Perspective
Volume 12:8, 2021
ISSN: 2150-3494
Elements of Chemical Reactions
Natarajan K
Department of Chemistry, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Perspective
Chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances, the
reactants, are converted to one or more different substances, the products.
Substances are either chemical elements or compounds. A chemical reaction
rearranges the constituent atoms of the reactants to create different substances
as products.
Chemical reactions are an integral part of technology, of culture, and
indeed of life itself. Burning fuels, smelting iron, making glass and pottery,
brewing beer, and making wine and cheese are among many examples of
activities incorporating chemical reactions that have been known and used for
thousands of years. Chemical reactions abound in the geology of Earth, in the
atmosphere and oceans, and in a vast array of complicated processes that
occur in all living systems.
Chemical reactions must be distinguished from physical changes. Physical
changes include changes of state, such as ice melting to water and water
evaporating to vapour. If a physical change occurs, the physical properties
of a substance will change, but its chemical identity will remain the same.
No matter what its physical state, water (H2O) is the same compound, with
each molecule composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
However, if water, as ice, liquid, or vapour, encounters sodium metal (Na), the
atoms will be redistributed to give the new substances molecular hydrogen
(H2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). By this, we know that a chemical change
or reaction has occurred.
The concept of a chemical reaction dates back about 250 years. It had
its origins in early experiments that classified substances as elements and
compounds and in theories that explained these processes. Development of
the concept of a chemical reaction had a primary role in defining the science of
chemistry as it is known today. Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire,
fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity.
Regarding the organic chemistry, it was long believed that compounds obtained
from living organisms were too complex to be obtained synthetically. According
to the concept of vitalism, organic matter was endowed with a "vital force" and
distinguished from inorganic materials. This separation was ended however by
the synthesis of urea from inorganic precursors by Friedrich Wohler in 1828.
The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are
called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by
*Address for Correspondence: Dr. Natarajan K, Department of
Chemistry, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail:
natarajank267@gmail.com
Copyright: © 2021 Natarajan K. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original author and source are credited.
Received 08 August 2021; Accepted 22 August 2021; Published 29 August 2021
Chemical Sciences Journal
Open Access
a chemical change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have
properties different from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a sequence
of individual sub-steps, the so-called elementary reactions, and the information
on the precise course of action is part of the reaction mechanism. Chemical
reactions are described with chemical equations, which symbolically present
the starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and
reaction conditions.
Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given
temperature and chemical concentration. Typically, reaction rates increase
with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available
to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms.
Reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction until they go to
completion or reach equilibrium. Reactions that proceed in the forward direction
to approach equilibrium are often described as spontaneous, requiring no input
of free energy to go forward. Non-spontaneous reactions require input of free
energy to go forward (examples include charging a battery by applying an
external electrical power source, or photosynthesis driven by absorption of
electromagnetic radiation in the form of sunlight). A reaction may be classified
as redox in which oxidation and reduction occur or no redox in which there
is no oxidation and reduction occurring. Most simple redox reactions may be
classified as combination, decomposition, or single displacement reactions.
Different chemical reactions are used during chemical synthesis in order
to obtain a desired product. In biochemistry, a consecutive series of chemical
reactions (where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next
reaction) form metabolic pathways. These reactions are often catalyzed by
protein enzymes. Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that
metabolic syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions
can occur at the temperatures and concentrations present within a cell.
Chemical reactions are central to chemical engineering where they are
used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as
petroleum and mineral ores. It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as
possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the amount of reagents, energy
inputs and waste. Catalysts are especially helpful for reducing the energy
required for the reaction and increasing its reaction rate.
Some specific reactions have their niche applications. For example,
the thermite reaction is used to generate light and heat in pyrotechnics and
welding. Although it is less controllable than the more conventional oxy-fuel
welding, arc welding and flash welding, it requires much less equipment and is
still used to mend rails, especially in remote areas.
How to cite this article: Natarajan K. “Elements of Chemical Reactions”. Chem
Sci J 12 (2021): 247.
 SJIF Impact Factor: 7.001| ISI I.F.Value:1.241| Journal DOI: 10.36713/epra2016 ISSN: 2455-7838(Online)
EPRA International Journal of Research and Development (IJRD)
Volume: 5 | Issue: 8 | August 2020 - Peer Reviewed Journal

THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION AND

FACTORS AFFECTING IT

Omonova Maxfuza Sodiqovna

Assistant, Fergana Polytechnic University, Uzbekistan

Ibragimova Gavxarxon Orifjon qizi

Assistant, Fergana Polytechnic University, Uzbekistan

ABSTRACT
The following article gives intro to the rate of a chemical reaction as well as states several factors which include the
speed of reactions. The movement of electrons plays a key role in chemical reactions. Substances that react
chemically are called reagents. The substances formed as a result of a reaction are the products of a chemical
reaction. Chemical reactions are expressed by chemical formulas. Several sequences of reactions may be required to
obtain the desired product, a process called chemical synthesis.
KEYWORDS: reaction, reaction rate, concentration, collapse theory, temperature, catalyst effect, phase and
surface, collision, reagents, reactants.

INTRODUCTION The rate of a reaction is the speed at which a

Although a balanced chemical equation for a
reaction describes the quantitative relationships
between the amounts of reactants present and the
amounts of products that can be formed, it gives us
no information about whether or how fast a given
reaction will occur. This information is obtained by
studying the chemical kinetics of a reaction, which
depend on various factors: reactant concentrations,
temperature, physical states and surface areas of
reactants, and solvent and catalyst properties if either
are present. By studying the kinetics of a reaction,
chemists gain insights into how to control reaction
conditions to achieve a desired outcome.
A chemical reaction is the process of
converting one set of chemicals into another.
Chemical reactions can be spontaneous or
spontaneous. In the second case, some external
energy (heat, light, electricity) is required to carry out
the chemical reaction. The movement of electrons
plays a key role in chemical reactions. Substances
that react chemically are called reagents. The
substances formed as a result of a reaction are the
products of a chemical reaction. Chemical reactions
are expressed by chemical formulas. Several
sequences of reactions may be required to obtain the
desired product, a process called chemical synthesis.
2020 EPRA IJRD | Journal DOI: https://doi.org/10.36713/epra2016
chemical reaction happens. If a reaction has a low
rate, that means the molecules combine at a slower
speed than a reaction with a high rate. Some reactions
take hundreds, maybe even thousands, of years while
others can happen in less than one second. If you
want to think of a very slow reaction, think about
how long it takes plants and ancient fish to become
fossils (carbonization). The rate of reaction also
depends on the type of molecules that are combining.
If there are low concentrations of an essential
element or compound, the reaction will be slower.
There is another big idea for rates of
reaction called collision theory. Collision theory,
theory used to predict the rates of chemical reactions,
particularly for gases. The collision theory is based
on the assumption that for a reaction to occur it is
necessary for the reacting species (atoms or
molecules) to come together or collide with one
another. Not all collisions, however, bring about
chemical change. A collision will be effective in
producing chemical change only if the species
brought together possess a certain minimum value of
internal energy, equal to the activation energy of the
reaction. Furthermore, the colliding species must be
oriented in a manner favourable to the necessary
rearrangement of atoms and electrons. Thus,
| www.eprajournals.com |261 |
AJCE, 2011, 1(1)                                                                                                                                                       

CHEMICAL REACTION:
DIAGNOSIS AND TOWARDS REMEDY OF MISCONCEPTIONS

Sileshi Yitbarek
Kotebe College of Teacher Education, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Email: sile_y@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Experience and literature show that most high school students do not have the
correct mental models of coefficients and subscripts in chemical reactions. To contribute
towards the conceptual reconstruction of scientific mental models of coefficients and
subscripts in a chemical reaction a new teaching-learning strategy is suggested: Tetrahedral
- in - Zone of Proximal Development (T-ZPD). This T-ZPD instructional strategy was
introduced in an experimental group and compared with the traditional (conventional)
approach as a control group on the effects of students’ misconceptions and conceptual
reconstruction of chemical reactions. The study has been conducted in high school
chemistry classes in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; the participants of the main study included a
total of 160 students. The Chemical Reaction - Concept Inventory was administered to both
groups as pre and post tests followed by interviews with selected students. The results of
the independent t-test on students’ post test scores on the concept inventory of chemical
reaction show that the T-ZPD group students’ conceptual reconstruction towards the
scientific concept is statistically significantly better compared to the Traditional group
students. [AJCE, 1(1), January 2011]

10
AJCE, 2011, 1(1)                                                                                                                                                       

BACKGROUND

A. Misconceptions (Alternative Conceptions):

The chemical equation is a language of chemistry, one that chemists and chemical

educators use constantly. Once chemical equations have been introduced in a course of

study, it is often assumed that students understand this representational system. But many

of the difficulties in learning chemistry are related to chemical equations (1). If students do

not understand the language used by the instructor, how can they be expected to understand

what is said?

In balancing equations, it is important to understand the difference between a

coefficient of a formula and a subscript in a formula. The coefficients in a balanced

chemical equation can be interpreted both as the relative number of molecules, moles or

formula units involved in the reaction. And subscripts on the other hand indicate the

relative number of atoms in a chemical formula. Subscripts should never be changed in

balancing an equation, because changing subscript changes the identity of the substance. In

contrast, changing a coefficient in a formula changes only the amount and not the identity

of the substance and hence can be manipulated in balancing chemical equations. Balancing

equation go further than word equation. It gives the formula of the reactants and products

and shows the relative number of particles of each of the reactant and the products. Notice

that the atoms have been reorganized. It is also important to recognize that in a chemical

reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed. In other words, there must be the same

number of each type of atom on the product side and on the reactant side of the arrow.

Thus, a chemical equation should obey the law of conservation of mass.

Previous studies (2; 3) have shown that students can produce correct answers to

various kinds of problems, including those involving chemical reactions, but their

understanding of the underlying chemical concepts was lacking. It appears that often

11
 IDENTIFIKASI TINGKAT PEMAHAMAN KONSEP
STOIKIOMETRI PADA PEREAKSI PEMBATAS DALAM
JENIS-JENIS REAKSI KIMIA SISWA KELAS X MIA SMA
NEGERI 4 MALANG

Lailatul Maghfiroh, Santosa, Ida Bagus Suryadharma

Jurusan Kimia, FMIPA
Universitas Negeri Malang
lailatul_19@yahoo.com

Abstrak

Tujuan penelitian ini untuk mengetahui tingkat pemahaman siswa SMA kelas X-MIA
SMAN 4 Malang dalam memahami konsep persamaan reaksi, jenis-jenis reaksi, dan
stoikiometri pereaksi pembatas. Rancangan penelitian yang digunakan adalah deskriptif.
Sampel penelitian sebanyak 2 kelas yaitu kelas X-MIA 1 dan X-MIA 2 yang berjumlah 66
siswa yang diambil secara cluster random sampling. Instrumen penelitian berupa 27 soal
pilihan ganda dengan 5 pilihan jawaban yang memiliki validitas isi sebesar 83,34% dan
reliabilitas dengan r = 0,833. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan: (1) pemahaman siswa terhadap
konsep persamaan reaksi kimia tergolong cukup (46,2%), (2) jenis-jenis reaksi kimia
tergolong sangat tinggi (81,8%), dan (3) pereaksi pembatas tergolong tinggi (70,7%).

Kata kunci: tingkat pemahaman konsep, stoikiometri, pereaksi pembatas

Abstract

This research aims determine the understanding level on Tenth Grade MIA SMAN 4
Malang in understanding the concept of chemical equations, type of chemical reactions,
stoichiometry limiting reactant. The research was descriptive design. The sample of research
is 2 classes, there are X- MIA 1 and X- MIA 2 that consist of 66 students with cluster
random sampling technique. The research instrument is 27 multiple choice questions with 5
alternative answer with 83,34% of content validity and reliability with r = 0,833. The results
showed that: (1) students who understand the chemical reaction equations is enough
(46,2%), (2) type of chemical reactions is very high (81,8%), and (3) limiting reactant is high
(70,7%).

Keywords: concept understanding level, stoichiometry, limiting reactant

PENDAHULUAN terhadap konsep-konsep dasar harus benar

Menurut Timberlake (2014: 3) kimia
merupakan ilmu yang mempelajari tentang
komposisi, struktur, sifat, dan reaksi suatu
materi. Oleh karena itu, konsep merupakan
bagian penting dalam mempelajari ilmu
kimia. Ciri-ciri ilmu kimia menurut Kean
dan Middlecamp (1985: 5–8) diantaranya
adalah sebagian besar konsep-konsep dalam
ilmu kimia bersifat abstrak, berurutan, dan
berkembang dengan cepat, sehingga
diperlukan pemahaman yang benar terhadap
konsep-konsep kimia. Pemahaman siswa
sebelum memahami konsep-konsep kimia
yang lebih kompleks. Konsep yang lebih
mendasar merupakan batu-batu pembangun
berfikir bagi terciptanya gagasan yang lebih
tinggi untuk merumuskan prinsip-prinsip
dan generalisasi-generalisasi (Dahar, 1988:
95). Siswa harus mampu mengaitkan konsep
yang sebelumnya dengan konsep yang baru.
Ilmu kimia selalu berhubungan dengan
reaksi-reaksi kimia. Pada dasarnya reaksi
kimia yang terjadi bermacam-macam
jenisnya, diantaranya reaksi penggabungan

32 JURNAL PEMBELAJARAN KIMIA (J-PEK) ISSN: 2528-6536

Vol. 01, No. 2, Desember 2016
Lailatul Maghfiroh dkk, Identifikasi Tingkat Pemahaman Konsep Stoikiometri Pada
Pereaksi Pembatas dalam Jenis-jenis Reaksi Kimia

(kombinasi), penguraian, pembakaran, sampling. Instrumen yang digunakan berupa

pendesakan, dan metatesis. Persamaan 27 soal pilihan ganda dengan 5 alternatif
reaksi kimia dapat digunakan untuk jawaban. Perhitungan validitas isi dan
menggambarkan ciri-ciri jenis-jenis reaksi reliabilitas berturut-turut adalah 83,34% dan
kimia tersebut. Persamaan reaksi merupakan 0,833.
gambaran singkat yang digunakan untuk
Teknik analisis data menggunakan
menunjukkan proses terjadinya reaksi
statistika deskriptif dengan teknik
(Chang, 2005: 71). Stoikiometri merupakan
persentase. Perhitungan persentase
ilmu yang mempelajari kuantitas dari
pemahaman dilakukan dengan cara
reaktan dan produk dalam reaksi kimia
membandingkan antara jumlah siswa yang
(Chang, 2005: 74).
menjawab benar pada tiap butir soal dengan
Persamaan reaksi dan stoikiometri reaksi
jumlah keseluruhan siswa. Rumus yang
kimia merupakan konsep yang harus
digunakan adalah sebagai berikut.
dipahami siswa, karena keduanya
merupakan konsep dasar yang digunakan
untuk mempelajari materi kimia yang lain.
Konsep pereaksi pembatas merupakan
bagian dari materi stoikiometri. Keterangan:
Keberhasilan siswa dalam memahami P = persentase siswa yang menjawab benar
konsep pereaksi pembatas sangat B = jumlah siswa yang menjawab benar
dipengaruhi oleh konsep-konsep dasar yang N = jumlah keseluruhan siswa
menyertainya seperti rumus kimia zat,
persamaan reaksi, penyetaraan persamaan Kriteria yang digunakan untuk
reaksi, hukum-hukum dasar kimia, dan menentukan tingkat pemahaman siswa
konsep mol. Apabila konsep-konsep dasar terhadap konsep persamaan reaksi, jenis-
ini dikuasai dengan baik oleh siswa, maka jenis reaksi kimia, stoikiometri pada
dalam memahami pereaksi pembatas tidak pereaksi pembatas disajikan pada Tabel 1.
akan mengalami kesulitan. Tabel 1. Kriteria Persentase Pemahaman Siswa
Berdasarkan hasil wawancara dengan
beberapa siswa kelas X MIA SMA Negeri 4 Persentase Siswa
Kriteria
Menjawab Benar (%)
Malang, diperoleh informasi bahwa siswa
0-20 Sangat rendah
masih mengalami kesalahan dalam
21-40 Rendah
memahami konsep persamaan reaksi, jenis- 41-60 Cukup
jenis reaksi kimia, dan pereaksi pembatas. 61-80 Tinggi
Berdasarkan informasi dari guru, penelitian 81-100 Sangat tinggi
tentang konsep persamaan reaksi, jenis-jenis (Sumber: Berg (dalam Sihaloho, 2010: 61))
reaksi kimia, dan pereaksi pembatas belum
pernah dilakukan. Oleh karena itu, penelitian
dengan judul “Identifikasi Tingkat HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN
Pemahaman Konsep Stoikiometri pada Persentase Pemahaman Konsep Siswa
Pereaksi Pembatas dalam Jenis-jenis Reaksi terhadap Persamaan Reaksi Kimia
Kimia Siswa Kelas X MIA SMA Negeri 4
Malang” perlu dilakukan. Data distribusi jawaban siswa pada
konsep persamaan reaksi kimia disajikan
METODE pada Tabel 2. Berdasarkan data pada Tabel
Rancangan pada penelitian ini adalah 2, persentase rata-rata siswa yang menjawab
menggunakan rancangan penelitian benar pada konsep persamaan reaksi kimia
deskriptif. Populasi dalam penelitian ini sebesar 46,22% dari 66 siswa. Data tersebut
diambil dari siswa-siswi kelas X MIA SMA menunjukkan bahwa siswa yang memahami
Negeri 4 Malang sebanyak 7 kelas. Sampel konsep persamaan reaksi kimia tergolong
yang digunakan yaitu berasal dari kelas X- cukup.
MIA 1 dan X-MIA 2 yang berjumlah 66
siswa dengan teknik cluster random

33
 International Journal of Science Education, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2015.1121414

Students’ Ideas about How and Why

Chemical Reactions Happen: Mapping
the conceptual landscape
Fan Yan and Vicente Talanquer∗
Downloaded by [Universität Osnabrueck] at 11:55 18 January 2016

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

Research in science education has revealed that many students struggle to understand chemical
reactions. Improving teaching and learning about chemical processes demands that we develop a
clearer understanding of student reasoning in this area and of how this reasoning evolves with
training in the domain. Thus, we have carried out a qualitative study to explore students
reasoning about chemical causality and mechanism. Study participants included individuals at
different educational levels, from college to graduate school. We identified diverse conceptual
modes expressed by students when engaged in the analysis of different types of reactions. Main
findings indicate that student reasoning about chemical reactions is influenced by the nature of
the process. More advanced students tended to express conceptual modes that were more
normative and had more explanatory power, but major conceptual difficulties persisted in their
reasoning. The results of our study are relevant to educators interested in conceptual
development, learning progressions, and assessment.

Keywords: Chemistry education; Conceptual development; Qualitative research

Introduction
The description, explanation, and prediction of chemical reactions are fundamental
goals of the chemical sciences. The mastery of ideas about chemical processes
depends not only on students’ conceptual understanding of a wide range of concepts,
such as the particulate model of matter and chemical bonding, but also on students’
ability to integrate these ideas and properly apply them in diverse contexts. Conse-
quently, students often struggle to make sense of chemical phenomena (Barke,
Hazari, & Yitbarek, 2009; Kind, 2004; Taber, 2002) and tend to rely on simple

∗
Corresponding author. Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona,
Tucson, AZ 85721, USA. Email: vicente@u.arizona.edu

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

 Students’ Ideas about How and Why Chemical Reactions Happen 5

Data Collection
We used semi-structured interviews as the main data collection tool to probe students’
reasoning. The interview protocol included five common chemical reactions of various
types: two combination reactions, two decomposition reactions, and one double dis-
placement reaction (precipitation reaction). The selected reactions are listed in
Table 1. Each of these processes was purposely chosen to investigate the influence
of different explicit and implicit features of chemical representations on student
reasoning, such as different types of states of matter of reactants and products, types
of chemical substances, nature of chemical bonds, and types of reaction drivers (i.e.
energetic versus entropic factors).
All interviews were conducted by the first author of this paper. During the inter-
views, each of the five reactions was shown on a different slide that included symbolic
Downloaded by [Universität Osnabrueck] at 11:55 18 January 2016

and particulate representations of reactants and products. Upon presentation of a

slide, participants were instructed to think aloud as they answered questions about
why and how each particular reaction happened. Paper and pencil were available for
those who wanted to build personal representations of chemical structures or pro-
cesses. The individual interviews lasted between 30 and 45 min and were audio-
recorded and later transcribed. Participants’ drawings were collected, scanned, and
integrated with the corresponding transcriptions to better understand participants’
explanations.

Data Analysis
Individual interview transcripts were analyzed following an interactive, constant-com-
parison approach (Charmaz, 2006). The first author of this paper analyzed all tran-
scripts while the second author separately analyzed over 20% of them. The two
researchers met on a regular basis to compare and discuss their individual analyses.
During these meetings, the coding scheme was refined and all differences in code
assignments were resolved by mutual agreement. These differences were mostly
associated with initial divergences in how each researcher interpreted some codes
that were resolved through discussion. Differences also occurred when students’
expressed ideas that were difficult to understand. Consider, for example, the following
excerpt: ‘OK, so right here this double bond, neither one of those oxygens wants it. So
I think the atom would start to shift around and replacing itself, so that it can change.’

Table 1. Chemical reactions included in the interview protocol

Reaction type Chemical equation

Combination HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s)

2 Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2 CuO(s)
Decomposition CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
H2CO3(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Double displacement AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)