NATURE

OF
STATISTICS
 WHAT IS STATISTICS?

• Nowadays, people are curious about many things, chances are that you are
interested with the role of Statistics that made it useful by understanding
of structures in data. Information developed through the use of statistics
has improved our understanding of how life works, helped us learn each
other, allowed control over some societal issues, and helped individuals
make informed decisions. There is almost no area of knowledge that has
not been advanced by statistical studies.
• Statistics defined in its plural sense is a set of numerical data that
describe phenomena, while in its singular sense refers to the
scientific discipline consisting of theory and methods in processing
numerical information that one can use when making decisions in the
face of uncertainty.
• Statistics is a science which deals with methods of collecting,
organizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting of data; drawing
conclusion about what the data means.
SOME APPLICATIONS OF STATISTICS
• Determining the level of patient’s satisfaction on the nursing care
administered by student nurses at Common View University.
• Determining the distribution of the number of text messages sent per
day of Statistical Analysis students.
• Relationship of faculty status and work commitment.
• Prediction of the number of Statistics students for the next school year
2022-2023.
DIVISION OF STATISTICS
• Descriptive Statistics – comprises those methods concerned with
collecting and describing a set of data to yield meaningful
information.
• Inferential Statistics – concerns on generalizing from samples to
populations by performing hypothesis testing, determining
relationships between variables and making predictions.
EXAMPLES:
Descriptive Statistics
• Total number of Statistics students weighing at least 50 kilograms.
• The University registrar cited statistics showing an increase number of students
during the past five years.
Inferential Statistics
• A new teaching strategy was designed to improve the academic performance of
college students was tested on randomly selected college students. Based on the
results, it was concluded that the new teaching strategy is effective in improving
the academic performance of college students.
BASIC TERMS IN STATISTICS
•Population consists of the totality of the observations with which
we are concerned.
•Sample is a subset of the population that truly represents the
unique qualities or characteristics of the population
•Sampling is the technique of collecting information from a portion
of the population.
•Parameter is any numerical value describing a characteristic of a
population.
•Statistic is any numerical value describing a characteristic of a
sample .
•Variable is a characteristic of interest measurable on each and
every individual in a given sample or population.
Ex. Age, Sex, Year Level, Course
•Qualitative variables or categorical variables can be separated
into different categories that are distinguished by some
nonnumeric characteristics.
Ex. Name, Sex, Year Level, Course
•Quantitative variables consist of numbers representing counts or
measurements.
❖ Discrete data – data that can be counted, e.g., number of patients in a
hospital, number of students who obtained 1.0 grade in MMW. These
data assume only a countable number of values.
❖ Continuous data – data that can be measured, e.g., systolic blood
pressure, weight and height. These data result from infinitely many
possible values that can be associated with points on a continuous scale
in such a way that there are no gaps or interruptions.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
• Nominal referred to the used measure of identity, like religion and
gender.
• Ordinal pertains to ranking. Example: percentile rank of students in
NSAT and Top 10 students.
• Interval provides number that reflects differences among item without
absolute zero score like temperature.
• Ratio provides number that reflects absolute zero score like number of
students present and absent
EXAMPLE:
Identify the following as qualitative or quantitative variable. If quantitative,
classify whether it is discrete or continuous. Also, indicate the appropriate
level of measurement required in each.
1. Car ownership (answers the question: do you own a car?)
2. Citizenship
3. Tuition fees
4. Color of the skin
5. Air temperature of the peak of Mt. Kalayo measured in degree Celsius
 SAMPLING

•When you conduct quantitative research it is very important

that your sample is a representative of the population that you
are studying.
•There is no such thing as a completely representative sample
since this would be a population census and not a sample. Some
degree of error between the sample and population is expected
and statistics have been developed to account for this. The
solution is to use judgment (ideally based on academic or
practitioner based theory) and more rigorous sampling
techniques to minimize this error.
•Before we discuss the statistics of sampling, the two main
approaches to sampling, probability sampling and
non-probability sampling, and their associated methods.
Remember that those sampling techniques based on probability
sampling involve some form of random selection while
non-probability sampling methods do not.
 •While both types of sampling approach are commonly used in
research, probability sampling has two main advantages:
1) it helps to minimize (but not eradicate) sampling error; that is,
the extent to which our sample does not reflect the population;
and
2) it enables us to perform statistical analysis that, at specified
levels of statistical significance, allow us to make inferences
from our sample to the population.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING

•Sampling method where every element of the

population is given an equal chance of being selected
as part of the sample
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Simple Random Sampling
• Simplest
• Use lottery method, table of random number, or random numbers generated by calculators and
computers
Advantages. The theory involved is much easier to understand than the theory behind other
sampling designs
Disadvantages.
• The sample chosen may be widely spread, thus entailing high transportation costs
• A population list or frame is needed
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
2. Stratified Random Sampling
• The population is divided or stratified into non overlapping groups referred to as the strata. Select samples
using SRS from each of the strata into which the population has been divided.
Advantages
• May bring about a gain in precision of the estimates of characteristics of the population
• It allows a more comprehensive data analysis since information is provided for each stratum
• It is administratively convenient
Disadvantages
• A listing of the population for each stratum is needed.
• The stratification of the population may require additional prior information about the population and its
strata
EXAMPLE :
1. Use stratified sampling to take 600 samples from the following population:
400 freshmen, 300 sophomores, 250 juniors, and 100 seniors.
Solution:

STRATA N P=N/Population n= sample size *P

Freshmen 400 400/1050 = 0.38 600 * 0.38=228
Sophomores 300 0.29 174
Juniors 250 0.24 144
Seniors 100 0.10 60
Total 1050 1.01 606
EXAMPLE :
2. Use stratified sampling to take 60 samples from the following population:
50 Blk 1, 45 Blk 2, 48 Blk 3, and 49 Blk 4.
Solution:

STRATA N P=N/Population n= sample size *P

1 50 50/192 = 0.26 60*0.26 = 16
2 45 0.23 14
3 48 0.25 15
4 49 0.26 16
Total 192 1 61
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
3. Cluster Sampling
• A method of selecting a sample of distinct groups, or clusters of smaller units called elements. The sample
clusters may be chosen by SRS or by systematic sampling.
• Clusters are mutually exclusive subpopulations which together comprise the entire population. Unlike
strata, clusters are preferably formed with heterogeneous elements so that cluster will be typical of the
population.
• The number of clusters C in the population is called the size of the population clusters. Clusters may or
may not be of equal sizes.
Advantage. A population list of elements is not needed, listing cost is reduced.
Disadvantages
• The cost and problems of statistical analysis are greater.
• Estimation procedures are difficult
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
4. Multi Stage Sampling
• Selection of samples is accomplished in 2 or more steps. The population is divided into a number of first
stage or primary units from which a sample is drawn. Within the sampled first stage units, a sample of
second stage or secondary units is drawn. If desired, one might add further stages, dividing the population
into hierarchy of sampling units corresponding to the different sampling stages.
METHODS OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Purposive Sampling
• Sets out to make the sample agree with the population in regard to certain
characteristic.
2. Quota Sampling
• A specific number of particular types of elements are selected
3. Convenience Sampling
• Chooses units which come to hand or are convenient
Cases wherein non probability sampling is useful
•when only few respondents are willing to be interviewed
•when there is extreme difficulties in locating or identifying
respondents
•when probability sampling is more expensive to implement
SAMPLE SIZE
• It should be intuitively reasonable that the size of a sample should influence
how accurately the sample represents its population. Specifically, a large
sample should be more accurate than a small sample. In general, as the
sample size increases, the error between the sample mean and the
population mean should decrease. This rule is also known as the law of
large numbers.
DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
Determination of sample size involves answering a series of question.
1. What is the priority? Precision or budget?
2. What is the margin of error that the researcher is willing to accept?
3. Probability that the desired margin of error is achieved
Note:
Margin of error- summary of sampling error that quantifies uncertainty about
a survey result.
WAYS ON DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
• sample size determination using quota (not advisable)

• Sample size determination using free software available in the internet

e.g. Raosoft
WAYS ON DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
•
EXAMPLE :
•