance may impair safety.
 NIOSH has estimated that as many as 1 million
workers may be at risk of developing symptoms.
The latency period from continuous exposure to
onset can be as little as two years or as long as
17 years, depending on the tools used and the
work performed.
Measuring Vibration Levels
Accelerometer an instrument to measure the
level of vibration.
Control Measure to Vibration
ISO Guidelines
ISO 20816-1:2016 establishes general
conditions and procedures for the measurement and
evaluation of vibration using measurements made on
rotating, non-rotating and non-reciprocating parts of
complete machines. ISO 20816-4:2018. Mechanical
vibration –Measurement and evaluation of machine
vibration.