TRANS UNIT 08: THE CELLS

OUTLINE
I Cell Structure
II Functions of the Cell
III Cell Membrane
A Phospholipids
IV Movement through the Cell Membrane
A Cell membrane
B Cell membrane
C Diffusion
D Osmosis
E Carrier-mediated Transport mechanism
F Endocytosis and Exocytosis
V Organelles
A Nucleus
B Ribosomes
C Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth & Rough)
D Golgi Apparatus/Golgi Complex
E Lysosomes
F Peroxisomes
G Mitochondria
H Cytoskeleton
I Microtubules Figure 1 Cell Structure
J Microfilaments
K Intermediate Filaments
L Centrioles FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
M Cilia
N Flagella
1. Smallest unit of life
O Microvilli 2. Cell metabolism and energy use
VI Gene Expression 3. Synthesis of molecules.
A Transcription
4. Communication.
B Translation
VII Whole Cell Activity 5. Reproduction and inheritance.
A Cell Cycle
B Mitosis CELL MEMBRANE
C Differentiation  Outermost component of a cell
D Apoptosis
VIII Cellular Aspect of Aging  Forms boundary between the inside and outside of
A Major Types of Aging cell (intracellular & extracellular)
 Acts as a selective barrier
CELL STRUCTURE  Contains of phospholipids, protein, cholesterol,
 Cell – basic unit of all organisms
carbohydrates
 Organelles – specialized structures in cells that
performs specific functions (e.g. nucleus,  Fluid-Mosaic Model – model used to describe cell
mitochondria, ribosomes) membrane structure
 Cytoplasm – jelly-like substance that holds organelles
 Cell/Plasma Membrane – encloses the cytoplasm PHOSPHOLIPIDS
 Forms a bilayer
 Polar head (hydrophilic) and Non-polar tail
(hydrophobic)

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

CELL MEMBRANE

 Selective permeable, they allow some substance to

pass into or out of the cells.
 Intracellular material has a different composition than
extracellular material, and the cell’s survival depends
on maintaining the difference.
 Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium ions (K+) are found at higher

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 TRANS UNIT 07: THE BLOOD

concentrations intracellular, whereas Na+, Ca2+, and tion amino

Cl− are found in greater concentrations extracellularly.
gradient* acids
 Nutrients must enter cells continually, and waste
products must exit. by carrier
 Movement through the cell membrane may be molecules
passive or active. iii. Secondary Against Yes Glucose,
 Passive membrane- transport does not require active the amino
the cell to expend energy. It also includes
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
transport concentra acids
 Active membrane- transport does require the tion
cell to expend energy, usually in the form of gradient
ATP. It also includes active transport, by carrier
secondary active transport, endocytosis, and molecules
exocytosis.
, the
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MOVEMENT energy for
ACROSS MEMBRANES secondar
Types Transpor Require Example y active
t s ATP s transport
Diffusion With the No O2, CO2, of one
concentra Cl-, urea substance
tion comes
gradient from the
through concentra
the lipid tion
portion of gradient
the cell of another
membran Endocytosis Movemen Yes Ingestion
e t into cells of
channels. by particles
Osmosis With the No Water vesicles by
concentra phagocyt
tion osis or
gradient receptor-
(for water) mediate
through endocyto
the lipid sis and
portion of liquids by
the cell pinocytos
membran is
e or Exocytosis Movemen Yes Secretion
through t out of of
membran cell by proteins
e vesicles
channels
Carrier-mediated transport mechanism
DIFFUSION
i. Facilitated With the No Glucose  Large organelle usually located near the center of the
diffusion concentra in most cell
tion cells  Tendency for solute molecules to move from an area
gradient of higher concentration to an area of lower
by carrier concentration in a solution, the product of the constant
random motion of all atoms, ions, or molecules in a
molecules solution.
ii. Active Against Yes Na+, K+,  Results from the natural, constant random motion of
Transport the Ca2+, H+, all solutes in a solution.
concentra and  Concentration gradient- the difference concentration
of a solute in a solvent between two points divided the

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 TRANS UNIT 07: THE BLOOD

distance between the two points. It also steeper when
the concentration difference is large and/or the
distance is smaller.
 In the body, diffusion is an important means of
transporting substances through the extracellular and
intracellular fluids.
Gated channels limit the movement of ions across the
membrane by opening and closing.
OSMOSIS
 Diffusion of solvent (water) through a selectively
permeable membrane from a region of higher water
concentration to one of lower water concentration.

Figure 1.1. Diffusion through the Cell Membrane

 In the figure above, the phospholipid bilayer acts as a

barrier to most water-soluble substances. However,
certain small, water-soluble substances can diffuse
between the phospholipid molecules of cell
membranes. Other water-soluble substances, such as
ions, can diffuse across the cell membrane only by
passing through cell membrane channels.
Figure 1.3 Osmosis

 In the figure above, the Osmosis Water moves from

the beaker across the selectively permeable
membrane into a tube containing a solution with a
higher salt concentration.
 Osmosis pressure is the force required to prevent
the movement of water across a selectively
permeable membrane. Thus, osmotic pressure is a
measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis
across a selectively permeable membrane.

Figure 1.2 Leak and Gated Membrane Channels


+
In the figure above, the K leak channel (purple) is
+
always open, allowing K to diffuse across the cell
+
membrane. The gated channel Na (pink) regulates
+
the movement of Na across the membrane by
opening and closing.
 Cell membrane channels vary in structure and
therefore also vary in the degree to which ions pass
through them. Two classes of cell membrane
channels include leak channels and gated channels.
Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass through.

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Figure 1.4 Effects of Hypotonic, Isotonic, and Hypertonic on

Red Blood Cells.

 Hypotonic- Solution that causes cells to swell.

 Isotonic- Solution that causes cells to neither shrink
nor swell.
 Hypertonic- Solution that causes cells to shrink or
crenation.

CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

 Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms exhibit
specificity; that is, only specific molecules are
transported by the carriers
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 A carrier-mediated transport process that moves
substances across the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
of that substance.

Figure 1.6. Active Transport: Sodium- Potassium Pump

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 This involves the active transport of one substance,
such as, across the cell membrane, establishing a
concentration gradient.
 The diffusion of that transported substance down its
concentration gradient provides the energy to
transport a second substance, such as glucose,
across the membrane.

Figure 1.5 Facilitated Diffusion

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 A carrier-mediated process that moves substances
across the cell membrane from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher concentration against
a concentration gradient.
 It accumulates substances on one side of the cell
membrane at concentrations many times greater than
those on the other side. Figure 1.7 Secondary Active Transport

ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS

ENDOCYTOSIS
 Bulk uptake of material through the cell membrane by
taking it into a vesicle.

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 TRANS UNIT 07: THE BLOOD
 Exhibits specificity.
 The process in endocytosis is called receptor-
mediated endocytosis.
 Phagocytosis- a term often used in endocytosis.
It is the Ingestion and digestion by cells of
substances, such as other cells, bacteria, cell
debris, and foreign particles.
 Pinocytosis- distinguished from phagocytosis in
that much smaller vesicles are formed, and they
contain liquid rather than solid particles.
Figure 1.8 Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
EXOCYTOSIS
 Elimination of material from a cell through the
formation of vesicles.
Figure 1.9 Exocytosis
 To sum up, endocytosis results in the uptake of
materials by cells, and exocytosis allows the release
of materials from cells.
Both endocytosis and exocytosis require energy in the form of
ATP for the formation and movement of vesicles.
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ORGANELLES
NUCLEUS
 Large organelle usually located near the center of the
cell
 Bounded by nuclear envelope (inner, space, outer
covering)
 Nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores which
materials can pass through in and out
 Nuclei contains 23 pairs of chromosomes consists of
DNA and proteins
 Chromatin – loosely coiled chromosomes
 Nucleoli – diffuse with no surrounding membrane
 Subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic
organelle are formed within nucleolus
 Ribosomal components exit through nuclear pores
Figure 2 Nucleus
RIBOSOMES
 Organelles where proteins are produced
 May be attached to endoplasmic reticulum
 Free Ribosomes – not attached to any organelle
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
(SMOOTH AND ROUGH)
 Series of membranes forming sacs and tubules,
extends from outer nuclear membrane to cytoplasm
 Rough ER – involved in protein synthesis; rough due
to attached ribosomes
 Smooth ER – no attached ribosomes; site for lipid
synthesis, cellular detoxification and storage of
calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells.
GOLGI APPARATUS/GOLGI COMPLEX
 Consists of closely packed stacks of curved,
membrane sacs
 Collects, modifies, packages and distributes proteins
and lipids by the ER
 Forms vesicles such as secretory vesicles,
lysosomes, and others
LYSOSOMES
 Membrane-bound vesicles formed from the GA
 Contains variety of enzymes that function as
intracellular digestive systems
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 Endocytosis vesicles may be fused with lysosomes to  Provides mechanical support to cell
breakdown materials in endocytotic vesicles.  Keratin – protein associated with skin cells

PEROXISOMES
 Enzymes that digest fatty acids and amino acids
 Enzymes responsible for the breakdown of hydrogen
peroxide, a by-product of fatty and amino acids
breakdown that is toxic to cells

MITOCHONDRIA
 Mitochondrion (single) responsible for ATP production
 Have inner (have numerous folds called cristae) and
outer (have smooth contour) membrane separated by
a space
 Mitochondrial Matrix – material within the inner
membrane, contains mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
 Cells with large mitochondria requirement have more
mitochondria

Figure 2.2 Microtubules, Microfilaments, and

Intermediate Filaments

CENTRIOLES
 Centrosome – area of cytoplasm near the nucleus
where microtubule formation occurs, Contains 2
centrioles oriented perpendicular to each other
 Centriole – small, cylindrical organelle composed of
microtubule formed into 9 triples, 3 microtubules each,
involved in the process of mitosis

Figure 2.1 Mitochondria

CYTOSKELETON
 Gives internal framework to cell
 Consist of protein structure that support the cell, holds
the organelles and enables the cell to change in
shape
 Protein structures are Microtubules, microfilaments
and intermediate filaments
Figure 2.3 Centrioles
MICROTUBULES
 Hollow structures formed from protein subunits CILIA
 Supports the cytoplasm, assists in cell division, and  Project from the surface of certain cells
forming of essential components of organelles  Movement of materials over the top cells such as
mucus
 Cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and
MICROFILAMENTS composed of microtubules
 Small fibrils formed from protein subunits that
structurally support cytoplasm, determining cell shape FLAGELLA
 Involved in cell movements (shorten/contract)  Like cilia but much longer and usually occur only 1 per
cell
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS  Sperm cell have 1 flagellum that propels it
 Fibrils formed from protein subunit

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MICROVILLI  Anticodon
 Specialized extension of the cell membrane supported - A three-nucleotide sequence in each tRNA
by microfilaments that pairs with the codon of the mRNA
 Does not move actively
 Increase surface area of cells
 Areas which requires absorption such as intestine
linings and kidneys

GENE EXPRESSION
 The process of DNA containing the information that
directs protein synthesis

 Gene
- a sequence of nucleotides that provides a
chemical set of instructions for making a
specific protein
 Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- the copy of the gene produced during
transcription
- travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm, where the information in the
copy is then used to construct a protein by
means of translation
TRANSCRIPTION
 The first step in gene expression and it takes place in
the nucleus of the cell

Figure 2.5 Translation of mRNA to Produce a Protein

WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY

CELL CYCLE
 Cell division occurs to increase the number of cells or
replace damaged or dying ones
 Includes two major phases: non dividing phase,
interphase and a cell dividing phase, mitosis

INTERPHASE

 A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase

 The DNA located in the chromosomes in the cell’s
nucleus is replicated
 The two strands of DNA separate from each other,
and each strand serves as a template to produce a
new strand of DNA
 Each human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes,
Figure 2.4 Formation of mRNA by Transcription of DNA a total of 46 (diploid)
 Two X chromosomes for female, X and Y
 Codon
chromosome for male
- Groups of three nucleotides where the
information in mRNA is carried.
TRANSLATION
 The synthesis of proteins based on the information in
mRNA
 Occurs at ribosomes
 Requires two other types of RNA; tRNA and
ribosomal RNA

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 TRANS UNIT 07: THE BLOOD

 At the end of this phase, each set of chromosomes

has reached an opposite pole of the cell, and the
cytoplasm begins to divide

TELOPHASE
 The chromosomes in each of the daughter cells
become organized to form two separate nuclei, one in
each newly, one in each newly formed daughter cell
 Chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the
genetic material during interphase
 Cytoplasm division is completed and now produced a
two separate daughter cells

NOTE:

 Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand

pair with new nucleotides that are subsequently
joined by enzymes to form a new strand of DNA.
 Replication of DNA gives two identical
chromatids joined at a centromere; both form
one chromosomes

Figure 2.6 DNA Replication

MITOSIS
 Formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell
 Divided into four phases: Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, and Telophase

PROPHASE
 Chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes
 Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to assist in
breaking the centromere between the chromatids and
move the chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell Figure 2.7 Cell Cycle
 Nuclear membrane dissolves
DIFFERENTIATION
METAPHASE  Process by which cells develop with specialized
 Chromosomes align near the center of the cell structures and functions
 Movement of chromosomes is regulated by the  Sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell,
attached spindle fibers then a great number of mitotic divisions occur to give
the trillions of cells of the body
ANAPHASE  During differentiation, some portions of DNA are
 At the beginning of this phase, chromatids separates active, but others are inactive
and each chromatid is called a chromosome
 Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by
the spindle fibers toward the centriole at one of the
poles of the cell

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 TRANS UNIT 07: THE BLOOD

Figure 2.8 Diversity of Cell Types

APOPTOSIS
 Programmed cell death
 Normal process by which cell numbers within various
tissues are adjusted and controlled
 In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra
tissue, such as cells between the developing fingers
and toes
 In some adults, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to
maintain a constant number of cells within the tissue

CELLULAR ASPECT OF AGING

 Existence of a cellular clock
 Presence of death genes
 DNA damage
 Formation of free radicals
 Mitochondrial damage

CELLULAR CLOCK
 Hypothesis of aging that suggests that the existence
of a cellular clock that, after a certain passage of time
or a certain number of cell divisions, results in the
death of a given cell line

DEATH GENES
 suggests that there are “death genes,” which turn on
late in life, or sometimes prematurely, causing cells to
deteriorate and die

DNA DAMAGE
 through time, DNA is damaged, resulting in cell
degeneration and death

FREE RADICALS
 DNA is also susceptible to direct damage, resulting in
mutations that may result in cellular dysfunction and,
ultimately, cell death. One of the major sources of
DNA damage is apparently free radicals, which are
atoms or molecules with an unpaired electron.

MITOCHONDRIAL DAMAGE
 Mitochondrial DNA damage may result in loss of
proteins critical to mitochondrial function. Because the
mitochondria are the primary source of ATP, loss of
mitochondrial function could lead to the loss of energy
critical to cell function and, ultimately, to cell death.

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