Unit 4 Analytic Functions

Analytic Functions 15
15.0 PRELIMINARIES
A complex number z is of the form x + iy, where x and y are real numbers and i = −1 is called the
imaginary unit.
x is called the real part of z and is denoted as Re z.
y is called the imaginary part of z and is denoted as Im z.
Thus, x = Re z, y = Im z.
1. Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal, written as z1 = z2, if and only if
x1 = x2 and y1 = y2.
Note Given two complex numbers z1 and z2, we can only say z1 = z2 or z1 ≠ z2. We cannot say z1 < z2
because there is no order relation in the field of complex numbers as in the field of real numbers.
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C.
2. Complex conjugate
If z = x + iy is any complex number, then its conjugate z = x − iy
We can easily prove the following properties:
1. z = z if and only if z is real 2. z = z 3. z + z = 2 Re z
4. z − z = 2i Im z 5. z 1 + z 2 = z 1 + z 2 6. z 1 − z 2 = z 1 − z 2
⎛z ⎞ z
7. z 1z 2 = z 1 z 2 8. ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 1 if z 2 ≠ 0
⎝ z2⎠ z2
3. Modulus of a complex number
If z = x + iy is a complex number, then its modulus is z = x 2 + y 2 .
z is a non-negative real number.
z1 z
1. zz = z z = z 2. z 1z 2 = z 1 z 2 = 1 if z 2 ≠ 0
2
, 3.
z2 z2
4. z ≥ Re z ≥ Re z 5. z ≥ Im z ≥ Im z
6. z 1 + z 2 ≤ z 1 + z 2 . This is called triangle inequality.
4. Geometric representation of complex numbers

Any complex number a + ib can be represented by a point P (a, b) in the xy-plane w.r.to
rectangular coordinate axes.
Any number of the form a + i0 = a is a real number and it is represented by the point (a, 0)
which lies on the x-axis. So, the x-axis is called the real axis.
Any number of the form 0 + ib = ib is purely imaginary and it is represented by the point
(0, b) which lies on the y-axis. So, the y-axis is called the imaginary axis. Origin represents the
complex number 0 + i0 = 0.
M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 1 5/17/2016 8:59:30 PM

15.2 ■ Engineering Mathematics
The plane in which points represent complex numbers is called the complex plane or Argand
plane or Argand diagram.
5. Vector Form y
If P represents a complex number z in the Argand diagram P
then OP = z. We refer to z as the point z or vector z. If P and z = (a, b)
r
Q represent the complex numbers z1 and z2 in the Argand
diagram, then OP = z 1 and OQ = z 2.
∴ PQ = OQ − OP = z 2 − z 1 .
θ
∴ PQ = z 2 − z 1
O x
So, the distance between the points z1 and z2 is z 2 − z 1 .
6. Polar form of complex number
Let P represent the complex number z = a + ib in the Argand Fig. 15.1
diagram. Then P is (a, b)
If OP = r, X OP = u (as in Fig. 4.1) then (r, u) are the polar coordinates of P and a = rcosu, b =
rsinu.
∴ r = a2 + b2 = z
So, r is the modulus of the complex number z and u is called the argument or amplitude of z and
b
u is measured in radians. u is given by tan u = .
a
The principal value of argument of z is the value of u satisfying −p 0. That is, u is in the 1st or 4 th quadrant.
a
b
= tan −1 + p, if a < 0, b > 0. That is, u is in the 2 nd quadrant.
a
−1 b
= tan − p if a < 0, b < 0. That is, u is in the 3rd quadrant.
a
z = a + ib can be written in polar form as z = r (cos u + i sin u)
Euler’s formula: For any real u, e iu = cos u + i sin u
∴ any complex number z can be written as z = re iu and it is called the exponential form of z.
15.1 FUNCTION OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE

If x and y are real variables, then z = x + iy is called a complex variable.
Definition 15.1 Let S be a set of complex numbers. A function f from S to C is a rule that assigns to
each z in S a unique complex number w in C (as in Fig. 4.2)
The number w is called the value of f at z and is denoted by f(z).
Thus, w = f(z). S is called the domain of the function f and f is called a complex valued function of
a complex variable. Such a function is simply referred to as “function of a complex variable”.

Analytic Functions ■ 15.3
z w
S C
Fig. 15.2
The set of all values of f is called the range of f.
Note
1. If A is a set of real numbers, then a function f from A into C is called a complex valued function
of real variable.
2. We also have real-valued function of a complex variable.
(e.g.) If z = x + iy, x and y real variables, then
f ( z ) = z = x 2 + y 2 is a real valued function of a complex variable.
2
If w = u + iv is the value of f at z = x + iy, then u + iv = f(x + iy).

Each of the real numbers u and v depends on the real variables x and y and so f(z) can be expressed
in terms of a pair of real valued functions of the real variables x and y.
Thus, f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
For example if z = x + iy, and if f ( z ) = z 2 , then
f ( x + iy ) = ( x + iy ) 2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy = u ( x , y ) + iv ( x , y )
where u ( x , y ) = x 2 − y 2 and v = 2xy.

3. A generalisation of the concept of function is a rule that assigns more than one value to a
point z in the domain. Set theoretically, such associations are not functions. By abuse of
language these associations are known as multiple-valued functions in complex function theory.
When multiple-valued functions are studied, we take one of the possible values at each point of
domain, in a systematic way, and construct a single valued function from the multiple-valued function.
In contrast, a function is known as single valued function.
1
For example: f ( z ) = z 2 is multiple valued because
f ( z ) = ± re iu / 2 , − p 0,
−p < u ≤ p, then f(z) is single valued.
15.1.1 Geometrical Representation of Complex Function or Mapping

We know the graph of a real continuous function y = f(x) is a curve in the xy-plane.
The graph of the real continuous function z = f(x, y) is a surface in 3-dimensional space.
If w = f(z) is a function of a complex variable z, then u + iv = f(x + iy) where x, y, u, v are 4 real
variables. Hence, a four dimensional space is required to represent this function graphically. Since it is
not possible to exhibit a 4-dimensional space, we choose 2 two-dimensional spaces or planes for z and w
variables. The plane in which z = x + iy is plotted is called the z-plane or xy-plane and the plane in which

the corresponding w = u + iv is plotted is called the w-plane or uv plane. When a function f is exhibited
in this way, it is often referred to as a mapping or transformation and w is the image of z under f.
The terms translation, rotation and reflection are used to convey the dominant geometric
characteristics of certain mappings.
y v
z w
x
O O u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.3
15.1.2 Extended Complex Number System

The complex number system C is the set {x + iy /x , y ∈ R }. By extended complex number system, we
mean the set C of complex numbers together with a symbol ∞, which satisfies the following properties.
z
1. If z ∈C , then z + ∞ = ∞, z − ∞ = ∞ and = 0.
∞
z
2. If z is non-zero complex number, then z ⋅ ∞ = ∞, = ∞.
0
∞
3. ∞ + ∞ = ∞, ∞ ⋅ ∞ = ∞ 4. = ∞ if z ∈C .
z
The extended complex number system is C ∪{∞} and when represented in a plane geometrically it is
called the extended complex plane and ∞ is known as the point at infinity in this plane.
To visualise point at infinity, we consider the unit sphere with centre at z = 0 and the complex plane
p is a diametral plane.
Let P represent the complex number z in the complex plane p.
z
N(0, 0, 1) P′
O
P y
π z
S(0, 0, −1)
x
Fig. 15.4

Let the line joining P and north pole N of the sphere meet the surface of the sphere at P′. Thus, to each
complex number z, there corresponds only one point P′ on the sphere. Conversely for each point P′ on
the surface of the sphere, other than N, there corresponds only one point z in the plane p. But there is
no point in p which corresponds to N. By defining point at infinity ∞ corresponds to N, we obtain a
one to one correspondence between points of the sphere and the points of the extended complex plane.
This correspondence is a central projection with centre of projection N(0, 0, 1).
The sphere is known as Riemann sphere and the correspondence is called a Stereographic
projection.
Note The extended real number system contains two symbols ∞ and −∞ with R. But the extended
complex number system contains one symbol ∞ with C.
15.1.3 Neighbourhood of a Point and Region

1. By a neighbourhood of a point z0 in the complex plane
we mean the set of all points of the complex plane inside
the circle with centre z0. i.e., the interior of the circle
z − z 0 = r . The interior is an open circular disk.
A d-neighbourhood of z0 is the open circular disk
z − z 0 < d.
A deleted d-neighbourhood of z0 is 0 < z − z 0 < d ⏐z⏐<1
i.e., the open circular disk punctured at z0 is the deleted Fig. 15.5
neighbourhood
2. A set S is open, if it contains none of its boundary points.
e.g. z < 1.
3. An open set S is connected if every pair of points z1 and
z2 in it can be joined by a polygonal line consisting of
finite number of line segments joined end to end.
For example, the set z < 1 is connected
1< | z | < 2
and the set 1 < z < 2 is connected.
Fig. 15.6
The region 1 < z < 2 is an open annulus as shown in Fig. 15.6
4. An open connected set is called a domain.
e.g. Any neighbourhood of a point z0 is a domain
i.e., any open disk is a domain.
5. A domain together with some, none or all of its boundary points is called a region.
6. A set is closed if its complement is open.
e.g. z ≤ 1 is a closed set because its complement z > 1 is open.
15.2 LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Definition 15.2 Let f be a function defined in some neighbourhood of z0, except possibly at z0. We say
a complex number w0 is the limit of f(z) as z tends to z0 if for any ε > 0, there exists a d > 0 such that
f ( z ) − w0 , « for z − z0 , d.

Symbolically, we write lim f ( z ) = w 0 .

z →z 0
y v
z
z0
δ
∈
f(z)
w0
O x O u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.7
Note
1. When the limit exists it is unique, in whatever direction, z approaches z0.
2. Suppose f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is defined in a neighbourhood of z 0 = x 0 + iy 0 .
Then lim f ( z ) = u0 + iv 0 if and only if
z →z 0
lim u( x , y ) = u0 and lim v (x , y ) = v 0

( x , y )→( x 0 , y 0 ) ( x , y )→( x 0 , y 0 )
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
3. lim f ( z ) = w if lim f ⎜ ⎟ = w , lim f ( z ) = ∞ if lim ⎜ =0
z →∞ z →0 ⎝ z ⎠ z →z 0 ⎝ f ( z ) ⎟⎠
z →z 0
1
and lim f ( z ) = ∞ if lim =0
z →∞ z →0 ⎛ 1⎞
f ⎜ ⎟
⎝z⎠
15.2.1 Continuity of a Function

Definition 15.3 Let f be a function defined in a neighbourhood of z0 (including z0). f is continuous at
the point z0 if lim f ( z ) = f ( z 0 ).
z →z 0
This means that for continuity at a point.

limiting value 5 function value at the point.
A function f is continuous in a region R of the complex plane if f is continuous at each point of R. If
f ( z ) = u ( x , y ) + iv ( x , y ) and if f ( z 0 ) = u0 + iv 0 , then
lim f ( z ) = f ( z 0 ) if and only if

z →z 0
lim u( x , y ) = u0 and lim v (x , y ) = v 0 .

( x , y )→( x 0 , y 0 ) ( x , y )→( x 0 , y 0 )
15.2.2 Derivative of f(z)

Definition 15.4 Let f be a function defined in a neighbourhood of z0. The derivative of f at z0 is
f (z ) − f (z 0 )
f ′( z 0 ) = lim , if the limit exists.
z →z 0 z −z0

When f ′( z 0 ) exists, we say the function f is differentiable at z0.

A function is differential in a region R if it is differentiable at every point of the region R.
Note
1. Put z − z 0 = Δz [ as z → z 0 , Δz → 0
f ( z 0 + Δz ) − f ( z 0 )
then f ′( z 0 ) = lim
Δz → 0 Δz
If w = f ( z ), then Δw = f ( z + Δz ) − f ( z )
f ( z + Δz ) − f ( z ) Δw dw
∴ the derivative at any point z is f ′( z ) = lim = lim =
Δz Δz → 0 Δz → 0 Δz dz
2. If a function f is differentiable at z0, then it is continuous at z0. But the converse is not true.
i.e., if f is continuous at z0, then it need not be differentiable at z0.
EXAMPLE
Consider the function f ( z ) = z = x − iy , where z = x + iy .
It can be seen that f(z) is continuous at z = 0, but not differentiable at z = 0.
Here u(x, y) = x and v(x, y) = −y
lim u ( x , y ) = lim x = 0 and lim v( x, y ) = lim( − y ) = 0
( x , y )→( 0,0 ) x →0 ( x , y )→( 0,0 ) y→0
∴ lim f ( z ) = 0 = f (0)
z →0
∴ f(z) is continuous at z = 0.
f ( z ) − f ( 0) z −0 z
Now lim = lim = lim
z −0z →0 z → 0 z −0 z → 0 z
Choose the path z → 0 along y = mx
z x − mx 1 − im 1 − im
then lim = lim = lim =
z →0 z xy → 0 x + imx x → 0 1 + im 1 + im
→0 y →0
which varies with m. So, the limit is not unique.

z
Hence, lim does not exist. ∴ f(z) is not differentiable at z = 0.
z →0 z
15.2.3 Differentiation Formulae

If f(z) and g(z) are differentiable at z, then
d d
1. (cf ( z )) = cf ′( z ), where c is a constant. 2. (f ( z ) ± g ( z )) = f ′( z ) ± g ′( z )
dz dz
4. d ⎛ f ( z ) ⎞ = g ( z )f ′( z ) − f ( z )g ′( z ) if g ( z ) ≠ 0
d
3. (f ( z )g ( z )) = f ( z )g ′( z ) + g ( z )f ′( z )
dz dz ⎜⎝ g ( z ) ⎟⎠ [g ( z )]2
d d n
5. [f ( g ( z ))] = f ′[g ( z )] ⋅ g ′( z ) 6. ( z ) = nz n −1
dz dz

15.3 ANALYTIC FUNCTION

The concept of analytic function is the core of complex analysis. Unlike differentiable functions,
analytic functions have many additional properties.
Definition 15.5
A complex function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point z0, if f(z) is differentiable at z0 and at every
point of some neighbourhood of z0.
A function is analytic in a domain D if it is analytic at each point of D.
Note An analytic function is also known as regular function or holomorphic function.
15.3.1 Necessary and Sufficient Condition for f(z) to be Analytic

Theorem 15.1 The necessary and sufficient conditions for the function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) to be
analytic in a domain D are
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
(i) , , , are continuous functions of x and y in the domain D.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
(ii) = and =− i.e., u x = v y and u y = − v x .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
The second condition ux 5v y and u y 5− v x are known as Cauchy-Riemann equations or briefly

C-R equations.
Proof Necessary condition

Let f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be analytic in a domain D then f ′(z) exists at any point z in D.
f ( z + Δz ) − f ( z )
∴ f ′( z ) = lim exists.
Δz → 0 Δz
We know that when f ′(z) exists, it is unique.

i.e., it is independent of the path along which Δz → 0
Let z = x + iy, then Δz = Δx + iΔy. As Δz → 0, Δx → 0 and Δy → 0.
∴ u ( x + Δx , y + Δy ) + iv ( x + Δx , y + Δy ) − [u ( x , y ) + iv ( x , y )]
f ′( z ) = lim
Δx → 0
Δy → 0
Δx + i Δy
⎧ [u ( x + Δx , y + Δy ) − u( x , y )] i[v ( x + Δx , y + Δy ) − v ( x , y )] ⎫
= lim ⎨ + ⎬ (1)
Δy → 0 ⎩
Δx → 0 Δx + i Δy Δx + i Δy ⎭
We shall find the limit Δz → 0 along two paths.

Let Δz be real so that Δy = 0 and Δz = Δx, so Δz → 0 ⇒ Δx → 0 i.e., the path is parallel to x-axis.
∴ (1) ⇒ ⎡ [u ( x + Δx , y ) − u ( x , y )] [v ( x + Δx , y ) − v ( x , y )] ⎤
f ′( z ) = lim ⎢ +i ⎥⎦
Δx → 0 ⎣ Δx Δx

∂u ∂v
⇒ f ′( z ) =
+i (2)
∂x ∂x
Let Δz be purely imaginary so that Δx = 0 and Δz = iΔy.
So, Δz → 0 ⇒ Δy → 0. i.e., the path is parallel to the y-axis.
⎧ [u ( x , y + Δy ) − u ( x , y )] [v ( x , y + Δy ) − v ( x , y )] ⎫
∴ (1) ⇒ f ′( z ) = lim ⎨ +i ⎬
Δy → 0
⎩ i Δy i Δy ⎭
1 ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= + = −i + (3)
i ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
Since f ′(z) is unique, from (2) and (3), we get
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
+i = −i +
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∴ ux = vy and uy = −vx ■
Sufficient condition
Let f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be a complex function with continuous partial derivatives i.e.,
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
, , , exist at each point of a domain D and satisfy C-R equations, then f(z) is analytic.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Proof f(z) satisfies C-R equations.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∴ = and =− (1)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
We use Taylor’s series expansion for a function of two variables.
⎛ ∂f ∂f ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ 2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f ⎞
f ( x + h, y + k ) = f ( x, y ) + ⎜ h + k ⎟ + ⎜ h2 2 + 2hk + k2 2 ⎟ +…
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ 2 ! ⎝ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ⎠
Now f ( z + Δz ) = u( x + Δx, y + Δy ) + iv( x + Δx, y + Δy )
⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞ ⎤
= u( x, y ) + ⎜ Δx + Δy ⎟ + i ⎢ v( x, y ) + ⎜ Δx + Δy ⎟ ⎥
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎦
nd higher degrees of Δx, Δy ]
[omitting second an
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞
= u ( x , y ) + iv ( x , y ) + ⎜ + i ⎟ Δx + ⎜ + i ⎟ Δy
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞
= f (z ) + ⎜ + i ⎟ Δx + ⎜ + i ⎟ Δy
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠

⇒ ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞
f ( z + Δz ) − f ( z ) = ⎜ + i ⎟ Δx + ⎜ + i ⎟ Δy
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞
=⎜ + i ⎟ Δx + ⎜ − + i ⎟ Δy [from (1)]
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞
=⎜ + i ⎟ Δx + ⎜ + i ⎟ i Δy
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞
=⎜ + i ⎟ ( Δx + i Δy ) = ⎜ + i ⎟ Δz
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠
f ( z + Δz ) − f ( z ) ∂u ∂v
∴ = +i
Δz ∂x ∂x
f ( z + Δz ) − f ( z ) ∂u ∂v
∴ lim = +i
Δz → 0 Δz ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v f ( z + Δz ) − f ( z )
Since , exist at any point of D and are continuous, lim exist in D.
∂x ∂x Δz → 0 Δz
∂u ∂v
⇒ f ′( z ) exists in D and f ′( z ) = +i in D.
∂x ∂x
So, derivative exists at every point and in a neighbourhood of it.
∴ f(z) is analytic in D. ■
Note
1. To prove a function is analytic in a domain, it is enough we show that it is differentiable at each
point of the domain.
2. When we say a function is analytic, it is to be understood that it is analytic in a domain D.
15.3.2 C-R Equations in Polar Form

The polar form is derived under the assumption z ≠ 0.
We know the transformation of cartesian to polar coordinates are
x = rcosu, y = rsinu
∴ z = x + iy = r (cos u + i sin u) = re iu
f ( z ) = u + iv = f ( re iu ) (1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.to r and u we get
∂u ∂v
+i = f ′( re iu ) ⋅ e iu (2)
∂r ∂r
∂u ∂v
and +i = f ′( re iu ) ⋅ ire iu
∂u ∂u

1 ∂u 1 ∂v i ∂u 1 ∂v
⇒ + = f ′( re iu ) ⋅ e iu ⇒ − ⋅ + = f ′( re iu )e iu (3)
ir ∂u r ∂u r ∂u r ∂u
From (2) and (3), we have
∂u ∂v − i ∂u 1 ∂v
+i = +
∂r ∂r r ∂u r ∂u
∂u 1 ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and = −r
∂r r ∂u ∂u ∂r
which are the C-R equations in polar form.
Definition 15.6 Entire Function

A complex function f is said to be an entire function if it is analytic in the entire complex plane (finite
plane).
For example: A polynomial function P(z) = a0 + a1z + a2z2 + … + anzn, an ≠ 0 is an entire function,
since it is differentiable everywhere in the plane.
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
1
Show that f ( z ) 5 is analytic at z 5 1 1 i.
z 21
Solution.
1
Given f (z ) = .
z −1
We have to show that ux, uy, vx, vy are continuous in some neighbourhood of z = 1 + i and the C-R
equations are satisfied in this neighbourhood. z = 1 + i ⇒ x = 1, y = 1
1 1 1 ( x − 1) − iy
f (z ) = = = =
z − 1 x + iy − 1 ( x − 1) + iy ( x − 1) 2 + y 2
x −1 −y
∴ u(x , y ) = and v (x , y ) =
( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ( x − 1) 2 + y 2
Since u(x, y) and v(x, y) are rational functions of the real variables x and y and are defined at (1, 1) and
in a neighbourhood of (1, 1), ux, uy, vx, vy exist and are continuous.
[( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ] ⋅1 − ( x − 1)2( x − 1) y 2 − ( x − 1) 2
ux = =
[( x − 1) + y ]
2 2 2
[( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ]2
−1 −2 y ( x − 1)
u y = ( x − 1) ⋅ ⋅ 2y =
[( x − 1) + y ]
2 2 2
[( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ]2
− y ⋅ ( −1) ⋅ 2( x − 1) 2 y ( x − 1)
vx = =
[( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ]2 [( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ]2
−[(( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ) ⋅1 − y ⋅ 2 y )] y 2 − ( x − 1) 2
vy = =
[( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ]2 [( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ]2
∴ ux = vy and uy = −vx
So, C-R equations are satisfied. ∴ f(z) is analytic.

EXAMPLE 2
If f(z) is analytic at a point, then cf(z) is analytic at that point for any constant c Þ 0.
Solution.
Let f(z) be the analytic at the point z0 = x0 + iy0 and f(z) = u + iv
∴ C.R equations are satisfied at z0.
∴ ux = vy and uy = − vx at this point z0.
Let g(z) = cf(z) = c(u + iv) = cu + icv = U + iV
where U = cu and V = cv
Ux = c ux = c vy and Vx = c vx = − cuy
Uy = c uy and Vy = c vy
∴ Ux = Vy and Uy = −Vx.
Here U and V satisfy C-R equations.

Ux, Uy, Vx, Vy are continuous, since ux, uy, vx, vy are continuous.
Hence, cf(z) is analytic.
EXAMPLE 3
If u 1 iv is analytic, show that v 2 iu and 2v 1 iu are also analytic.
Solution.
Given f(z) = u + iv is analytic in a domain D.
Let f(z) = u + iv
We know that if f(z) is analytic, then cf(z) is analytic for any constant c ≠ 0 [by example 2]
Take c = i, then if(z) is analytic.
But if(z) = i(u + iv) = iu + i2v = −v + iu
∴ −v + iu is analytic.
Take c = −i, then −if(z) is analytic.
But −if(z) = −i(u + iv) = −iu − i2v = v − iu.
∴ v − iu is analytic.
Hence, if u + iv is analytic, then −v + iu and v − iu are analytic.
EXAMPLE 4
If f(z) and f ( z ) are analytic functions prove that f(z) is a constant.
Solution.
Let f(z) = u + iv ∴ f ( z ) = u + iv = u − iv
Given f(z) is analytic ∴ it satisfies C-R equations.

∴ ux = v y and u y = −v x (1)
Given f ( z ) is also analytic. ∴ it satisfies C-R equations.

∴ ux = − v y and u y = v x (2)
From (1) and (2), 2ux = 0 and 2uy = 0
⇒ ux = 0 and uy = 0
∴ u is a constant ⇒ u = c1
Also vx = 0 and vy = 0
∴ v is a constant ⇒ v = c2
∴ f(z) = u + iv ⇒ f(z) = c1 + ic2 is a constant.
EXAMPLE 5
Find the analytic region of f(z) 5 (x 2 y)2 1 2i(x 1 y).
Solution.
Given f(z) = (x − y)2 + 2i(x + y)
⇒ u + iv = (x − y)2 + 2i(x + y)
∴ u = (x − y)2 and v = 2(x + y)
∴ ux = 2(x − y) and vx = 2
uy = −2(x − y) and vy = 2
Since u and v are polynomials, their partial derivatives are continuous everywhere.
For analyticity, it should satisfy C-R equations, ux = vy, uy = −vx
∴ ux = v y and u y = −v x
⇒ 2( x − y ) = 2 and −2( x − y ) = −2
⇒ x −y =1 and x −y =1
∴ for points on x − y = 1, C-R equations are satisfied.
Hence, f(z) is analytic for points on x − y = 1.
EXAMPLE 6
Prove that an analytic function with constant modulus is constant.
Solution.
Let f(z) = u + iv be the analytic function.
Given ⎢f(z) ⎢ is constant.
∴ u + iv = u 2 + v 2 is constant. ∴ u2 + v2 = C

where C is a constant. (1)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.to x and y, we get
2u u x + 2v v x = 0 and 2u u y + 2v v y = 0
⇒ u ux + v v x = 0 (2) and u uy + v v y = 0 (3)
But given f(z) is analytic.
∴ it satisfies C-R equations. ∴ ux = vy and uy = −vx
(2) and (3) becomes uux + vvx = 0 and −uvx + vux = 0
⇒ uux + vvx = 0 (4) and vux − uvx = 0 (5)
Treating (4) and (5) homogeneous linear equations in ux, vx
u v
we have D= = −u 2 − v 2 = −(u 2 + v 2 )
v −u
If D ≠ 0, then ux = 0, vx = 0 is the only solution.
Using C-R equations, we get vy = 0, uy = 0
Thus, ux = 0, uy = 0 ⇒ u = c1, a constant.
and vx = 0, vy = 0 ⇒ v = c2, a constant.
∴ f(z) = u + iv = c1 + ic2 is a constant.
If D = 0, then u2 + v2 = 0 ⇒ u = 0, v = 0
∴ f(z) = 0, which is a constant.
∴ f(z) is always a constant.
EXAMPLE 7
Show that an analytic function with constant imaginary part is constant.
Solution.
Let f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function, where v is a constant and let v = c2.
∴ vx = 0 and vy = 0.
Given f(z) is analytic. ∴ it satisfies C-R equations
∴ ux = vy and uy = −vx ⇒ ux = 0 and uy = 0 ⇒ u is a constant and let u = c1.
∴ f(z) = u + iv = c1 + ic2 ⇒ f(z) = constant.
EXAMPLE 8
Test whether the following functions are analytic or not.
1. f(z) 5 z2 2. w 5 sin z
2
3. f ( z ) 5 z 4. f ( z ) 5 z
5. f(z) 5 2xy 1 i (x2 2 y2)

Solution.
1. Given f(z) = z2 ⇒ u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + 2ixy
∴ u = x2 − y2 and v = 2xy
∴ ux = 2x and vx = 2y
uy = −2y and vy = 2x
Hence, C-R equations are satisfied for all x and y and the partial derivatives being polynomial in
x, y are continuous everywhere in the complex plane.
∴ f(z) is analytic in the entire plane.
So, it is an entire function.
2. Given w = sin z
∴ u + iv = sin( x + iy )
= sin x cos(iy ) + cos x sin(iy ) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y

∴ u = sin x cosh y and v = cos x sinh y
u x = cos x cosh y and v x = − sin x sinh y
u y = sin x sinh y and v y = cos x cosh y
∴ ux = v y and u y = − vx
Hence, C-R equations are satisfied at all the points and the partial derivatives are continuous at
all the points.
∴ the function is analytic at all the points. So, it is an entire function.
3. Given f (z ) = z
If z = x + iy, then z = x − iy ∴ u + iv = x − iy
∴ u=x and v = −y
ux = 1 and vx = 0
uy = 0 and vy = −1
∴ ux ≠ vy and uy = −vx for all x, y ∴ C-R equations are not satisfied anywhere.
Hence, f(z) is not analytic anywhere.
f (z ) = z
2
4. Given
2
If z = x + iy, then ⎢z ⎢ = x2 + y2
∴ u + iv = x2 + y2
∴ u = x2 + y2 ⇒ ux = 2x and uy = 2y
and v=0 ⇒ vx = 0 and vy = 0
We see ux = vy ⇒ x=0 and uy = −vx ⇒ y=0

So, C-R equations are satisfied at (0, 0) and C-R equations are not satisfied for (x, y) ≠ (0, 0).
Hence, f(z) not analytic for all z including z = 0.
5. Given f(z) = 2xy + i(x2 − y2) ⇒ u + iv = 2xy + i(x2 − y2)
∴ u = 2xy and v = x2 − y2
ux = 2y and vx = 2x
uy = 2x and vy = −2y
∴ ux ≠ vy and uy ≠ −vx
Hence, C-R equations are not satisfied except (0, 0).
Hence, f(z) is not analytic at any point.
EXAMPLE 9
Show that the function defined by f ( z ) 5 xy is not analytic at origin, although C-R equations
are satisfied.
Solution.
Given f (z ) = xy , where z = x + iy
⇒ u + iv = xy ⇒u= xy , v = 0
∂u u ( x , 0 ) − u ( 0, 0 ) 0−0
At the origin, = lim = lim =0
∂x x → 0 x x → 0 x
∂u u (0, y ) − u(0, 0) 0−0
= lim = lim =0
∂y y → 0 y y → 0 y
∂v ∂v
Similarly, = 0, =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∴ = and = − ⇒ ux = v y and u y = − vx
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Hence, the C-R equations are satisfied at (0, 0).
f ( z ) − f ( 0) xy − 0 xy
Now f ′(0) = lim = lim = lim
z →0 z z →0 x + iy z →0 x + iy
If z → 0 along the straight line y = mx, then x → 0, y → 0.
mx 2 m x m m
∴ f ′(0) = lim = lim = lim =
x →0 x + imx x →0 (1 + im )x x →0 1 + im 1 + im
Since the limit depends on m, for different paths, we have different limits. So, limit is not unique and
hence f ′(0) does not exist. Thus, f(z) is not analytic at z = 0, even though C-R equations are satisfied
at the origin.

EXAMPLE 10
dw ∂w ∂w ∂ 2w
If w 5 f(z) is analytic prove that 5 5 2i , where z 5 x 1 iy and prove that 5 0.
dz ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z
Solution.
Given w = f(z) is analytic.
Let w = u + iv, then u, v satisfy the C-R equations. ∴ ux = vy and uy = −vx (1)
dw ∂u ∂v ∂ ∂w
Now = f ′( z ) = u x + iv x = +i = (u + iv ) =
dz ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
dw
Also = f ′( z ) = u x + iv x
dz
= v y − iu y [Using (1)]
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ∂ ∂w
= −i (u y + iv y ) = −i ⎜ + i ⎟ = −i (u + iv ) = −i
⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠ ∂y ∂y
dw ∂w ∂w
∴ = = −i
dz ∂x ∂y
Since z = x + iy , z = x − iy
z +z z −z
∴ z + z = 2x ⇒ x= and z − z = 2iy ⇒ y =
2 2i
∂x 1 ∂y 1
∴ = and =−
∂z 2 ∂z 2i
Now u(x, y) and v(x, y) can be considered as functions of z and z .
∂w ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ⎡ ∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ⎤
∴ = + . +i⎢ . + . ⎥
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ⎣ ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ⎦
∂u 1 ∂u ⎛ −1⎞ ⎡ ∂v 1 ∂v ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
= ⋅ + ⎜ ⎟ +i ⋅ + ⎜− ⎟
∂x 2 ∂y ⎝ 2i ⎠ ⎢⎣ ∂x 2 ∂y ⎝ 2i ⎠ ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ ∂u ∂v ⎤ i ⎡ ∂v ∂u ⎤ 1 i
= ⎢ − ⎥ + ⎢ + ⎥ = ( 0) + ( 0) [using C-R equations]
2 ⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦ 2 ⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦ 2 2
∂w ∂ 2w
∴ =0 ⇒ =0
∂z ∂z ∂z
Note
∂w
1. = 0 ⇒ w is independent of z .
∂z
∂w ∂f
= 0 or = 0 is called the complex form of the C.R equations of f(z).
∂z ∂z
2. Infact, we have proved the result, every analytic function f(z) is independent of z .

EXAMPLE 11
⎧ x 3 (1 1 i ) 2 y 3 (1 2 i )
, z ≠0
If f ( z ) 5 ⎪⎨ x2 1 y 2
⎪0 , z 5 0,
⎩
Prove that f(z) is continuous and the C-R equations are satisfied at z 5 0, yet f ′(0) does not exist.
Solution.
x 3 (1 + i ) − y 3 (1 − i ) x 3 − y 3 + i( x 3 + y 3 )
Given f ( z) = = , z≠0
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
x3 − y3 x3 + y3
If f(z) = u + iv, then u= and v=
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
Since z ≠ 0, x ≠ 0 or y ≠ 0
∴ u, v are rational functions of x and y with non-zero denominators.
So, u and v are continuous and hence f(z) is continuous for z ≠ 0.
To test the continuity at z = 0, we shall transform to polar coordinates.
∴ x = rcosu, y = rsinu, r2 = x2 + y2
then u = r (cos3 u − sin 3 u) and v = r (cos3 u + sin 3 u)

When z → 0, r → 0
∴ lim u = lim r (cos3 u − sin 3 u) = 0
z →0 r →0
and lim v = lim r (cos3 u + sin 3 u) = 0

z →0 r →0
∴ lim f ( z ) = lim u + i lim v = 0 = f (0)

z →0 z →0 z →0
∴ f(z) is continuous at z = 0.
Hence, f(z) is continuous for all values of z.
Now we shall verify C-R equations at (0, 0)
∂u u ( x , 0 ) − u ( 0, 0 ) x −0
= lim = lim = lim 1 = 1
∂x x → 0 x x → 0 x x →0
∂u u (0, y ) − u (0, 0) 0−y

= lim = lim = −1
∂y y → 0 y y → 0 y
∂v v ( x , 0 ) − v ( 0, 0 ) x −0
= lim = lim =1
∂x x → 0 x x → 0 x
∂v v (0, y ) − v (0, 0) y −0
= lim = lim =1
∂y y → 0 y y → 0 y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∴ = and =− ⇒ ux = v y and u y = − v x
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

∴ C-R equations are satisfied at (0, 0).

f ( z ) − f ( 0) x 3 − y 3 + i ⋅ (x 3 + y 3 ) − 0
Now f ′(0) = lim = lim
z →0 z z →0 ( x 2 + y 2 )( x + iy )
Let z → 0 along y = x, then x → 0, (y → 0).
2ix 3 2i
∴ f ′(0) = lim = (1)
x → 0 2x 2 (1 + i ) x
1+ i
x 3 + ix 3
Now let z → 0 along the x-axis (i.e., y = 0), then f ′(0) = lim = 1+ i (2)
x →0 x3
Since limits (1) and (2) are different, the limit does not exist.
∴ f ′(0) does not exist.
EXAMPLE 12
Find the values of a and b such that the function f(z) 5 x2 1 ay2 2 2xy 1 i(bx2 2 y2 1 2xy) is
analytic. Also find f ′(z).
Solution.
Given f(z) = x2 + ay2 − 2xy + i(bx2 − y2 + 2xy)
⇒ u + iv = x 2 + ay 2 − 2xy + i (bx 2 − y 2 + 2xy )
∴ u = x 2 + ay 2 − 2xy and v = bx 2 − y 2 + 2xy

⇒ u x = 2x − 2 y and v x = 2bx + 2 y
u y = 2ay − 2x andd v y = −2 y + 2x
Since f(z) is analytic in a domain D, it satisfies C-R equations in D.

∴ ux = v y and u y = −v x in D.
∴ 2x − 2y = −2y + 2x, which is true for all x and y in D.
and 2ay − 2x = −[2bx + 2y]
⇒ 2ay − 2x = −2bx − 2y ∀ x, y ∈ D.
∴ comparing the coefficients of x and y on both sides,

2a = −2 ⇒ a = −1 and −2b = −2 ⇒ b=1
∂u ∂v
Now f ′( z ) = +i
∂x ∂x
= 2 x − 2 y + i( 2 x + 2 y )
= 2( x + i 2 y ) + 2i( x + y ) [{ b = 1]
= 2[( x + iy ) + i( x + iy )] = 2(1 + i )( x + iy ) = 2(1 + i ) z

EXAMPLE 13
Find a such that the function f(z) 5 r2cos2u 1 ir2sin au is analytic.
Solution.
Given f(z) = r2cos2u + ir2 sinau is analytic in a domain D.
∴ u + iv = r 2 cos 2u + ir 2 sin au
∴ u = r 2 cos 2u and v = r 2 sin au

∂u ∂v
⇒ = 2r cos 2u and = 2r sin a u
∂r ∂r
∂u ∂v
= −2r 2 sin 2u and = ar 2 cos a u
∂u ∂u
Since f(z) is analytic, it satisfies the C-R equations in polar coordinates.
∂u 1 ∂v 2r cos 2 u = ar cos a u
∴ = ⇒ (1)
∂r r ∂u
∂u ∂v
and = −r
∂u ∂r
⇒ −2r 2 sin 2 u = −2r 2 sin a u ⇒ r 2 sin 2 u = r 2 sin a u (2)
These two equations are true for all r and u, if a = 2. ∴ a=2
EXERCISE 15.1
1. If f(z) is analytic in a domain D and f ′(z) = 0 for all z ∈ D, then show that f(z) is a constant.
2. Prove that an analytic function with constant real part is constant.
3. Test the following functions are analytic or not.
(i) f(z) = z ⎢z ⎢ (ii) f(z) = 2xy + i(x2 − y2)
(iii) f(z) = loge z (iv) f(z) = z3 [put z = reiu]
(v) f(z) = e z
(vi) f(z) = xy + iy
(vii) f(z) = z2 + z (viii) f(z) = ex (cosy − i sin y)
⎧ x 2 y 5 ( x + iy )
for z ≠ 0
4. Examine the nature of the function f ( z ) = ⎪⎨ x 4 + y 10
⎪0 for z = 0
⎩
in a region including origin.
5. Is f(z) = zn analytic? Justify.
6. If f(z) = u + iv is analytic in a domain D, then prove that f(z) is constant if arg f(z) is constant.
v v
is constant ⇒ is constant = c ⇒ v = cu]
[Hint: arg f ( z ) = tan −1
u u
7. Shown that f(z) = x(x + iy) is differentiable at origin, but not analytic there.

8. Show that f(z) = ex (cos y + i sin y) is analytic in the finite plane. Find its derivative.
9. Show that f(z) = e−y (cos x + i sin x) is differentiable every where in the finite plane and f ′(z) = f(z).
10. Show that ey (cos x + i sin x) is nowhere differentiable.
⎛ u u⎞
11. Show that f ( z ) = r ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ , r > 0, 0 < u < 2p is analytic. Find f ′(z).
⎝ 2 2⎠
12. Verify whether w = (x2 − y2 − 2xy) + i(x2 − y2 + 2xy) is an analytic function of z = x + iy.
y
13. If u = x2 − y2, v = − then prove that u + iv is not an analytic function.
x +y2 2
1 Px
14. Determine P such that the function f ( z ) = loge ( x 2 + y 2 ) + i tan −1 be an analytic function.
2 y
ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 15.1

3. (i) not analytic (ii) not analytic
(iii) analytic, except z = 0 (iv) analytic (v) analytic
(vi) not analytic (vii) analytic (viii) not analytic
4. C-R equation are satisfied at z = 0, but f ′(0) does not exist.
5. Analytic 12. w is an analytic function of z. 14. P = −1
15.4 HARMONIC FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTION

Definition 15.7 A real function f of two variables x and y is said to be harmonic in a domain D if it
∂ 2f ∂ 2f
has continuous second order partial derivatives and satisfies the Laplace equation 2 + 2 = 0.
∂x ∂y
Note Harmonic functions play an important role in applied mathematics. For example the temperature
T(x, y) in thin plates lying in the xy-plane are harmonic. The practical importance of complex analysis
in engineering mathematics results from the fact that both the real and imaginary parts of an analytic
function satisfy Laplace’s equation which is the most important equation in physics, electrostatics,
fluid flow, heat conduction and so on.
Property 1 If f(z) 5 u 1 iv is analytic in a domain D, then u and v are harmonic in D.
Proof Given f(z) = u + iv is analytic. Then its component functions u and v have continuous first order
partial derivatives and satisfy the C-R equations in D.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
i.e., = (1) and =− (2)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Differentiating (1) w.r.to x and (2) w.r.to y we get
∂ 2u ∂ 2v ∂2u ∂2 v
= (3) and = − (4)
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ∂y ∂x
Since ux, uy, vx, vy are continuous, the mixed second derivatives are equal.

∂ 2v ∂ 2v
∴ =
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
∴ = − ⇒ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2
Hence, u is harmonic.
Now differentiating (1) w.r.to y and (2) w.r.to x we get
∂ 2u ∂ 2v ∂ 2u ∂ 2v
= 2 and =− 2
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v
∴ = − ⇒ + =0
∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂ x 2 ∂y 2
∴ v is harmonic. ■
Note The theory of harmonic functions is called potential theory.
Property 2 If f(z) 5 u 1 iv is an analytic function, then the level curves u(x, y) 5 c1 and v(x, y) 5 c2
form an orthogonal system of curves.
Proof Given f(z) = u + iv is analytic in a domain D.

∴ u and v have continuous partial derivatives and satisfy C-R equations.
∴ u x = v y and u y = −v x in D. (1)
Let u(x, y) = C′ and v(x, y) = C″ be two members of the given families intersecting at P(x0, y0).
∂u ∂u dy u
Then du = 0 ⇒ dx + dy = 0 ⇒ =− x
∂x ∂y dx uy
The slope of the tangent at the point P(x0, y0) to the curve u(x, y) = C′ is
dy u
m1 = =− x
dx uy
Similarly, the slope of the tangent at the point P(x0, y0) to the curve v(x, y) = C″ is
dy v
m2 = =− x
dx vy
⎛ u ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞
Now m1 m 2 = ⎜ − x ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ − x ⎟
⎝ uy ⎠ ⎝ v y ⎠
ux v x u v
= ⋅ = x ⋅ x = −1 [ using C-R equations (1)]
u y v y −v x u x
∴ the curves cut orthogonally.

Hence, the two systems of curves are orthogonal. ■

Note
1. The level curves u = constant are called equipotential lines. In the application of fluid flow for a
given flow under suitable assumptions there exists an analytic function.
f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is called the complex potential of the flow such that the curves
v(x, y) = c1 are the stream lines and the curves u(x, y) = c2 are the equipotential lines. So, the
function v is called stream function and the function u is called the velocity potential.
In heat flow problems the curves u(x, y) = c1 and v(x, y) = c2 are known as isothermals and heat
flow lines respectively.
2. Property (1) says if f(z) = u + iv is analytic then u and v are harmonic functions. However, for any
two harmonic functions u and v, u + iv need not be analytic.
For example, consider u = x, v = −y, then ux = 1, vx = 0
uy = 0, vy = −1
uxx = 0, uyy = 0
∴ uxx + uyy = 0 and vxx + vyy = 0
i.e., u and v are harmonic functions.

But ux ≠ vy and so, C−R equations are not satisfied and hence u + iv is not analytic.
Definition 15.8 If two harmonic functions u and v satisfy the C-R equations in a domain D, then
they are the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function f in D. Then v is said to be a conjugate
harmonic function or harmonic conjugate function of u in D.
Note that the word “conjugate” here is different from the one used in defining z .
15.4.1 Construction of an Analytic Function Whose Real or Imaginary Part is Given

Milne-Thomson Method
Let f(z) = u(x, y) + iv (x, y) (1)
1 1
Since z = x + iy, z = x − iy, then x = (z + z ) and y = (z − z )
2 2i
∴ ⎡z + z z − z ⎤ ⎡z + z z − z ⎤
f (z ) = u ⎢ , ⎥⎦ + iv ⎢⎣ 2 , 2i ⎥⎦
⎣ 2 2
Considering this as a formal identity in the two independent variables z, z , putting z = z , we get
f(z) = u(z, 0) + iv(z, 0) (2)
∴ (2) is the same as (1), if we replace x by z and y by 0.
This is valid for any function of the form f(x + iy).
This method provides an elegant method of finding an analytical function f(z) when its real part or
imaginary part is given. It is due to Milne-Thomson.
1. Let u(x, y) be the given real part of an analytic function f(z).
We have to find f(z) and its imaginary part v(x, y).
∂u ∂u
Since u(x, y) is given, find and
∂x ∂y

Since f(z) is analytic f ′(z) = ux + ivx

= ux − iuy = ux(x, y) − iuy(x, y) [{ uy = −vx, C−R equations]
By Milne-Thomson method,
f ′(z) = ux(z, 0) − iuy(z, 0) [replacing x by z and y by 0]
∴ f ( z ) = ∫ [u x ( z , 0) − iu y ( z , 0)]dz + c
where c is an arbitrary complex constant of integration.

Then separating real and imaginary parts, we find v(x, y).
∂v ∂v
2. Suppose the imaginary part v(x, y) is given, find ,
∂x ∂y
f ′( z ) = u x + iv x = v y + iv x = v y ( x , y ) + iv x ( x , y ) [ by C-R equations u x = v y ]
⇒ f ′( z ) = v y ( z , 0) + iv x ( z , 0)
By Milne-Thomson method,
f ( z ) = ∫ [v y ( z , 0) + iv x ( z , 0)]dz + c [replacing x by z and y by 0]
Then we find u(x, y) by equating real parts.
Working rule: Milne-Thomson method

1. If real part u(x, y) is given, to find f(z) = u + iv
Step 1: Find ux(x, y), uy(x, y)
Step 2: Find ux(z, 0), uy(z, 0) [replacing x by z and y by 0]
Step 3: f ′(z) = ux(z, 0) − iuy(z, 0)
Step 4: f ( z ) = ∫ u x ( z , 0) dz − i ∫ u y ( z , 0) dz + c
2. If the imaginary part v(x, y) is given, to find f(z) = u + iv.

Step 1: Find vx(x, y), vy(x, y)
Step 2: Find vx(z, 0), vy(z, 0)
Step 3: f ′(z) = vy(z, 0) + ivx(z, 0)
Step 4: f ( z ) = ∫ v y ( z , 0) dz + i ∫ v x ( z , 0) dz + c
We shall now obtain the complex form of Laplace equation.
Let u(x, y) be a harmonic function.
z +z z −z
Since z = x + iy and z = x − iy , we have x = ;y=
2 2i
Hence, u is ultimately a function of z and z .
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y 1
∴ = ⋅ + ⋅ = (u x − iu y )
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z 2
∂ 2u ∂ ⎡1 ⎤
∴ = ⎢ (u x − iu y ) ⎥
∂z ∂z ∂z ⎣ 2 ⎦

1⎡ ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ⎤
= ⎢ (u x − iu y ) ⋅ + (u x − iu y ) ⋅ ⎥
2 ⎣ ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ⎦
1⎡ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
= ⎢ (u xx − iu yx ) + (u xy − iu yy ) ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
2⎣ 2 ⎝ 2i ⎠ ⎦
1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
= [(u xx − iu yx ) + i (u xy − iu yy )] ⎢{− i = i ⎥
4 ⎣ ⎦
1 1
= [u xx − iu xy + iu xy + u yy ] = [u xx + u yy ] [{ u xy = u yx ]
4 4
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
⇒ u xx + u yy = 4 ⇒ + 2 =4 (1)
∂z ∂z ∂x 2
∂y ∂z ∂z
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂2u
Since u is harmonic, + =0 ⇒ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z ∂z
This is the complex form of Laplace equation.
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
From (1), we get the Laplacian operator + 2 =4
∂x 2
∂y ∂z ∂z
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
5 4 f ′( z ) .
2 2
If f(z) is analytic function of z, prove that ⎜ 2 1 2 ⎟ f ( z )
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Solution.
Given f(z) is analytic and let f(z) = u + iv.
Then u and v have continuous partial derivatives and they satisfy C-R equations.
∴ ux = vy and uy = −vx and f ′(z) = ux +ivx
∴ f ′( z ) = u x2 + v x2
2
(1)
Since u and v are harmonic functions, we have
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
+ = 4
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z ∂z
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
L.H.S. = ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ f ( z )
2
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
∂2 ∂2
=4 =4 (f ( z ) ⋅ f ( z ))
2
f (z )
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
Since f(z) is an analytic function, it is independent of z .
i.e., f(z) is a function of z only.

Similarly, its conjugate f ( z ) is analytic function of z only.
So, we can denote f ( z ) by f ( z ) and write f ( x + iy ) = f ( x − iy )
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∴ L.H.S. = 4 (f ( z )f ( z )) = 4 [f ( z )] [f ( z )]
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
= 4f ′( z ) ⋅ f ′( z ) = 4f ′( z ) ⋅ f ′( z )
= 4 f ′( z ) = R.H.S. [{ z z = z ]
2 2
EXAMPLE 2
If f(z) is analytic, then prove that
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞ p 22
⋅ f ′( z ) .
p 2
⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ⎟⎠ ( f ( z ) ) 5 p f ( z )
1 2
Solution.
Let f(z) = u + iv.
Since f(z) is analytic, u and v are harmonic functions.

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∴ + = 4
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z ∂z
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞ ∂2
∴ L.H.S. = ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ ( f ( z ) ) = 4
p
f ( z)
p
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂z ∂z
∂2 ⎡
p
= 4⋅ f ( z ) ⎤⎦ 2
2
∂z ∂z ⎣
∂2 p
=4 [ f ( z ) f ( z )] 2
∂z ∂z
∂2 ⎧ p p
⎫
=4 ⎨[ f ( z )] 2 ⋅ [ f ( z )] 2 ⎬
∂z ∂z ⎩ ⎭
∂ p
∂ p
=4 [ f ( z )] 2 ( f ( z )) 2
∂z ∂z
p p
p −1 p −1
= 4 [ f ( z )] 2 ⋅ f ′( z ) ⋅ [ f ( z )] 2 f ′( z )
2 2
p
−1
= p 2 [ f ( z ) ⋅ f ( z )] 2 ⋅ f ′( z ) ⋅ f ′( z )
p−2
= p 2 ⎡⎣ f ( z ) ⎤⎦
2
⋅ f ′( z )
2 2
p−2
= p 2 f (zz ) ⋅ f ′( z ) = R.H.S.
2

EXAMPLE 3
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
5 2 f ′( z ) .
2 2
If f(z) is an analytic function of z, then prove that ⎜ 2 1 2 ⎟ Re f ( z )
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Solution.
Let f(z) = u + iv. Given f(z) is analytic.
Since Re f(z) = u, we have to prove

⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞ 2
+
⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ⎟⎠ u = 2 f ′( z ) .
2
f ′(z) = ux + ivx ∴ f ′( z ) = u x2 + v x2
2
We have
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞ ∂2u2 ∂2u2
L.H.S. = ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ u 2 = + 2
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂x 2 ∂y
∂ ∂
= ( 2u ⋅ ux ) + ( 2u ⋅ u y )
∂x ∂y
= 2{u ⋅ uxx + ux2 } + 2{u ⋅ u yy + u y2 }
= 2u{uxx + u yy } + 2(ux2 + u y2 )
Since u is harmonic, uxx + uyy = 0
∴ L.H.S. = 2(ux2 + u y2 ) = 2(u x2 + v x2 ) [{ u y = − v x , C-R equation ]
= 2 f ′( z ) = R.H.S.
2
EXAMPLE 4
∂ ⎡ ∂
2 2
If f(z) is an analytic function, then prove that ⎡⎢ ⎤ ⎤

f ( z ) ⎥ 5 f ′( z ) .
2
f (z ) ⎥ 1 ⎢
⎣ ∂x ⎦ ⎣ ∂ y ⎦
Solution.
Let f(z) = u + iv.
Given f(z) is analytic, then u, v are harmonic functions.
∴ f (z ) = u 2 + v 2
∂ 1 ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ uu x + vv x
∴ ( f (z ) ) = ⎜⎝ 2u + 2v ⎟ =
∂x 2 u +v
2 2 ∂x ∂x ⎠ u2 + v 2
⎡∂ (uu x + vv x ) 2
2
∴ ⎤
⎢⎣ ∂x f ( z ) ⎥⎦ =
u2 + v 2
⎡ ∂ ⎤
2
(uu y + vv y ) 2
Similarly, ⎢ ∂y f ( z ) ⎥ =
⎣ ⎦ u2 + v 2

∂ ⎤ ⎡ ∂
2 2
(uu x + vv x ) 2 + (uu y + vv y ) 2
∴ ⎡⎢ f (z ) ⎥ + ⎢
⎤
f (z ) ⎥ =
⎣ ∂x ⎦ ⎣ ∂y ⎦ u2 + v 2
u 2 ux2 + v 2 vx2 + 2uvux vx + u 2 u y2 + v 2 v y2 + 2uvu y v y

=
u2 + v2
u 2 (ux2 + u y2 ) + v 2 ( v x2 + v y2 ) + 2uv(ux v x + u y v y )
=
u2 + v2
u 2 (ux2 + v x2 ) + v 2 ( v x2 + ux2 ) + 2uv(u y v x + ( − v x )v y )
=
u2 + v2
[{ u y = − v x , ux = v y , C.R equations]
u 2 f ′( z ) + v 2 f ′( z ) + 2uv [v y v x − v x ⋅ v y ]
2 2
=
u2 + v 2
(u 2 + v 2 ) f ′( z ) + 0
2
= = f ′( z )
2
u2 + v 2
EXAMPLE 5
Prove that the function u 5 ex(x cos y 2 y sin y) satisfies Laplace’s equation and find the
corresponding analytic function f(z) 5 u 1 iv.
Solution.
Given u = ex(x cos y − y sin y) is the real part u of f(z) = u + iv
∴ ux = ex[cos y] + (x cos y − y sin y)ex = ex[cos y + x cos y − y sin y)
∴ uxx = ex[cos y] + [cos y + x cos y − y sin y]ex = ex[2cos y + x cos y − y sin y]
uy = ex[−x sin y − (y ⋅ cos y + sin y)]
uyy = ex[−x cos y − (− y sin y + cos y) − cos y] = ex[−x cos y + y sin y − 2cos y]
∴ uxx + uyy = ex[2cos y + x cos y − y sin y] + ex[−x cos y + y sin y − 2cos y]
= ex(0) = 0
∴ u satisfies Laplace’s equation and so u is a harmonic function.
Now replacing x by z and y by 0, we get
ux(z, 0) = ez[cos 0 + z cos 0 − 0] = ez(1 + z)
uy(z, 0) = ez(0) = 0
By Milne−Thomson method,
f ′( z ) = u x ( z , 0) − iu y ( z , 0) = (1 + z )e z − i 0 = (1 + z )e z
Integrating, f ( z ) = ∫ (1 + z )e z dz = (1 + z )e z − 1⋅ e z + c = ze z + c

EXAMPLE 6
sin 2 x
If u 5 , find the corresponding analytic function f(z) 5 u 1 iv.
cosh 2 y 1 cos 2 x
Solution.
sin 2x
Given u= is the real part u of f(z) = u + iv
cosh 2 y + cos 2x
(cosh 2 y + cos 2x ) ⋅ 2 cos 2x − sin 2x ( −2 sin 2x )
∴ ux =
(cosh 2 y + cos 2x ) 2
2 ⋅ cosh 2 y ⋅ cos 2x + 2 cos 2 2x + 2 sin 2 2x

=
(cosh 2 y + cos 2x ) 2
2 cosh 2 y ⋅ cos 2x + 2(cos 2 2x + sin 2 2x ) 2 cosh 2 y ⋅ cos 2x + 2
= =
(cosh 2 y + cos 2x ) 2 (cosh 2 y + cos 2x ) 2
(cosh 2 y + cos 2x ) ⋅ 0 − sin 2x ⋅ 2 sinh 2 y −2 sin 2x ⋅ sinh 2 y

uy = =
(cosh 2 y + cos 2x ) 2 (cosh 2 y + cos 2x ) 2
Replacing x by z and y by 0, we get
2 cosh 0 ⋅ cos 2z + 2
u x ( z , 0) = [cosh 0 = 1]
(cosh 0 + cos 2z ) 2
2(1 + cos 2z ) 2 2
= = = = sec 2 z
(1 + cos 2z ) 2 1 + cos 2z 2 cos 2 z
−2 sin 2z ⋅ sinh 0
u y ( z , 0) = = 0. [{ sinh 0 = 0]
(cosh 0 + cos 2z ) 2
f ′( z ) = u x ( z , 0) − iu y ( z , 0) = sec 2 z − 0
∴ f ( z ) = ∫ sec 2 zdz = tan z + c
EXAMPLE 7
Determine the analytic function f(z) 5 u 1 iv such that u 2 v 5 ex (cos y 2 sin y).
Solution.
Given f(z) = u + iv ∴ if(z) = iu − v
Adding, (1 + i)f(z) = u − v + i(u + v)
Put U = u − v, V = u + v and F(z) = (1 + i)f(z) ∴ F(z) = U + iV
Since f(z) is analytic, F(z) is analytic.

Given U = u − v = ex (cos y − sin y)

∴ Ux = ex (cos y − sin y) and Uy = ex (−sin y − cos y)
Replacing x by z and y by 0 we get,
∴ U x ( z , 0) = e z (cos 0 − sin 0) = e z
U y ( z , 0) = e z ( − sin 0 − cos 0) = −e z
F ′( z ) = U x ( z , 0) − iU y ( z , 0) = e z + ie z = (1 + i )e z
Integrating, F(z) = (1 + i)∫ez dz

⇒ F(z) = (1 + i)ez + c
c
⇒ (1 + i)f(z) = (1 + i)ez + c ⇒ f(z) = ez + c′, where c ′ =
1+ i
EXAMPLE 8
2 sin 2 x
If u 1 v 5 and f(z) 5 u 1 iv is an analytic function of z, find f(z) in terms
e 2 y 1 e 22 y 2 2 cos 2 x
of z.
Solution.
Given f(z) = u + iv ∴ if(z) = iu − v
Adding, (1 + i)f(z) = u − v + i(u + v)
Put U = u − v, V = u + v, F(z) = (1 + i)f(z) ∴ F(z) = U + iV
Since f(z) is analytic, F(z) is analytic.
2 sin 2x
Also given u +v =
e 2y
+ e −2 y − 2 cos 2x
2 sin 2x 2 sin 2x sin 2x
∴ V = = =
e 2 y + e −2 y − 2 cos 2x 2 cosh 2 y − 2 cos 2x cosh 2 y − cos 2x
(cosh 2 y − cos 2x )2 cos 2x − sin 2x ( 2 sin 2x )
∴ Vx =
(cosh 2 y − cos 2x ) 2
2[cosh 2 y cos 2x − (cos 2 2x + sin 2 2x )] 2(cosh 2 y cos 2x − 1)

= =
[cosh 2 y − cos 2x ]2 [cosh 2 y − cos 2x ]2
( −1) 2 sinh 2 y sin 2x
V y = sin 2x ⋅ 2 sinh 2 y = −
(cosh 2 y − cos 2x ) 2 (cosh 2 y − cos 2x ) 2
2(cosh 0 cos 2z − 1) 2(cos 2z − 1)
V x ( z , 0) = =
(cosh 0 − cos 2z ) 2 (1 − cos 2z )2 [{ cosh 0 = 1]

−2(1 − cos 2z ) 2 2
= =− =− = −cosec 2 z
(1 − cos 2z ) 2
1 − cos 2z 2 sin 2 z
−2 sinh 0 sin 2z
V y ( z , 0) = =0 [{ sinh 0 = 0]
(cosh 0 − cos 2z ) 2
Since imaginary part is given, by Milne−Thomson method,
F ′( z ) = V y ( z , 0) + iV x ( z , 0) = 0 + i ( −cosec 2 z ) = −icosec 2 z
Integrating, F ( z ) = −i ∫ cosec 2 z dz = −i ( − cot z ) + c
⇒ (1+ i )f ( z ) = i cot z + c
i c
⇒ f (z ) = cot z +
1+ i 1+ i
i(1 − i ) 1+ i c
= cot z + c1 = cot z + c1 , where c1 =
2 2 1+ i
EXAMPLE 9
Find the analytic function f(z) 5 u 1 iv given that 2u 1 3v 5 ex (cos y 2 sin y).
Solution.
Given 2u + 3v = ex (cos y − sin y) (1)
and f ( z ) = u + iv
Consider 3f ( z ) = 3u + i 3v and i 2f ( z ) = 2iu − 2v
Αdding, (3 + 2i )f ( z ) = (3u − 2v ) + i ( 2u + 3v )
Put U = 3u − 2v, V = 2u + 3v, F(z) = (3 + 2i)f(z)
∴ F(z) = U + iV
Since f(z) is analytic, F(z) is analytic and intergrating part is

V = 2u + 3v = ex (cos y − sin y) [using (1)]
∴ Vx = ex (cos y − sin y) and Vy = ex (−sin y − cos y)
∴ V x ( z , 0) = e z (cos 0 − sin 0) = e z and V y ( z , 0) = e z ( − sin 0 − cos 0) = −e z
Since imaginary part is given, by Milne−Thomson method,
F ′( z ) = V y ( z , 0) + iV x ( z , 0)

⇒ F ′( z ) = −e z + ie z = ( −1 + i )e z
Integrating, F ( z ) = ( −1 + i ) ∫ e z dz
⇒ (3 + 2i )f ( z ) = ( −1 + i )e z + c
( −1 + i )e z c
⇒ f (z ) = +
3 + 2i 3 + 2i
(3 − 2i )( −1 + i )e z ( −1 + 5i )e z c
= + c1 = + c1 , c1 =
9+4 13 3 + 2i
EXERCISE 15.2
1. Show that the following functions are harmonic.
y
(i) u = 2x − x3 +3xy2 (ii) v ( x , y ) = − (iii) u = 3x 2 y − y 3
x +y2
2
(iv) u = loge x 2 + y 2 (v) v = log[( x − 1) 2 + ( y − 2) 2 ]

x
2. If w = f + ic represents the complex potential of an electric field and c = x 2 − y 2 + 2
determine f. x + y2
3. Find the analytic function f(z) = u + iv if u = e − x {( x 2 − y 2 ) cos y + 2xy sin y }.
4. Find the analytic function w = u + iv given that v = e − x {x cos y + y sin y } and w (0) = 1.
5. Determine the analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv whose real part u = e 2 x ( x cos 2 y − y sin 2 y ).
6. Determine the analytic function f(z) = u + iv if v = log( x 2 + y 2 ) + x − 2 y .
7. Show that the function
u = sin x cosh y + 2 cos x sinh y + x 2 − y 2 + 4 xy is harmonic and find the analytic function
f(z) = u + iv.
8. Find the analytic function f(z) = u + iv, given that 2u + v = e 2 x {( 2x + y ) cos 2 y + ( x − 2 y ) sin 2 y }.
e y − cos x + sin x ⎛ p⎞ 3 − i ,
9. If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function of z = x + iy and, u − v = and f ⎜ ⎟ =
cosh y − sin x ⎝ 2⎠ 2
then find f(z).
10. If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function of z, then find f(z) if 2u + v = ex(cos y − sin y).
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
11. If w = f(z) is a regular function of z, prove that ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ log f ′( z ) = 0.
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
12. If f(z) is analytic, then prove that ∇ 2 loge f ( z ) = 0.
13. Determine the analytic function u + iv whose real part u = x3 − 3xy2 + 3x2 − 3y2 + 1.
14. Prove that the function v = e−x (x cos y + y sin y) is harmonic and determine the corresponding
analytic function f(z) = u + iv.
15. Show that the function u(x, y) = 3x2y + 2x2 − y3 − 2y2 is harmonic. Find the conjugate harmonic
function v and express u + iv as an analytic function of z.

16. If u = log(x2 + y2), then find v and f(z) such that f(z) = u + iv is analytic.
17. Find the analytic function w = u + iv given v = e−2xy ⋅ sin(x2 − y2).
x
18. If w = u + iv is an analytic function and v = x 2 − y 2 + find u.
x2 + y 2
19. Find the analytic function f(z) = u + iv if u − v = (x − y)(x2 + 4xy + y2).
cos x + sin x − e − y
20. If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function of z and u − v = , find f(z) given that
2(cos x − cosh y )
⎛ p⎞
f ⎜ ⎟ = 0.
⎝ 2⎠
21. Determine the analytic function f(z) = u + iv given that 3u + 2v = y2 − x2 + 16xy.

y
2. f = −2xy + +c 3. f(z) = z2 ⋅ e−z + c 4. w = ize−z + 1
x2 + y 2
5. f(z) = ze2z + c 6. f(z) = (i − 2)z + 2ilogz + c 7. f(z) = (1 − 2i)(sinz + z2) + c
z 1− i 1 + 3i ⎞ z
8. f(z) = ze2z + c 9. f ( z ) = cot + 10. f ( z ) = ⎛⎜ e +c
2 2 ⎝ 5 ⎟⎠
13. z3 + 3z2 + c 14. ize−z + c 15. v = 4xy − x3 + 3xy2 + c2
y y
16. v = 2 tan −1 + c2 17. f ( z ) = e iz + c 18. u = −2xy + 2 + c1
2
x x +y2
1⎛ z⎞
19. f ( z ) = −iz 3 + c1 20. f ( z ) = ⎜1 − cot ⎟⎠ 21. f ( z ) = (1 − 2i )z 2 + c ′.
2⎝ 2
15.5 CONFORMAL MAPPING

In this section we study mappings w = f(z) which map curves and regions from one complex plane
to the other complex plane. We will discuss how arcs and regions in z-plane are transformed to the
w-plane by some elementary functions and bilinear functions.
Conformal mappings transform curves and domains from one complex plane to the other with
regard to size and orientation. Conformal mappings play an important role in the study of various
physical phenomena defined on domains and curves of arbitrary shape. Smaller portions of these
domains and arcs are conformally mapped by analytic functions to well-known domains and arcs and
then studied.
We know that the circle x2 + y2 = 1 in the xy-plane can be written parametrically as x = cost,
y = sint, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2p.
In the complex plane we write this as
z(t) = cost + i sint, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2p.
Definition 15.9 Arc

An arc in the complex plane is a set of points z = (x, y), if x = x(t) and y = y(t) are
continuous functions of t in the interval [a, b].

It is convenient to describe the points of the arc by the B

equation z = z(t), where z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b.
The sense of increasing values of the parameter t is
called positive sense of the arc. In this way z(t) defines an
orientation of the arc. C
An arc with sense attached is called an oriented arc and
the sense is indicated by arrow head. A
Simple arc and simple closed curve

Definition 15.10 The arc z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, is called a simple arc if it does not cross itself.
That is z(t1) ≠ z(t2) if t1 ≠ t2.
A simple arc is also known as Jordan arc.
If an arc is simple except for z(b) = z(a), then we say it is a simple closed curve or Jordan curve.
For example: z(t) = cos t + i sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ p is a simple arc. This arc is the upper semi-circle.
But z(t) = cos t + i sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2p is a simple closed curve, since z(0) = z(2p). This curve is a unit
circle.
Definition 15.11 Smooth arc

An arc given by z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b is called a smooth arc if x′(t) and y′(t) are continuous
functions and z′(t) = x′(t) + y′(t) ≠ 0 ∀ t ∈ (a, b).
Angle of intersection of two arcs

Definition 15.12 The angle of intersection of two smooth arcs C1, C2 at a point of intersection P is
defined as the angle between the oriented tangents to C1 and C2 at the point P.
15.5.1 Angle of Rotation

Let z = z(t) be a smooth arc C given by
z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b
∴ z′(t) = x′(t) + iy′(t) ≠ 0 ∀ t ∈ (a, b)
Let f(z) be a function defined on the arc C.
Then w = f(z) = f[z(t)], a ≤ t ≤ b is the parametric equation of the image of C under the map
w = f(z).
Suppose C passes through z0 and f is analytic at z0 and f ′(z0) ≠ 0.
If w(t) = f[z(t)], then by chain rule
w′(t0) = f ′[(z(t0))] ⋅ z′(t0), a ≤ t0 ≤ b (1)
since f ′(z0) ≠ 0, f ′[z(t0)] ≠ 0 [{ z0 = z(t0)]
∴ arg w′(t0) = arg f ′(z0) + arg z′(t0) (2)
This equation gives the relation between the directions of C and C′ at the points z0 and w0 = f(z0)
respectively.
Let c0 = arg f′(z0) and let u0 be the angle of inclination of the directed tangent line to C at z0 with
x-axis and u0 = arg z′(t0)
∴ arg w′(t0) = c0 + u0

The image of z0 is w0 and the image of C is C′ under w = f(z).

∴ f0 = arg w′(t0) is the inclination of the directed tangent line to C′ at the point w0 = f(z0).
∴ f0 = c0 + u0
Hence, f0 − u0 = c0
c0 is called the angle of rotation.

Hence, arg f ′(z0) is the angle of rotation by the map w 5 f(z) at z0.
Definition 15.13 Conformal Mapping

A mapping or transformation w = f(z) is said to be conformal at a point z0 if it preserves the angle
between any two oriented arcs passing through z0 in magnitude and sense.
A mapping w = f(z) is said to be conformal in a domain D if it is conformal at each point of the
domain.
Theorem 15.2 A mapping w = f(z) is conformal at a point z0 if it is analytic at z0 and f ′(z0) ≠ 0.
y v
w0
z0 θ0 ψ0
O x O u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.8 Fig. 15.9

Proof Let C1 and C2 be two smooth arcs passing through z0 in the z-plane. Let u1 and u2 be the inclina-
tions of the directed tangents to C1 and C2 at z0 with the x-axis.
Let C1′ and C 2′ be the images of C1 and C2 in the w-plane under the map w = f(z) and let w0 = f(z0).
Let f1 and f2 be the angles of inclination of the directed tangents to w0 to C1′ and C 2′ respectively.
y v
C2 C ′2
C1 C ′1
θ2−θ1 φ2−φ1
θ2 φ2
θ1 φ1
z0 w0
O x O u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.10 Fig. 15.11

Then from the above discussion, we get

f1 = c0 + u1 for C1 and f2 = c0 + u2 for C2
Hence, f2 − f1 = u2 − u1
This means angle between C1 and C2; C1′ and C 2′ are the same in magnitude as well as sense.
∴ w = f(z) is conformal at z0 ■
Note If w = f(z) is conformal at z0, then it is conformal at each point in a neighbourhood of z0.
Definition 15.14 Critical points

Let f(z) be a non-constant analytic function in a domain D. If f ′(z0) = 0 for some z0 in D, then z0 is
called a critical point of the transformation w = f(z).
Critical points of a general complex function f(z) are the points where f ′(z) = 0 or f ′(z) does not exist.
Definition 15.15 Fixed points or Invariant points

A fixed point of a transformation w = f(z) is a point z0 such that f(z0) = z0.
That is if a point is mapped onto itself then it is called the fixed point of the map.
Definition 15.16 Scale factor of a conformal mapping w = f(z) at z0 is f ′( z 0 ) .

If f ′( z 0 ) > 1, then f ′( z 0 ) represents an expansion.
If f ′( z 0 ) < 1, then f ′( z 0 ) represents a contraction.
Note
1. Though the angle of rotation arg f ′(z) and scale factor f ′( z ) vary from point to point, it follows
from the continuity of f ′ that their values are approximately equal to arg f ′(z0) and f ′( z 0 ) at
points z near z0. Hence, the image of a small region in a neighbourhood of z0 conforms to the
original region in the sense that it has approximately the same shape. However, a large region may
be transformed into a region that bears no resemblance to the original one.
2. An important property of conformal mapping w = f(z) is that f(z) has local inverse in some
neighbourhood of the point z0
i.e., if w0 = f(z0), then there exists a unique transformation z = g(w) which is conformal at w0. g is
called the local inverse of f.
3. Constant mapping has no critical points and its scale factor is undefined.
4. The elementary functions ez, sinz, cosz, sinhz, coshz, loge z define conformal mappings.
15.5.2 Mapping by Elementary Functions

We shall now see how various curves and regions are mapped by some elementary analytic functions.
Type I. Translation
The mapping w 5 z 1 b, where b is a complex constant, is a translation by means of the vector
representing b.
Let z = x + iy, w = u + iv and b = b1 + ib2
∴ u + iv = x + iy + b1 + ib2
⇒ u + iv = x + b1 + i(y + b2) ∴ u = x + b1 and v = y + b2
∴ the image of any point (x, y) in the z-plane is the point (x + b1, y + b2) in the w-plane. If we
assume the w-plane is superimposed on the z-plane the figure is shifted through a distance given by the
vector b. But the size and shape remain the same. So, circles are transformed into circles, squares are
transformed into squares etc.

In general under the transformation the image region is geometrically congruent to the original region.
Note If b = 0, then the mapping is w = z, which is called identity mapping.
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Find the image of the region bounded by x 5 0, y 5 0, x 5 1, y 5 2 under the map w 5 z 1 2 2 i.
Solution.
Given w=z+2−i
Let w = u + iv , z = x + iy
∴ u + iv = x + iy + 2 − i = ( x + 2) + i ( y − 1)
∴ u = x + 2 and v = y −1
When x = 0, u = 2, y = 0, v = −1
When x = 1, u = 3, y = 2, v = 1
Hence, the lines x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y = 2 in the z-plane are mapped onto the lines u = 2, u = 3, v = −1,
v = 1 in w-plane and they form a rectangle.
y
y=2
v
v=1
x=0 x=1
u=2 u=3
O y=0 x O u
z-plane
v = −1
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.12 Fig. 15.13
∴ under w = z + (2 − i), the given rectangular region is mapped onto an identical rectangle as in Fig. 15.13.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the image of the circle ⎢z ⎢ 5 1 under the map w 5 z 1 (2 1 2i).
Solution.
Given w = z + 2 + 2i
∴ u + iv = x + iy + 2 + 2i ⇒ u + iv = (x + 2) + i(y + 2)
∴ u = x + 2, v=y+2
⇒ x = u − 2, y=v−2
∴ ⎢z ⎢ = 1 ⇒ x2 + y2 = 1 ⇒ (u − 2)2 + (v − 2)2 = 1

∴ the unit circle ⎢z ⎢ = 1 is mapped onto an equal circle with centre (2, 2) and radius 1 as in Fig. 15.15.
y v
(2, 2)
O (0, 0) x O u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.14 Fig. 15.15
Type II. The transformation w 5 az, where a is a non-zero complex constant and z Þ 0.
Let z = reiu, w = Reif
and a = a1eia where ⎢a ⎢ = a1, ⎢z ⎢ = r, ⎢w ⎢ = R
∴ Re if = a1e ia re iu = a1re i ( a + u )
∴ the transformation equations are R = a1r and f = a + u
Thus, the point (r, u) in the z-plane is mapped onto (a1r, a + u) in the w-plane. This means that
the magnitude of the vector representing z in the plane is magnified or contracted by a1 = ⎢a ⎢ in the
w-plane and rotated through an angle a = arg a.
Hence, the transformation consists of magnification and rotation. So, the image of a given region
is geometrically similar to that.
y P v Q
z w = az
θ θ+α
O x O u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.16 Fig. 15.17
Note
1. If a is a real number then a = 0
∴ The transformation w = az, where a is real represents magnification or contraction by ⎢a ⎢.
2. The general linear transformation w = az + b, a ≠ 0, a and b are complex numbers is a
composition of the transformation w = az and w = z + b.
M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART B.indd 38 5/17/2016 7:40:19 PM

Thus, the general linear transformation represents expansion or contraction by ⎢a ⎢and rotation
followed by a translation by the vector b.
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 3
Find the image of the rectangular region bounded by x 5 0, y 5 0, x 5 1, y 5 2 under the map
w 5 (1 1 i)z 1 2.
Solution.
Given w = (1 + i)z + 2
∴ u + iv = (1 + i)(x + iy) + 2 = x − y + 2 + i(x + y)
∴ u = x − y + 2 and v = x + y
We shall find the images of corners instead of sides.
When x = 0, y = 0, u = 2, v=0 ∴ O(0, 0) → O′(2, 0)
When x = 1, y = 0, u = 3, v=1 ∴ A(1, 0) → A′(3, 1)
When x = 1, y = 2, u = 1, v=3 ∴ B(1, 2) → B′(1, 3)
When x = 0, y = 2, u = 0, v=2 ∴ C(0, 2) → C′(0, 2)
y
v B ′ (1, 3)
C B
(0, 2) (1, 2)
C′ A′
(0, 2) (3, 1)
O A x O O ′(2, 0) u
(0, 0) (1, 0) (0, 0)
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.18 Fig. 15.19

Note that the image in the w-plane is obtained by magnification, rotation and translation (Fig. 15.19).
EXAMPLE 4
Draw the image of the square whose vertices are at (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1) in the z-plane under
the transformation w 5 (1 1 i)z. What has this transformation done to the original square?
Solution.
Given w = (1 + i)z
⇒ u + iv = (1 + i)(x + iy) = x − y + i(x + y)

∴ u=x−y (1) and v=x+y (2)

We shall find the images of the corners.
We find (x, y) → (u, v)
When x = 0, y = 0, u = 0, v=0 ∴ (0, 0) → (0, 0)
When x = 1, y = 0, u = 1, v=1 ∴ (1, 0) → (1, 1)
When x = 1, y = 1, u = 0, v=2 ∴ (1, 1) → (0, 2)
When x = 0, y = 1, u = −1, v=1 ∴ (0, 1) → (−1, 1)
y v
B ′ (0, 2)
C B (1, 1)
(0, 1) C′ A′ (1, 1)
(−1, 1)
O A (1, 0) x O
u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.20 Fig. 15.21
In the original square the radius vector of each corner (other than origin) is extended 2 times and rotated
⎛ p⎞
through an angle of ⎜ ⎟ about the origin in the anticlockwise sense and thus the new square is obtained.
⎝ 4⎠
OA ′ = 2 = 2 OA , OB ′ = 2 = 2 OB , OC ′ = 2 = 2 OC .
We shall now define a pure geometrical concept inversion for the sake of the next transformation.
Definition 15.17
The inverse of a point P with respect to a circle with centre O
and radius r is a point P′ on OP such that OP.OP′ = r2
P
If P is inside the circle, then P′ will be outside the circle. P′
1
Type III. The transformation w 5
z O
This transformation is conformal for all z ≠ 0.
1
w = ⇒ w z =1
z
It represents inversion with respect to the unit circle z = 1, followed by reflexion in the real axis.
Let z = re iu and w = R e if
1 1 e − iu 1
Then w = ⇒ R e if = = ⇒ R= , f = −u
z re iu r r

1
Thus, w = , arg w = − arg z
z
⎛1 ⎞ 1
∴ the image of P(r, u) is Q ⎜ , −u⎟ under the transformation w =
⎝r ⎠ z
If we assume that the w-plane is super-imposed on the z-plane and if P′ is the inverse of P with
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ 1
respect to z = 1, then P′ is ⎜ , u⎟ . The reflection of P′ in the real axis is Q ⎜⎝ , − u⎟⎠ . Thus, w =
⎝r ⎠ r z
consists of inversion with respect to z = 1 followed by reflection in the real axis.
If z < 1, then w > 1 and so interior of the circle z = 1 is mapped onto the exterior of w = 1
and vice-versa. The circle z = 1 is mapped onto w = 1
1 1
Since lim = ∞ and lim = 0, the centre of the circle O is mapped onto ∞.
z →0 z z →∞ z
1
Thus, w = defines a one to one correspondence between the extended z-plane and the extended
z
w-plane.
1
When w = u + iv is the image of a non-zero point z = x + iy under the transformation w = , then
z
z z x − iy
w = = ⇒ u + iv =
zz z
2
x2 + y 2
x y
∴ u= and v=−
x + y2
2
x + y2
2
1 w w
Also z= ⇒ z= = 2
w ww w
u − iv u v
⇒ x + iy = ∴ x= 2 and y=− 2
u +v
2 2
u +v 2
u + v2
These relations between the coordinates is useful to study the images of points.
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 5
1
Show that the transformation w 5 maps a circle in the z-plane into a circle in the w-plane or
z
to a straight line.
Solution.
1
Given w =
z

Let w = u + iv and z = x + iy
1 1 w u − iv
Now w = ⇒ z = = ⇒ x + iy =
z w ww u2 + v 2
u v
∴ x= and y =−
u +v 2
2
u +v 2
2
The general equation of the circle in the z-plane is

x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)
⎛ v ⎞
2 2
u v u
⇒ + 2 + 2g 2 + 2f ⎜ − 2 ⎟ +c = 0
(u + v ) (u + v )
2 2 2 2 2
u +v 2 ⎝ u +v 2 ⎠
u2 + v 2 2gu 2fv
⇒ + 2 − 2 +c = 0
(u + v ) u + v
2 2 2 2
u +v 2
⇒ 1 + 2gu − 2fv + c (u 2 + v 2 ) = 0
⇒ c (u 2 + v 2 ) + 2gu − 2fv + 1 = 0 (2)

If (1) does not pass through the origin, then c ≠ 0.
∴ (2) is a circle in the w-plane.
1
∴ w = transforms a circle in the z-plane not passing through the origin into a circle not passing
z
through the origin in the w-plane.
If (1) passes through the origin, then c = 0.
∴ (2) becomes 2gu − 2fv + 1 = 0, which is a straight line in the w-plane not passing through the
origin.
Thus, a circle in the z-plane not passing through origin is mapped onto a circle in the w-plane and
a circle through origin is mapped onto a straight line in the w-plane.
EXAMPLE 6
1
Find the image of the strip 1 < x < 2 under the map w 5 .
z
Solution.
1
Given w =
z
1 w w u − iv
⇒ z = = = ⇒ x + iy =
w ww w 2 u2 + v 2
u v
∴ x= and y=−
u + v2
2
u + v2
2
u
Given 1<x<2 ⇒ 1< <2 ⇒ u 2 + v 2 < u < 2(u 2 + v 2 )
u +v 2
2

Now u2 + v 2 0 ⇒ u2 + v 2 − >0
2
u
which is the exterior of the circle u 2 + v 2 − =0 (2)
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
Its centre is ⎜ + , 0⎟ , r =
⎝ 4 ⎠ 4
∴ the strip 1 < x < 2 is mapped onto the region between the two circles (1) and (2) as in Fig. 15.23.
v
y
x ⎛ 1 ,0⎞ ⎛ 1 ,0⎞ u
⎝4 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
x=1 x=2
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.22 Fig. 15.23
EXAMPLE 7
Find the image of the square whose vertices are z 5 1 1 i, 3 1 i, 1 1 3i and 3 1 3i under the
1
transformation w 5 .
z
Solution.
Let A, B, C, D represent the complex numbers 1 + i, 3 + i, 1 + 3i, 3 + 3i respectively in the z-plane.
⇒ A(1,1), B(3,1), C(1,3) D(3,3)
1 1 w u − iv
w = ⇒ z = = ⇒ x + iy = 2
u +v 2
2
z w w
u v
∴ x= and y=− 2
x2 + v2 u + v2
Equation of AB is y = 1, Equation of CD is y = 3, Equation of AD is x = 1, Equation of BC is x = 3
v
Image of y = 1 is 1 = − 2 ⇒ u2 + v2 = −v ⇒ u2 + v2 + v = 0 (1)
u +v 2

1
which is a circle with centre (0, −1/2) and r =
2
v 1
Image of y = 3 is 3= − ⇒ u2 + v 2 + v = 0 (2)
u +v 2
2
3
⎛ 1⎞ 1
which is a circle with centre ⎜⎝ 0, − ⎟⎠ and r= .
6 6
u u2 + v 2 − u = 0
Image of x = 1 is 1= ⇒
u +v 2
2
⎛1 ⎞ 1
which is a circle with centre ⎜⎝ , 0⎟⎠ and r=
2 2
u 1
Image of x = 3 is 3= ⇒ u2 + v 2 − u = 0
u2 + v 2 3
⎛1 ⎞ 1
which is a circle with centre ⎜⎝ , 0⎟⎠ and r= .
6 6
x y
We have u= and v = −
x +y2
2
x +y2
2
1 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞
When x = 1, y = 1, u = , v =− ∴ A (1, 1) → A ′ ⎜ , − ⎟
2 2 ⎝ 2 2⎠
3 1
∴ ⎛ 3 1⎞
When x = 3, y = 1, u = , v = − B (3, 1) → B ′ ⎜ , − ⎟
10 10 ⎝ 10 10 ⎠
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 3⎞
Similarly, C (3, 3) → C ′ ⎜ , − ⎟ and D (1, 3) → D ′ ⎜ , − ⎟
⎝ 6 6⎠ ⎝ 10 10 ⎠
y
(1, 3) v
y=3 C (3, 3)
D
x=1 x=3
A ⎛1 ⎞
y=1 B ,0
(1, 1) (3, 1) O ⎝2 ⎠
O x B′ u
C′
⎛ 1⎞ D ′
0,− A′
⎝ 2⎠
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.24 Fig. 15.25

∴ the image of the interior of the square ABCD is the region A′B′C′D′ bounded by the 4 circles which
are the images of the sides of the square as in Fig. 15.25.
EXAMPLE 8
1
Under the transformation w 5 , find the image of the region
z
(i) x > c where c > 0, and (ii) y > c, where c < 0.
Solution.
1
Given the transformation w =
z
1 w w u − iv
⇒ z = = = ⇒ x + iy =
w ww w 2 u2 + v 2
u v
∴ x= and y=− 2
u +v 2 2
u + v2
(i) x > c, c > 0. This region in the z-plane is the right side of the line x = c as shown in Fig. 15.26.
u u u
∴ >c ⇒ > u2 + v 2 ⇒ u2 + v 2 − <0
u +v 2
2
c c
= 0 in the w-plane with centre ⎛⎜ , 0⎞⎟ and r =

u 1 1
∴ the image is the interior of the circle u 2 + v 2 −
c ⎝ 2c ⎠ 2c
as in Fig. 15.27.
x>c v
y
x=c ⎛ 1 ⎞
,0
⎝ 2c ⎠
x O u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.26 Fig. 15.27
(ii) y > c, c < 0
∴
v
⇒
v
⇒ u2 + v 2 +
v [{ c < 0 dividing by c ,
− >c − < u2 + v 2 >0
u2 + v 2 c c the inequality changes]

y v
⎛ 1⎞
C 0,−
⎝ 2c⎠
O
x u
y = c, c < 0
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.28 Fig. 15.29
∴ the image is the exterior of the circle u 2 + v 2 +

v ⎛ 1⎞
= 0 in the w-plane with centre ⎜ 0, − ⎟ and
c ⎝ 2c ⎠
1
radius = as in Fig. 15.29.
2 c
Type IV. The transformation w 5 z2
We have seen that the function w = z2 is analytic [Refer worked example 8(1), Page 17]. So, the
transformation is conformal at all points except when
dw
=0 ⇒ 2z = 0 ⇒ z = 0.
dz
(A) Cartesian Coordinates
Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv
∴ w = z2 ⇒ u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + 2ixy
u = x2 − y2 (1) and v = 2xy (2)
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 9
Find the image of the line y 5 b parallel to the x-axis and the image of the line x 5 a parallel to
the y-axis under the transformation w 5 z2.
Solution.
The given transformation is w = z2

Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv
∴ u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + 2ixy
⇒ u = x2 − y2 (1) and v = 2xy (2)
(i) A line parallel to the x-axis is y = b, b ≠ 0

∴ (1) ⇒ u = x2 − b2 ⇒ x2 = u + b2
v v2
and (2) ⇒ v = 2bx ⇒ x= ,b ≠ 0 ⇒ x2 =
2b 4b 2
Eliminating x, we get
v2
= u + b2 ⇒ v2 = 4b2 (u + b2)
4b 2
This is a parabola with vertex at the point (−b2, 0) and latus rectum 4b2 and the focus is the origin
O(0, 0) of the w-plane.
Thus, the image of the line y = b is the parabola v2 = 4b2(u + b2) in the w-plane as in Fig. 15.31.
y
v 2 = 4b 2(u + b2)
y = b, b > 0
O y=0 x (−b 2, 0) O (0, 0) u
y = b, b < 0
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.30 Fig. 15.31

(ii) A line parallel to the y-axis is x = a, a ≠ 0
∴ (1) ⇒ u = a2 − y2 ⇒ y2 = a2 − u
v v2
and (2) ⇒ v = 2ay ⇒ y = ⇒ y2 =
2a 4a2
Eliminating y, we get
v2
= a2 − u ⇒ v2 = 4a2(a2 − u) ⇒ v2 = −4a2(u − a2)
4a2
This is a parabola with vertex at the point (a2, 0) and focus is the origin O(0, 0)
Thus, the image of the line x = a, a ≠ 0 is the parabola v2 = −4a2(u − a2) in the w-plane as in the
Fig. 15.33.

v
v 2 = −4a2(u − a2)
y
O x (a2, 0) u
(0, 0) O
x = a, a < 0 x = a, a > 0
z-plane
w-plane
Fig. 15.32 Fig. 15.33
EXAMPLE 10
Find the image of the half lines (i) x 5 a, y ≥ 0

(ii) x 5 a, y ≤ 0, where a > 0, under the transformation w 5 z2.
Solution.
⇒ u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + i2xy
⇒ u = x2 − y2 (1) and v = 2xy (2)
(i) The line x = a > 0, y ≥ 0 is the half line parallel to the y-axis and above the x-axis
∴ u = a2 − y2 ⇒ y2 = a2 − u
v v2
and v = 2ay ⇒ y = ⇒ y2 = 2
2a 4a
v2
= a2 − u ⇒ = 4a2(a2 − u) ⇒ v2 = −4a2(u − a2)
4a2
This is a parabola with vertex (a2, 0) and in the direction of the negative u-axis.
v
v 2 = −4a2(u − a2)
y
x = a, y ≥ 0
O (0, 0) O (a2, 0) u
x
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.34 Fig. 15.35

Since a > 0, y ≥ 0, we have v ≥ 0. So, the image is the half parabola and it exists above the u-axis
in the w-plane as in Fig. 15.35.
(ii) The line x = a > 0, y ≤ 0 is the half line below the x-axis.
∴ u = a2 − y2 ⇒ y2 = a2 − u
v v2
and v = 2ay ⇒ y = ⇒ y2 = ,a≠0
2a 4a2
v2
= a2 − u ⇒ v2 = −4a2(u − a2)
4a2
v
O u
x
x = a, y ≤ 0
v 2 = –4a2(u – a2)
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.36 Fig. 15.37
This is a parabola with vertex at the point (a2, 0) and the direction of the negative u-axis.
Since a > 0, y ≤ 0, we have v ≤ 0.
So, the image is the half parabola and it exists below the u-axis in the w-plane as in Fig. 15.37
EXAMPLE 11
Find the image of the region bounded by x 5 a1, x 5 a2, and y 5 b1, y 5 b2 (a2 > a1 > 0 and
b2 > b1 > 0) under the transformation w 5 z2.
Solution.
⇒ u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + 2ixy
∴ u = x2 − y2 (1) and v = 2xy (2)
From the example 9, the image of the line x = a1 is the parabola v 2 = −4a12 (u − a12 ) and the image of
the line x = a2 is the parabola v 2 = −4a22 (u − a22 )
The image of the line y = b1 is the parabola v 2 = 4b12 (u + b12 ) and the image of the line y = b2 is the
parabola v 2 = 4b 22 (u + b 22 )

y v
y = b2
y = b1
u
O x O
x = a1 x = a2
z-plane
w-plane
Fig. 15.38 Fig. 15.39
The image of the given region in the z-plane is the regions bounded by the four parabolas in the
w-plane and they are the shaded regions as in Fig. 15.39.
Note x = a1 and y = b1 are perpendicular to each other. It can be seen that the images v 2 = −4a12 (u − a12 )
and v 2 = 4b12 (u + b12 ) are orthogonal to each other in the w-plane.
EXAMPLE 12
Find the image of the triangular region bounded by the lines x 5 1, y 5 1, x 1 y 5 1 in the z-plane
under the transformation w 5 z2.
Solution.
The given transformation is w = z2.
⇒ u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + 2ixy
∴ u = x2 − y2 (1) and v = 2xy (2)
The image of x = 1 is given by
u = 1 − y2 ⇒ y2 = 1 − u
v v2
and v = 2y ⇒ y = ⇒ y2 =
2 4
v2
= 1−u ⇒ v2 = −4(u − 1) (3)
4
It is a parabola with vertex (1, 0) and focus is the origin O(0, 0) and in the direction of the negative
u-axis.
The image of y = 1 is given by
u = x2 − 1 ⇒ x2 = u + 1
v v2
and v = 2x ⇒ x= ⇒ x2 =
2 4

Eliminating x, we get
v2
= u + 1 ⇒ v2 = 4(u + 1) (4)
4
which is a parabola with vertex (−1, 0) and focus is the origin O(0, 0)
The image of x + y = 1 is given by
u = x2 − (1 − x)2 [{ y = 1 − x]
= x2 − (1 − 2x + x2) = 2x − 1
1
⇒ 2x = u + 1 ⇒ x = (u + 1)
and v = 2x(1 − x) 2
⎛ u + 1⎞ 1 1
= (u + 1) ⎜1 − ⎟ = (u + 1)(1 − u ) = (1 − u 2 )
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2
⇒ 2v = 1 − u2
⎛ 1⎞
⇒ u2 = −2v + 1 ⇒ u 2 = −2 ⎜ v − ⎟ (5)
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 1⎞
This is a parabola with vertex ⎜ 0, ⎟ and downward in the w-plane and focus is the origin O(0, 0).
⎝ 2⎠
Putting u = 0 in (3) and (4), we get
v2 = 4 ⇒ v = ±2.
and putting v = 0 in (5) u2 = 1 ⇒ u = ±1
∴ the parabolae v2 = −4(u − 1) and v2 = 4(u + 1)
meet the v-axis at the points (0, 2) and (0, −2)
⎛ 1⎞
The parabolae u2 = −4(v − 1) and u 2 = −2 ⎜ v − ⎟ meet at the point (1, 0) and the parabolae u2 = 4(v + 1)
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 1⎞
and u 2 = −2 ⎜ v − ⎟ meet at the point (−1, 0).
⎝ 2⎠
We shall draw the figure to show the image.
y v
C (1, 1) v 2 = 4(u + 1)
(0, 1) B
C′
⎛ 1⎞⎟ (0, 2)
⎜⎜0, ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
v 2 = −4(u − 1)
B′ A′
O A (1, 0) x (−1, 0) O (0, 0) (1, 0) u
⎛ 1⎞ (0, −2)
u 2 = −2 v,−
⎝ 2⎠
z-plane
w-plane
Fig. 15.40 Fig. 15.41

A is the point (1, 0) i.e., x = 1, y = 0 ∴ u = 1, v = 0

∴ A(1, 0) → A′(1, 0) in the w-plane
B is the point (0, 1) i.e., x = 0, y = 1 ∴ u = −1, v = 0
∴ B(0, 1) → B′(−1, 0) in the w-plane
C is the point (1, 1) i.e., x = 1, y = 1 ∴ u = 0, v = 2
∴ C(1, 1) → C′(0, 2) in the w-plane
Hence, the triangular region ABC in the z-plane is mapped onto the shaded region A′B′C′ in the
w-plane as in Fig. 15.41.
EXAMPLE 13
Find the region in the z-plane whose image under the w 5 z2 is the rectangular region bounded
by the lines u 5 1, u 5 2, v 5 1, v 5 2 in the w-plane.
Solution.
⇒ u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + i2xy
∴ u = x2 − y2 (1)
and v = 2xy (2)
The given lines in the w-plane are u = 1, u = 2, v = 1, v = 2 which bounds a rectangular region as shown
in Fig. 15.42. Putting u = 1, u = 2, v = 1, v = 2 in (1) and (2), we get
x2 − y2 = 1, x2 − y2 = 2
1
xy = , xy = 1
2
These four curves are rectangular hyperbolae in the z-plane as shown in Fig. 15.43 and the required
region is the shaded regions in the z-plane.
v y
v=2
v=1
u O x
u=1 u=2
w-plane z-plane
Fig. 15.42 Fig. 15.43

1
Note The rectangular hyperbolae x2 − y2 = 1, x2 − y2 = 2 and xy = , xy = 1 form the pairs of
orthogonal curves. 2
1
Consider x2 − y2 = 1 (1) and xy = (2)
2
Let (x1, y1) be a point of intersection of the curves (1) and (2)
Differentiating (1) w.r.to x, we get
dy dy x
2x − 2 y =0 ⇒ =
dx dx y
dy x 1
The slope of the tangent at the point (x1, y1) is m1 = =
dx y 1
Differentiating (2) w.r.to x, we get
dy dy y
x⋅+ y ⋅1 = 0 ⇒ =−
dx dx x
dy y1
The slope of the tangent at the point (x1, y1) is m 2 = =−
dx x1
x1 ⎛ y 1 ⎞
∴ product of slopes is m1 m 2 = − = −1
y 1 ⎜⎝ x 1 ⎟⎠
So, the two rectangular hyperbolae are orthogonal.

Similarly, we can prove the other pairs of the rectangular hyperbola are also orthogonal.
(B) The transformation w 5 z2 in polar coordinates
So far we have been discussing the transformation w = z2 using rectangular coordinates. This is useful
for discussing images of lines and parabolas. But when the image of a circle, sector of a circle and
quadrant of a circle are required, it will be convenient to use polar coordinates (or modulus amplitude
form)
Put z = reiu and w = R eif

where z =r and w =R and arg z = u and arg w = f
∴ w=z 2
⇒ R e = (r e ) = r e
if if 2 2 i2u
⇒ R(cos f + i sin f) = r2 (cos 2u + i sin 2u)
∴ R = r2 ⇒ w = z
2
and f = 2u ⇒ arg w = 2 arg z

Let z = r0 be a given circle
Let P be any point on it, where P = r0e iu .
Let Q be the point in the w-plane, which is the image of the point P in the z-plane, under w = z2.
Then Q = r0 2e i 2u
This means that Q is a point on the circle w = r02
Thus, R = r02 and f = 2u.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 14
p
Find the image of the region r ≤ 2, 0 ≤ u ≤ under the map w 5 z2, where z 5 reiu.
4
Solution.
p
The given region r ≤ 2, 0 ≤ u ≤ is the sector of the circle z = 2 as in Fig. 15.44.
4
The given transformation is w = z2. The image of a sector is required.
Put z = r eiu and w = R eif
∴ R eif = (r eiu)2 = r2 ei2u ⇒ R = r2 and f = 2u
p p p
Here r≤2 ⇒ R≤4 and 0≤u≤ ⇒ 0 ≤ 2u ≤ ⇒ 0≤f≤ .
4 2 2
v
y
|w|=4
|z|=2
π π
2
4
O x O u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.44 Fig. 15.45

∴ the image of the given region in the z-plane is the quadrant of the circle w = 4 in the w-plane as
in Fig. 15.45.
EXAMPLE 15
Find the image of the circle z2 2 5 2 under the transformation w 5 z2.
Solution.
The given region is the circle z − 2 = 2
Since, the image of the circle z − 2 = 2 is required,
put z − 2 = 2eiu and w = R eif
∴ z = 2 + 2eiu, 0 ≤ u ≤ 2p

i.e., z is any point on the circle z − 2 = 2, centre (2, 0) and radius 2.

∴ w = z2 ⇒ R eif = (2 + 2eiu)2
= 22 (1 + e iu ) 2
= 4[1 + cos u + i sin u]2
2
⎡ u u u⎤
= 4 ⎢ 2 cos 2 + i 2 sin cos ⎥
⎣ 2 2 2⎦
u iu
2 2
⎛ u⎞ ⎡ u u⎤
= 4 ⎜ 2 cos ⎟ ⎢cos + i sin ⎥ = 16 cos 2 ⋅ (e 2 ) 2
⎝ 2⎠ ⎣ 2 2⎦ 2
u iu
⇒ R e if = 16 cos 2 (e )
2
u
∴ R = 16 cos 2 and f = u
2
⇒ R = 8(1 + cos u) and f = u
⇒ R = 8(1 + cos f), 0 ≤ f ≤ 2p
which is a cardiod.
Thus, the image of the circle z − 2 = 2 is a cardiod in the w-plane as in Fig. 15.47.
v
8
x O u
O (2, 0)
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.46 Fig. 15.47
Type V. The exponential transformation w = ez

The transformation is
w = ez
⇒ u + iv = e x + iy
= e ⋅ e = ex[cos y + i sin y]
x iy
∴ u = ex cos y (1) v = ex sin y (2)

∴ u2 + v2 = e2x cos2y + e2x sin2y = e2x[cos2y + sin2y]
⇒ u2 + v2 = e2x (3)
v
and = tan y (4)
u

Sometimes it is convenient to use polar form for w.

put w = R eif
∴ R eif = ex + iy = ex ⋅ eiy
⇒ R = ex and f=y (5)
So, w =e x
and arg w = y
dw
Since ez is analytic everywhere, the transformation w = ez is conformal everywhere, as = ez ≠ 0
dz
for any z.
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 16
Find the image under w 5 ez of (i) x 5 a, (ii) x 5 0, (iii) y 5 b and (iv) y 5 0.
Solution.
w = ez
u + iv = ex + iy = ex ⋅ eiy = ex[cos y + i sin y]
∴ u = ex cos y (1) and v = ex sin y (2)
∴ u2 + v2 = e2x[cos2y + sin2y] = e2x
v
and tan y = ⇒ v = u tan y
u
(i) The image of the line x = a is given by u2 + v2 = e2a = constant.
This is a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius e 2a in the w-plane.
Thus, the image of the line x = a (that is a line parallel to the y-axis) is a circle with centre (0, 0)
and radius e 2a in the w-plane as in Fig. 15.49.
v
y
u 2 + v 2 = e 2a
x=a
O x O (0, 0) u
( e 2a, 0)
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.48 Fig. 15.49

(ii) When x = 0, u2 + v2 = e0 = 1.
So, the image of the line x = 0 (that is y-axis) is the unit circle u2 + v2 = 1 in the w-plane as in
Fig. 15.51.

x=0
O O (0, 0) (1, 0) u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.50 Fig. 15.51

(iii) The image of the line y = b is given by
v = u tan b = mu where m = tan b
This is a line through the origin with slope tan b in the w-plane.
∴ the image of the line y = b (that is a line parallel to the x-axis) is a line through the origin in
the w-plane as in Fig. 15.53.
y
v
y=b
v = mu
x O (0, 0) u
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.52 Fig. 15.53

(iv) When y = 0, v = u tan 0 ⇒ v = 0 and u = ex cos y = ex cos 0 = ex > 0
So, the image of the line y = 0 (that is the x-axis) is the positive u axis as in Fig. 15.55.
y
v
v=0
O y=0 x (0, 0) O u
z-axis w-axis
Fig. 15.54 Fig. 15.55

EXAMPLE 17
p p
Find the image of the rectangular region 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, ≤ y ≤ under the transformation w = ez.
6 3
Solution.
The given transformation is
w = ez = ex + iy = ex ⋅ eiy
∴ w = ex and arg w = y
Given 1≤x≤2 ⇒ e1 ≤ ex ≤ e2 ⇒ e ≤ w ≤ e2
p p p p
and ≤y ≤ ⇒ ≤ argw ≤ .
6 3 6 3
y v
π
y=
B C 3
C′
e2
=
π B′
w
y=
6
D′
e
A D
=
A′
w
O x O u
π π
x=1 x=2
3 6
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.56 Fig. 15.57
So, the image of the rectangular region in the z-plane is the region between the circles w = e ,
p p
w = e 2 and the lines argw = and argw = in the w-plane as in Fig. 15.57
6 3
1
Type VI. Joukowski Transformation w 5 z 1
z
1
Given w = z + .
z
This transformation is analytic everywhere except at a simple pole z = 0.
dw 1
= 1− 2
dz z
Hence, the mapping is conformal except at the critical points z = ±1, z = 0.

When z = 1, w = 1 + 1 = 2 and when z = −1, w = −1 − 1 = −2
∴ The points z = 1 and z = −1 are mapped onto w = 2 and w = −2, respectively.

Put z = re iu and w = u + iv
1 1
∴ u + iv = re iu + iu
= re iu + e − iu
re r
1
= r[cos u + i sin u] + [cos u − i sin u]
r
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= ⎜ r + ⎟ cos u + i ⎜ r − ⎟ sin u
⎝ r⎠ ⎝ r⎠
⎛ 1⎞ u
∴ u = ⎜ r + ⎟ cos u ⇒ cos u = (1)
⎝ r⎠ 1
r+
r
⎛ 1⎞ v
and v = ⎜ r − ⎟ sin u ⇒ sin u = (2)
⎝ r⎠ 1
r−
r
We know that cos 2 u + sin 2 u = 1
u2 v2 u2 v 2
⇒ 2
+ 2
=1 ⇒ + =1 (3)
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ a2 b 2
⎜⎝ r + ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ r − ⎟⎠
r r
1 1
where a= r+ , b= r− , r ≠1
r r
(i) The image of the circles z = r in the z-plane are mapped onto the ellipses (3) with centre at the
origin and axes, the u and v-axis with foci ( ±ae , 0), where
2 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 1
ae = a2 − b 2 = ⎜ r + ⎟ − ⎜ r − ⎟ = 4 ⋅ r ⋅ = 2 [{ (a + b ) 2 − (a − b ) 2 = 4ab ]
⎝ r⎠ ⎝ r⎠ r
∴ Foci are ( −2, 0) and ( 2, 0) which are independent of r.
So, the family of ellipses have foci ( −2, 0) and ( 2, 0) .
If r = 1, then the circle is z = 1 and u = 2 cos u and v = 0.
∴ −1 ≤ cos u ≤ 1 ⇒ −2 ≤ 2 cos u ≤ 2 ⇒ −2 ≤ u ≤ 2 and u = 0

∴ The image of the unit circle z = 1 is the interval −2 ≤ u ≤ 2 of the u-axis, and this forming a
cut. Thus, the interior of the unit circle is the interval ( −2, 2) of the u-axis.

y
v
x′ O x u′ (−2, 0) O (2, 0) u′
|z | = 1
y′ v′
z-plane w-plane
(ii) We shall now find the image of the concurrent lines u = a, a is arbitrary.
So, we eliminate r.
1 u 1 v
We have r + = ,r− =
r cos u r sin u
2 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
We know ⎜ r + ⎟ − ⎜ r − ⎟ = 4
⎝ r⎠ ⎝ r⎠
2
u v2 u2 v2
⇒ − = 4 ⇒ − =1
cos 2 u sin 2 u 4 cos 2 u 4 sin 2 u
Which are hyperbolas in the w-plane with same centre and same axes.
The foci are ( ±ae , 0) .
Here a = 2 cos u and b = 2 sin u
But, ae = a2 + b 2 = 4 cos 2 u + 4 sin 2 u = 4 = 2

∴ foci are ( −2, 0) and ( 2, 0).
∴ The images of concurrent lines through the pole are confocal hyperbolas.
1
If u = 0, then u = r + ≥ 2, v = 0
r
∴ The positive x-axis u = 0 is mapped onto the interval [2, ∞) of the u-axis.
⎛ 1⎞
If u = p, then u = − ⎜ r + ⎟ ≤ −2 and v = 0.
⎝ r⎠
∴ the negative x-axis u = p is mapped onto the interval ( −∞, −2] of the u-axis.
Thus, the x-axis is mapped onto the u-axis.
a2
Note: More generally the Joukowski transformation is w = z + , a > 0 . This transformation is
z
used in solutions of problems in hydrodynamics and aerodynamics.

It is also used in analysing fluid flow around aeroplane wings.

The aerofoil used in modern aeroplanes has a profile of a fish as in
Fig.15.58. Fig. 15.58
The exterior of the profile of an aeroplane wing is mapped onto the
exterior of a nearly circular region by this transformation.
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 18
1 p
Show that the transformation w 5 z 1 converts the straight line arg z 5 a, a < into a
z 2
branch of hyperbola with eccentricity sec a.
Solution.
1
The given transformation is w = z +
z
Put z = re iu and u = u + iv
where arg z = u and z =r

1 1
∴ u + iv = re iu + iu
= re iu + e − iu
re r
1
= r (cos u + i sin u) + (cos u − i sin u)
r
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
u = ⎜ r + ⎟ cos u (1) v = ⎜ r − ⎟ sin u (2)
⎝ r⎠ ⎝ r⎠
p
We want to find the image of arg z = a ⇒ u = a and a <
2
So, we eliminate r from the equations (1) and (2)
1 u 1 v
(1) ⇒ r+ = and (2) ⇒ r− =
r cos u r sin u
2 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 1
We know ⎜⎝ r + ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ r − ⎟⎠ = 4 r ⋅ = 4
r r r
u2 v2 u2 v2
⇒ − =4 ⇒ − =1
cos 2 u sin 2 u 4 cos 2 u 4 sin 2 u
Given u = a.
u2 v2
∴ − =1
4 cos 2 a 4 sin 2 a
which is a hyperbola with length of semi-major and minor axes
p
a = 2 cos a and b = 2 sin a , since a <
2

Foci are the points (ae , 0), ( −ae , 0)

Now eccentricity,
b2 4 sin 2 a v
e = 1+ = 1 + = 1 + tan 2 a = sec 2 a = sec a
a2 4 cos 2 a [{ sec a > 0]
Foci are the points ( 2 cos a sec a, 0) and ( −2 cos a sec a, 0)

That is ( 2, 0) and ( −2, 0) are the foci.
p p O (2, 0) u
Since − < a < , cos a > 0
2 2
1 u
Since r > 0, r +>0 ⇒ >0 ⇒ u>0
r cos a
and v may be positive or negative.
w-plane
∴ the hyperbola has one branch on the positive side of the u-axis.
∴ the image of the line u = a is the branch of the hyperbola as Fig. 15.59
in Fig.15.59 and eccentricity sec a.
EXAMPLE 19
1
Show that the transformation w 5 z 1 maps the exterior of z 51 onto the whole of w-plane.
z
Solution.
1
The given transformation is w = z +
z
Let z = re iu and w = u + iv
1 1
∴ u + iv = re iu + = r (cos u + i sin u) + (cos u − i sin u)
re iu r
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
∴ u = ⎜ r + ⎟ cos u (1) and v = ⎜ r − ⎟ sin u (2)
⎝ r⎠ ⎝ r⎠
We want to find the image of the region outside the circle z = 1. ⇒ r >1
Eliminating u from equations (1) and (2), we get,
u v
cos u = and sin u =
1 1
r+ r−
r r
u2 v2
We know that cos 2 u + sin 2 u = 1 ⇒ 2
+ 2
=1
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ r + ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ r − ⎟⎠
r r
2 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
This is an ellipse with a2 = ⎜ r + ⎟ and b 2 = ⎜ r − ⎟
⎝ r⎠ ⎝ r⎠

2 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Since r > 1, both ⎜ r + ⎟ and ⎜ r − ⎟ increase for increasing values of r.
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ r⎠
So, the major and minor axes of the ellipse become larger and larger, and hence, the ellipses sweep
out the w-plane.
1
When u = 0, u = r + > 2 and v=0
r
⎛ 1⎞
When u = p, u = − ⎜ r + ⎟ < −2 and v=0
⎝ r⎠
So, the x-axis is mapped onto the intervals ( −∞, −2),( 2, ∞) of the u-axis.
Type VII. Trigonometric transformation w 5 sin z and cos z

Given the transformation w = sin z . Since this function is differentiable everywhere, the critical points
dw
are given by = 0 ⇒ cos z = 0
dz
p
∴ z = ( 2n + 1) , for any integer n
2
p 3p 5p
∴ The critical points are z = ± , ± ,± ,…
2 2 2
So, the transformation is conformal at all other points in the complex plane.
Put z = x + iy and w = u + iv
∴ u + iv = sin( x + iy )
⇒ u = sin x cosh y (1) and v = cos x sinh y (2)
since the map w = sin z is a periodic function with period 2p, it is not a one-to-one function in the
entire complex plane.
(i) Consider any line parallel to the x-axis, y = b (b ≠ 0).
u
Then (1) ⇒ u = sin x ⋅ cosh b ⇒ sin x =
cosh b
v
and (2) ⇒ v = cos x ⋅ sinh b ⇒ cos x =
sinh b
u2 v2
We know that sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 ⇒ + =1
cosh b sinh 2 b
2
It represents an ellipse in the w-plane with centre at the origin O(0, 0) and semi-axes
‘a ’ = cosh b, ‘b ’ = sinh b.
The axes are along u and v axes and the foci are the points (ae , 0) and ( −ae , 0).
That is, the foci are the points (1, 0) and ( −1, 0), since ae = a2 − b 2 = cosh 2 b − sin 2 b = 1

When b is arbitrary, the family of lines y = b is mapped onto the family of confocal ellipses in the
w-plane.
When y = 0, u = sin x and v = 0 ⇒ −1 ≤ u ≤ 1 and v = 0
Thus, the x-axis is mapped onto the line segment [ −1,1] in the u-axis.
(ii) Now consider any line parallel to the y-axis, x = a(a ≠ 0).
u
Then (1) ⇒ u = sin a ⋅ cosh y ⇒ cosh y =
sin a
v
and v = cos a ⋅ sinh y ⇒ sinh y =
cos a
u2 v2
We know that cosh 2 y − sinh 2 y = 1 ⇒ − =1
sin 2 a cos 2 a
Which is a hyperbola in the w-plane with centre at the origin O(0, 0) and semi axes
a = sin a, b = cos a.
The axes are along the u and v axes and foci are the points (ae , 0)and ( −ae , 0).
That is, the foci are the points (1, 0) and ( −1, 0), since ae = a2 + b 2 = sin 2 a + cos 2 a = 1 = 1.
So, when a is arbitrary, the family of lines x = a is mapped onto the family of confocal hyperbola
in the w-plane.
When x = 0,we get u = 0, v = sinh y
When y > 0, v > 0 and when y < 0, v < 0
∴ the imaginary axis x = 0 is mapped onto u = 0, −∞ < v < ∞
∴ when y = 0 , v = 0 and u = sin x ⇒ −1 ≤ u ≤ 1
∴ the real axis y = 0 is mapped onto v = 0, −1 ≤ u ≤ 1
Similarly, we can find the transformation w 5 cos z .
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 20
p p
Find the image of the rectangular domain 2 ≤ x ≤ and 21 ≤ y ≤ 1 under the transformation
2 2
w 5 sin z .
Solution.
p p
The given region is the rectangular domain − ≤ x ≤ and −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
2 2
w = sin z
∴ u + iv = sin( x + iy )
∴ u = sin x cosh y (1) and v = cos x sinh y (2)

Given −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
For any given y , − 1 ≤ y ≤ 1,
u v
∴ sin x = and cos x =
cosh y sinh y
u2 v2
We know that sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1. ⇒ + =1
cosh 2 y sinh 2 y
∴ the image is an ellipse with foci ( −1, 0), (1, 0) in the w-plane.
v
y
y=1
D C
π π
x=− x=
2 2 D′ C′
u
A′ (−1,0) (1,0) B′
F O E x
A y = −1 B
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.60 Fig. 15.61

Image of edge DC
When y = 1, the ellipse is
u2 v2
+ =1 (3)
cosh 2 1 sinh 2 1
p p
Since v = cos x sinh1 ≥ 0 for − ≤ x ≤ , the image of CD is the upper half of the ellipse (3), that
2 2
is, the part C ′D ′.
Image of AB
p p
When y = −1, v = cos x sinh( −1) = − cos x sinh 1 ≤ 0 for − ≤ x ≤
2 2
so, the image of AB is the lower part of the ellipse, that is the part A ′B ′.
p
Now image of the edge CE: x = and y ≥ 0. That is 0 ≤ y ≤ 1
2
Then u = cosh y ≥ 1 and v = 0
p
Image of the edge EB: x = , y ≤ 0. That is − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0
2
Then u = cosh y ≥ 1 and v = 0
∴ CE and EB are mapped onto the same segment u ≥ 1 and v = 0 in the w-plane, yielding a cut along
the positive u-axis, 1 ≤ u ≤ cosh 1.

p
Image of the edge DF: x = − , y ≥ 0. That is 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.
2
Then u = − cosh y ≤ −1 and v = 0
p
Image of the edge FA: x = − , y ≤ 0. That is − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0.
2
Then u = − cosh y ≤ −1 and v = 0
∴ DF and FA are mapped onto the same segment u ≤ −1 and v = 0 in the w-plane, yielding a cut
in the negative u-axis, −cosh 1 ≤ u ≤ −1.
Thus, the image is an ellipse with two cuts on the u-axis as shown in Fig. 15.61.
EXAMPLE 21
Find the image of 2p < x < p and 1 < y < 2 under the transformation w 5 sin z .
Solution.
The given region is −p < x < p and 1 < y < 2.
w = sin z
⇒ u = sin x cosh y (1) and v = cos x sinh y (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
u v
sin x = and cos x =
cosh y sinh y
u2 v2
∴ + =1 (3)
cos h 2 y sinh 2 y
which is an ellipse in the w-plane with foci ( −1, 0) and (1, 0). We have −p < x < p and 1 < y < 2 .
When y = 1, 2, then
u2 v2 u2 v2
(3) ⇒ + = 1 (4) and + =1 (5)
cosh 2 1 sinh 2 1 cosh 2 2 sinh 2 2
so, the given region between y = 1 and y = 2 is mapped onto the region between the confocal ellipses
with foci ( −1, 0) and (1, 0) as shown in Fig. 15.62 in the w-plane.
y v
y=2
x = −π x=π
y=1
x′ u′ u
O x (−1, 0) O (1, 0)
v′
w-plane
z-plane
Fig. 15.62 Fig. 15.63

Since y > 0, sinh y > 0 and −p < x < p, cos x may be positive or negative.
p p
cos x > 0 if − <x< and cos x < 0 otherwise.
2 2
p p
∴ v ≥ 0 if − ≤ x ≤ and y > 0
2 2
p p
and v < 0 if −p < x ≤ or < x# p , y > 0
2 2
As x → ±p, u → 0 and v < 0 (since y > 0)
Thus, the image of the region in the z-plane is a region bounded by the two confocal ellipses (4) and
(5) with a cut in the negative y-axis as shown in Fig. 15.63 in the w-plane.
EXAMPLE 22
⎡ p⎤
Show that the transformation w 5 cos z maps the infinite strip x 5 c , x 5 d and c , d e ⎢0, ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
into the region between the two branches of the hyperbola lying in u > 0.
Solution.
⎡ p⎤
The given region is the infinite strip x = c, x = d and c, d e ⎢0, ⎥ .
⎣ 2⎦
w = cos z
Put z = x + iy and u = u + iv
∴ u + iv = cos( x + iy )
= cos x cos(iy ) − sin x sin(iy ) = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y
⇒ u = cos x cosh y and v = − sin x sinh y
u
If x = c , then u = cos c cosh y ⇒ cosh y =
cos c
v
and v = − sin c sinh y ⇒ sinh y = −
sin c
u2 v2
We know that cosh 2 y − sinh 2 y = 1 ⇒ 2
− 2 =1 (1)
cos c sin c
which is a hyperbola with foci ( −1, 0) and (1, 0), since ae = a2 + b 2
= cos 2 c + sin 2 c = 1 = 1.
u2 v2
If x = d , when c < d , the image is 2
+ 2 =1 (2)
cos d sin d

⎡ p⎤
Since c , d e ⎢0, ⎥ , u > 0, v < 0 if y > 0 and u > 0, v > 0 if y < 0
⎣ 2⎦
So, the hyperbola’s lie in the first and fourth quadrants as shown in Fig. 15.64 in the w-plane
When x = 0, u = cosh y ≥ 1, v = 0 ⇒ u ≥ 1, u = 0
p
When x= u = 0 and v = − sinh y < 0, if y > 0
2
and v > 0 if y < 0
The image of the infinite strip c < x < d is the shaded region as shown in Fig. 15.65 in the w-plane.
y v
x′ x u′ u
(1, 0)
x=c x=d
y′ v′
Fig. 15.64 Fig. 15.65
⎛ p⎞ p
Note w = cos z = sin ⎜ z + ⎟ = sin z ∗, where z ∗ = z +
⎝ 2⎠ 2
p
So, the transformation w = cos z is the composition of z ∗ = z + , which is a translation to the right
p 2
by unit and sine function.
2
Type VIII. The Transformation w 5 sinh z and cosh z

w = sinh z
∴ u + iv = sinh( x + iy ) = −i sin i ( x + iy ) [∴ sin iu = i sinh u ⇒ sinh u = −i sinh u
= −i sin(ix − y ) ⇒ sinh u = −i sin iu]
= −i[sin(ix ) cos y − cos(ix ) sin y ] = −i[i sinh x cos y − cosh x sin y ]
⇒ u + iv = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y


u = sinh x cos y (1) and v = cosh x sin y (2)
u v
For given x, (1) ⇒ cos y = and (2) ⇒ sin y =
sinh x cosh x
u2 v2
We know that cos 2 y + sin 2 y = 1 ⇒ + =1 (3)
sinh 2 x cosh 2 x
u v
For given y, (1) ⇒ sinh x = and (2) ⇒ cosh x =
cos y sin y
v2 u2
We know that cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 ⇒ − =1 (4)
sin 2 y cos 2 y
The transformation w = sinh z in the w-plane is confocal ellipses and confocal hyperbolas.
Similarly, we can find the transformation w 5 coshz .
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 23
p p
Find the image of the region defined by 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 , 2 < y < under transformation w 5 sinh z .
3 3
Solution.
p p
The given region is 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, and − <y < .
3 3
w = sinh z
Put z = x + iy and w = u + iv .
∴ u + iv = sinh( x + iy ) = −i sin i ( x + iy ) [{ sinh u = −i sin(iu)]

= −i sin(ix − y )
= −i[sin(ix ) cos y − cos(ix ) sin y ] = −i[i sinh x cos y − coshhx sin y ]
⇒ u + iv = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
Equating real and imaginary parts,

We get u = sinhx cosy (1) and v = coshx siny (2)
⎡ e x − e −x 1−1 ⎤
u=0 ⎢{ sinh x = ⇒ sinh 0 = = 0⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
⎡ e x + e −x 1+1 ⎤
and v = siny ⎢{ cosh x = ⇒ cosh 0 = = 1⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦

p p
Since − < y < and sine function is increasing in this interval, we get
3 3
⎛ p⎞ p 3 3
sin ⎜ − ⎟ < sin y < sin ⇒ − < sin y <
⎝ 3⎠ 3 2 2
⎛ 3 3⎞
So, the image of x = 0 is the interval ⎜ −
2 ⎟⎠
, of the v-axis.
⎝ 2
u
u = sinh2 cosy ⇒ cos y =
sinh 2
v
and v = cosh2 siny ⇒ sin y =
cosh 2
u2 v2
we know that cos2y + sin2y = 1 ⇒ + =1
sinh 2 2 cosh 2 2
which is an ellipse.
Since cosy > 0, u > 0, and so, the ellipse exists in the right side of the u-axis.
cosh2 > sinh2 and so, the major axis lies in the v-axis.
Foci are the points (0, ± ae ) = (0, ± 1) ⎡{ ae = a2 − b 2 = cosh 2 2 − sinh 2 2 = 1⎤

⎣ ⎦
p
The image of y = is given by
3
p 1
u = sinh x cos = sinh x ⇒ sinhx = 2u
3 2
p 3 2v
and v = coshx sin = cosh x ⇒ cosh x =
3 2 3
4v 2 v 2 u2
We know that cosh2x − sinh2x = 1 ⇒ − 4u 2 = 1 ⇒ − =1
3 3 1
4 4
3 1
Here a2 = and b 2 = , which is a hyperbola with major axis on the v-axis.
4 4
3 1
Foci are the parts (0, ± ae ), where ae = a2 + b 2 = + = 1 =1
4 4
∴ the foci are the points (0, −1) and (0, 1).
Since x > 0, coshx > 0 ⇒ v > 0.
So, the graph is the upper branch of the hyperbola.

p 1 3
The image of y = − is given by u = sinh x and v = − cosh x and so v < 0.
3 2 2
p
So, the image of y = − is the lower branch of the hyperbola.
3
Hence, the image of the rectangular region is as shown in the Fig. 15.67
y v
π
y=
3
x=0 x=2
x′ x u′
O O u
π
y=−
3
y′ v′
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.66 Fig. 15.67

EXAMPLE 24
p
Find the image of the semi-infinite strip x > 0, 0 ≤ y ≤ under the transformation w 5 coshz.
2
Solution.
p
The given region is the semi-infinite strip x > 0, 0 ≤ y ≤ .
2
w = coshz
Put z = x + iy, w = u + iv
∴ u + iv = cosh( x + iy ) = cos i ( x + iy )
= cos(ix − y )
= cos ix cos y + sin ix sin y = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
u = cosh x cos y (1) and v = sinh x sin y (2)
p
Given 0≤y ≤ ⇒ cosy > 0 and siny > 0.
2
and x>0 ⇒ coshx > 0 and sinhx > 0
∴ u > 0 and v > 0
Hence, the infinite strip is mapped onto the first quadrant of the w-plane as shown in Fig. 15.69.

y v
π
y=
2
x=0
x′ x u′
O O u
y=0
y′
v′
z-plane w-plane
Fig. 15.68 Fig. 15.69
EXERCISE 15.3
1. Find the image of the region bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0, x = 2, y = 1 under the
transformation w = z + 1 − 2i.
2. Find the image of the line 2x + y − 3 = 0 under the transformation w = z + 2i.
3. Find the image of the semi strip x > 0, 0 < y < 2 under the transformation w = iz + 1.
4. Find image of the triangular region bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0, x + y = 1 under the
ip
transformation w = ze 4 .
1 1 1
5. Find the image of the infinite strip ≤ y ≤ under the transformation w = .
4 2 z
1
6. Find the image of the circle z − 1 = 1 in the complex plane under the mapping w = .
z
1
7. Find the image of z + 1 = 1 under w = .
z
1 3 5
8. Show that the transformation w = maps the circle z − 3 = 5 into a circle w + = .
z 16 16
9. What will be the image of a circle passing through the origin in the xy-plane under the
1
transformation w = ?
z
1
10. Find the image of z − 2i = 3 under w = .
z
11. Find the region in the w-plane into which the following regions are mapped by w = z2.
(i) the first quadrant of the z-plane
(ii) the region 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and 1 ≤ y ≤ 2.

1 1
12. Find the image of the infinite strip ≤ y ≤ under the transformation w = z2.
4 2
13. Find the image of the square region bounded by the lines y = 2, y = 0 and x = 2, x = 0 under the
transformation w = z2.
14. Find the image of the circle z − 1 = 1 under the map w = z2.
p p
15. Find the image of 1 < z < 2 , − < arg z < under the map w = z2.
6 6
16. Find the image of the region Im z > 0, 0 < arg z 0, i = 1, 2.
18. Discuss the transfomation w = ez and show that it transforms the region between the real axis and
the line y = p into the upper half of the w-plane.
p p
19. Find the image of the region −2 < x < 2, − < y < under the map w = ez.
2 2
z
20. Prove that w = maps the upper half of z-plane onto the upper half of the w-plane. What is
1− z
the image of the circle z = 1 under this transformation?
z −1
21. Show the w = maps the imaginary axis of the z-plane onto the circle w = 1. What portion
z +1
of the z-plane corresponds to the interior of the circle w = 1?
22. What is the region in the w-plane into which the rectangular region in the z-plane bounded by the
lines x = 0, y = 0, x = 3, y = 1 is mapped by the map w = z + (3 + 2i)?
23. Find the image of the region y > 1 under the transformation w = (1 − i)z.
24. Find the image of the circle ⎢z ⎢= l under the transformation w = 5z.
1
25. Find the image of z − 2i = 2 under the transformation w = .
z
1 1
26. Find the image of the infinite strip 0 < y < under w = .
2 z
27. Find the image of the vertical strip 0 ≤ x ≤ a, y ≥ 0 under the map w = z2.
28. Find the image of the triangular region bounded by the lines y = x, y = −x and x = 1 under the map
w = z2.
29. Find the image of the region 2 < z < 3 under transformation w = z2.
30. Find the image of the rectangular region 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ p under the map w = ez.
31. Find the image of (i) the infinite rectangular strip −∞ < x < ∞, 0 ≤ y ≤ p and (ii) the right half strip
0 ≤ x < ∞, 0 ≤ y ≤ p under the map w = ez.
32. Find the image of the region x ≤ 0 and 0 ≤ y ≤ p under the map w = ez.
33. Prove that the transformation w = sinz maps the families of the lines x = a and y = b, where a, b
are constants, into two families of confocal central conics.
34. Find the image of the domain in the z-plane given by 0 ≤ x ≤ 2p, 2 < y < 3 under the transformation
w = sin z.
35. Find the image of the half-strip 0 ≤ x ≤ p, y = 0 under the transformation w = cos z .


1. The region bounded by u = 1, u = 3, v = −2, v = −1.
2. 2u + v − 5 = 0 3. u + v > 2, −1 0.
1
4. The triangular region is given by v = u, v = −u, v =
2
5. Image is bounded by the circles u2 + v2 + 2v = 0, u2 + v2 + 4v = 0
6. 2u − 1 = 0 7. 1 + 2u = 0
9. Circle through origin is x + y2 + 2gx + 2fy = 0 whose image is 2gu − 2fv + 1 = 0, which is a
2
straight line.
4 1
10. u 2 + v 2 − v − = 0
5 5
11. (i) upper half-plane
(ii) the region bounded by the parabolas v2 = −4(u − 1), v2 = 4(u + 1) and u2 = 1 − 2v
1⎛ 1⎞ 1
12. The region bounded by the parabolas v 2 = ⎜ u + ⎟⎠ and v 2 = u +
4⎝ 4 2
13. The region bounded by the upper half parabolas v2 = −16(u − 4), v2 = 16(u + 4) and the u-axis.
14. Image is the cardioid R = 2(1 + cos f), where w = R eif
15. v 16. Entire w-plane
W-plane
17. v 19. v
|w | = e
2
|w | = e 2
a
|w | = e
–2
|w | = e 1
a
O O u
u
w-plane
w-plane
20. 2u + 1 = 0 21. x > 0

v
22. v=1
y=1 u=6
u=3
x=0 x=3 v=2
O y=0
O u
z-plane
w-plane
v
y
23.
y>1
u+v>2
(2, 0)
y=1
u
O x O (2, 0)
u+v=2
z-plane w-plane
24. y v
|w | = 5λ
|z | = λ
O λ x O 5λ u
(0, 0) (0, 0)
z-plane w-plane

25. The straight line 1 + 4v = 0.
y v
26.
1
y=
2
O
O x u′ u
(0, −1)
z-plane w-plane
v
27. y
v 2 = –4a2(u – a2)
x=c x=a
v 2 = –4c 2(u – c 2)
O x (0, 0) O (c2, 0) (a2, 0) u
z-plane w-plane
28. y v
A ′ (0, 2)
A y=x
(1, 1)
x=a
C
O x (0, 0) O (a, 0) (1, 0) u
x=1
(1, –1)
B y = –x
B ′ (0, −2)
z-plane w-plane

29. y v
|z | = 3 w = 9
|z | = 2 w = 4
O (0, 0) (3, 0) x O u
(2, 0)
z-plane w-plane
y v
30.
| w | = e2
y=π
|w|=e
x O y=0 x e e2 u
x=1 x=2
z-plane w-plane
31. (i) y v
y=π
O y=0 x O u
z-plane w-plane

(ii) v
y
y=π
|w | = 1
O y=0 O u
z-plane w-plane
32. v
y=π
|w | = 1
y=0 x O u
z-plane w-plane
v
34.
w-plane
35. The internal − 1 ≤ u ≤ 1 in the u-axis

15.5.3 Bilinear Transformation

Conformal mapping can help in solving boundary value problems by mapping complicated regions
conformally onto familiar ones like disks, half-planes, strips etc. We have seen the properties of
some basic mappings. We shall now discuss another important conformal mapping which was first
discussed by A.F. Mobius.
Definition 15.18 Bilinear transformation

az 1 b
The transformation w 5 (1)
cz 1 d
where a, b, c, d are complex constants such that ad − bc ≠ 0 is called a bilinear transformation or linear
fractional transformation. It is also known as Mobius transformation.
Note
1. Equation (1) can be rewritten as cwz − az + dw − b = 0
This is of the form A zw + B z + C w + D = 0 (2)
where A = c, B = −a, C = d, D = −b
Now AD − BC = −(bc − ad) = ad − bc ≠ 0
Conversely, any equation of the form (2) can be put in the form (1).
The form (2) is linear in z and linear in w and hence the name bilinear. Further (1) is a
fraction formed by two linear functions az + b and cz + d and hence the name linear fractional
transformation.
⎛ b⎞
a⎜ z + ⎟
b d ⎝ a⎠ a ,
2. If ad − bc = 0 ⇒ ad = bc ⇒ = , then w = = which is a constant.
a c ⎛ d⎞ c
c⎜ z + ⎟
⎝ c⎠
So, ad − bc ≠ 0 is the necessary condition for (1) to be bilinear.
d
3. When z = − , w = ∞
c
So, there is a one to one correspondence between the extended z-plane and extended w-plane
a
when w = , z = ∞.
c
dw ad − bc d d
4. From (1) we get = ≠ 0, if z ≠ − . So, the map is conformal if z ≠ − .
dz (cz + d ) 2 c c
Special Cases: Some elementary transformations can be obtained as special cases of the bilinear
transformation.
b
If c = 0, a = d ≠ 0, then w = z + which is translation.
d
a
If c = 0, b = 0, d ≠ 0, then w = z ,which is rotation and magnification.
d
a b
If c = 0, d ≠ 0, then w = z + which is rotation, magnification and translation.
d d

Fixed points or Invariant points

az + b
w = is a bilinear transformation if ad − bc ≠ 0.
cz + d
The fixed points of the transformation are given by w = z
az + b
∴ z = ⇒ cz 2 + dz = az + b ⇒ cz 2 + (d − a)z − b = 0
cz + d
If c ≠ 0, it is a quadratic in z, giving two roots and so there are two fixed points.
If c = 0 and d ≠ a, there is one fixed point. In this case it is a linear transformation.
So, a bilinear transformation has at most two fixed points.
Note
1. If a bilinear transformation has three or more fixed points, then it must be the identity mapping.
2. If a bilinear transformation has exactly two fixed points z1 and z2 then it can be written as
w − z 1 k (z − z 1 )
= for k ≠ 0.
w −z2 z −z2
If a bilinear transformation has only one fixed point z1, then it can be written as
1 1
=k+ for k ≠ 0.
w − z1 z − z1
These two forms are called Normal forms or Canonical forms of a bilinear transformation.
Cross ratio
( z − z 2 )( z 3 − z 4 )
Definition 15.19 The cross ratio of four points z1, z2, z3, z4 is defined as 1 and it is
denoted by (z1, z2, z3, z4). ( z 1 − z 4 )( z 3 − z 2 )
Note
1. Remember the cross ratio as
z1 − z2 z3 − z4
z1 z2 z3 z4
z3 − z2
z1 − z4
2. The four letters can be arranged in 4! = 24 ways and so we can write 24 cross ratios. But only 6
of them are different. In each of them z1 is fixed and the remaining three are arranged is 6 ways.
If l is any cross ratio of the 4 points then the 6 different cross ratios are
1 1 1 l 1
l, , 1 − l, 1− , = ,
l l 1 l −1 1− l
1−
l

Theorem 15.3 The bilinear transformation that maps the points z1, z2, z3 of the z-plane onto the points
w1, w2, w3 of the w-plane is given by
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )
az + b
Proof Let w = , ad − bc ≠ 0,
cz + d
be the bilinear transformation.
az i + b
Then wi = , i = 1, 2, 3
cz i + d
az + b az i + b
w −wi = −
cz + d cz i + d
(cz i + d )(az + b ) − (az i + b )(cz + d )
=
(cz + d )((cz i + d )
aczz i + bcz i + adz + bd − [aczz i + adz i + bcz + bd ]
=
(cz + d )(cz i + d )
ad ( z − z i ) − bc ( z − z i )
=
(cz + d )(cz i + d )
(ad − bc )( z − z i )
= , i = 1, 2, 3
(cz + d )(cz i + d )
(ad − bc )( z − z 1 )
∴ w −w1 =
(cz + d )(cz 1 + d )
(ad − bc )( z 2 − z 3 )
Similarly w 2 −w3 =
(cz 2 + d )(cz 3 + d )
(ad − bc )( z − z 1 )(ad − bc )( z 2 − z 3 )
∴ (w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) =
(cz + d )(cz 1 + d )(cz 2 + d )(cz 3 + d )
(ad − bc )( z − z 3 )(ad − bc )( z 2 − z 1 )
Similarly (w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) =
(cz + d )(cz 3 + d )(cz 2 + d )(cz 1 + d )
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
∴ = (1)
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )
This equation defines implicitly a bilinear transformation that maps the distinct points z1, z2, z3 in the
finite z-plane onto the distinct points w1, w2, w3 of the finite w-plane. ■
Note
1. To verify (1) maps z1, z2, z3 onto w1, w2, w3, we write (1) as
(z − z3)(w − w1)(z2 − z1)(w2 − w3) = (z − z1)(w − w3)(z2 − z3)(w2 − w1) (2)

If z = z1, then R.H.S. = 0 and we get
w − w1 = 0 ⇒ w = w1 [{ z1 ≠ z3]
If z = z3, then L.H.S. = 0 and we get w − w3 = 0 ⇒ w = w3

If z = z2, we have (z2 − z3)(w − w1)(z2 − z1)(w2 − w3) = (z2 −z1)(w − w3)(z2 − z3)(w2 − w1)
⇒ (w − w1)(w2 − w3) = (w − w3)(w2 −w1)
It is clear that w = w2 is the only solution of this equation.
Hence, (1) maps z1, z2, z3 onto w1, w2, w3.
Expanding (2), we can rewrite in the form Azw + Bz + Cw + D = 0, which is bilinear.
2. Further, equation (1) is the only bilinear transformation which maps z1, z2, z3 onto w1, w2, w3
respectively. Thus, there is a unique bilinear transformation which maps 3 specified points of the
z-plane into 3 specified points of the w-plane.
3. The equation (1) in the theorem can be modified properly, if one of the given points is ∞ in the
extended z or w-plane.
1
For instance, if z1 = ∞, then =0
z1
( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
We have R.H.S. =
( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )
⎛z ⎞
⎜⎝ z − 1⎟⎠ ( z 2 − z 3 ) (0 − 1)( z − z ) z − z
= 1 = 2 3
= 2 3
⎛ z2 ⎞ ( z − z 3 )(0 − 1) z − z3
( z − z 3 ) ⎜ − 1⎟
⎝ z1 ⎠
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) z 2 − z 3
∴ the modified equation is =
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) z − z 3
Thus, this equation is obtained formally by omitting the factors involving z1 in (1).
The same way we rewrite if any other prescribed point is ∞ in z-plane or w-plane.
Properties of Bilinear Transformation

1. A bilinear transformation always transforms circles into circles and lines into lines.
2. Bilinear transformation preserves cross ratio of four points.
In other words, cross ratio of four points is invariant under bilinear transformation.
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Find the bilinear transformation mapping the points z 5 1, i, 21 into the points w 5 2, i, 22.
Solution.
The bilinear transformation which maps z1 = 1, z2 = i, z3 = −1 into w1 = 2, w2 = i, w3 = −2 respectively is
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )

(w − 2)(i + 2) ( z − 1)(i + 1)
∴ =
(w + 2)(i − 2) ( z + 1)(i − 1)
w − 2 ( z − 1)(1 + i )(i − 2)
⇒ =
w + 2 ( z + 1)(i − 1)(i + 2)
w − 2 ( z − 1)( −3 − i )
⇒ =
w + 2 ( z + 1)( −3 + i )
w − 2 ( z − 1)(3 + i )
⇒ =
w + 2 ( z + 1)(3 − i )
w − 2+w + 2 ( z − 1)(3 + i ) + ( z + 1)(3 − i ) ⎡ a c a+b c +d ⎤
⇒ = ⎢⎣If b = d then a − b = c − d ⎥⎦
w − 2 − (w + 2) ( z − 1)(3 + i ) − [( z + 1)(3 − i )]
2w 3z + iz − 3 − i + 3z − iz + 3 − i
⇒ =
−4 3z + iz − 3 − i − 3z + iz − 3 + i
w 6 z − 2i (6 z − 2i )
⇒ − = ⇒ w =−
2 2iz − 6 iz − 3
EXAMPLE 2
Find the bilinear transformation which maps z 5 0, z 5 1, z 5 ∞ into the points
w 5 i, w 5 1, w 5 2i.
Solution.
The bilinear transformation which maps z1 = 0, z2 = 1, z3 = ∞ into the points w1 = i, w2 = 1, w3 = −i is
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )
Since z3 = ∞, omitting factors involving z3, the transformation is
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )
=
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z 2 − z 1 )
(w − i )(1 + i ) z − 0
∴ =
(w + i )(1 − i ) 1 − 0
w − i z (1 − i )
⇒ =
w +i 1+ i
w −i z (1 − i ) 2
⇒ =
w + i (1 + i )(1 − i )
w − i z (1 − 2i + i 2 ) 2iz iz
⇒ = ==− =−
w +i 1+1 2 1

(w − i ) + w + i −iz + 1 ⎡ a c a+b c +d ⎤
⇒ = ⎢⎣If b = d , then a − b = c − d ⎥⎦
w − i − (w + i ) −iz − 1
2w 1 − iz i (1 − iz ) z +i
⇒ − = ⇒ w = =
2i −(1 + iz ) 1 + iz 1 + iz
EXAMPLE 3
Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points ∞, i, 0 of the z-plane into the points
0, 2i, ∞ of the w-plane.
Solution.
The bilinear transformation which maps z1 = ∞, z2 = i, z3 = 0 into the points w1 = 0, w2 = −i, w3 = ∞ is
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )
Since z1 = ∞ and w3 = ∞, omitting the factors involving z1 and w3, the transformation is
w −w1 z − z3 w −0 i −0
= 2 ⇒ =
w 2 −w1 z − z3 −i − 0 z − 0
w i i2 1
⇒ = ⇒ w =− =
−i z z z
EXAMPLE 4
Find the bilinear map which maps the points z = 1, i, 21 onto the points w = i, 0, 2i. Also find the
image of the interior of the unit circle of the z-plane. What are the invariant points of the map?
Solution.
The bilinear map which transforms z1 = 1, z2 = i, z3 = −1 onto w1 = i, w2 = 0, w3 = −i is
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )
(w − i )(0 + i ) ( z − 1)(i + 1)
∴ =
(w + i )(0 − i ) ( z + 1)(i − 1)
(w − i )i ( z − 1)(1 + i )
⇒ =
(w + i )( −i ) −( z + 1)(1 − i )
w − i ( z − 1)(1 + i )
⇒ =
w + i ( z + 1)(1 − i )
w −i+ w +i ( z − 1)(1 + i ) + ( z + 1)(1 − i ) ⎡ a c a+b c+d⎤
⇒ = ⎢{ b = d ⇒ a − b = c − d ⎥
w − i − ( w + i ) ( z − 1)(1 + i ) − ( z + 1)(1 − i ) ⎣ ⎦
2w z + iz − 1 − i + z − iz + 1 − i
⇒ =
−2i z + iz − 1 − i − [z − iz + 1 − i ]

w 2 z − 2i z −i
⇒ = =
−i 2iz − 2 iz − 1
−i ( z − i ) −iz − 1 1 + iz
⇒ w = = =
iz − 1 iz − 1 1 − iz
The invariant points are given by w = z
1 + iz
∴ z = ⇒ z (1 − iz ) = 1 + iz ⇒ −iz 2 + (1 − i )z − 1 = 0
1 − iz
Multiply by i, we get
z 2 + (1 + i )z − i = 0
−(1 + i ) ± (1 + i )2 + 4i −(1 + i ) ± 6i
∴ z = =
2 2
−(1 + i ) + 6i −(1 + i ) − 6i
∴ the fixed points are z = and
2 2
To find the image of z < 1
1 + iz
We have w =
1 − iz
⇒ w (1 − iz ) = 1 + iz
w −1 i (w − 1)
⇒ iz (1 + w ) = w − 1 ⇒ z = =−
i (w + 1) w +1
w −1
Now z <1 ⇒ <1
w +1
⇒ w −1 < w +1
⇒ u + iv − 1 0 ⇒ u > 0
∴ the interior of the circle z = 1 is mapped onto the right half plane of the w-plane.
EXAMPLE 5
Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 1, i, 21 onto the points 0, 1, ∞. Show that
the transformation maps the interior of the unit circle of the z-plane onto the upper half of the
w-plane.
Solution.
The bilinear transformation which maps z1 = 1, z2 = i, z3 = −1 of the z-plane on to the points w1 = 0,
w2 = 1, w3 = ∞ of the w-plane, respectively is
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )

Since w3 = ∞, omit the factors involving w3.

w − w1 ( z − z1 )( z2 − z3 ) w − 0 ( z − 1)(i + 1)
∴ = ⇒ =
w2 − w1 ( z − z3 )( z2 − z1 ) 1 − 0 ( z + 1)(i − 1)
( z − 1)(i + 1)
⇒ w=
( z + 1)(i − 1)
( z − 1)(i + 1) 2 ( z − 1)(i 2 + 1 + 2i ) ( z − 1)( −1 + 1 + 2i )
= = =
( z + 1)(i − 1)(i + 1) ( z + 1)(i 2 − 1) ( z + 1)( −1 − 1)
2i ( z − 1)
w =
−2( z + 1)
−i ( z − 1) iz − i
⇒ w = =−
z +1 z +1
which is the required bilinear transformation.
We shall now find z in terms of w.
w −i
⇒ w(z + 1) = −iz + i ⇒ z(w + i) = i − w ⇒ z =−
w +i
The unit circle in the z-plane is z = 1.
So, the interior is z <1
−(w − i )
⇒ <1 ⇒ w −i < w +i
w +i
Put w = u + iv ∴ u + iv − i 0 ⇒ v >0
which is the upper half of the w-plane.
Thus, the interior of the unit circle in the z-plane is mapped on to the upper half the w-plane.
EXAMPLE 6
Find the bilinear mapping which maps 21, 0, 1 of the z-plane onto 21, 2i, 1 of the w-plane.
Show that this maps the upper half of the z-plane onto the interior of the unit circle w 51.
Solution.
The bilinear transformation which maps z1 = −1, z2 = 0, z3 = 1 of the z-plane onto to the points w1 = −1,
w2 = −i, w3 = 1 of the w-plane is
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )

(w + 1)( −i − 1) ( z + 1)(0 − 1)
∴ =
(w − 1)( −i + 1) ( z − 1)(0 + 1)
(w + 1)(1 + i ) z + 1
⇒ =
(w − 1)(1 − i ) z − 1
w + 1 ( z + 1)(1 − i )
⇒ =
w − 1 ( z − 1)(1 + i )
1− i (1 − i ) 2 1 − 2i + i 2 1 − 2i − 1
Now = = = = −i (1)
1 + i (1 + i )(1 − i ) 1− i2 1+1
w +1 ( z + 1) −iz − i
∴ = −i =
w −1 z −1 z −1
w +1+ w −1 −iz − i + z − 1 ⎡ a c a+b c +d ⎤
⇒ = ⎢⎣{ b = d ⇒ =
w + 1 − (w − 1) iz − i − ( z − 1) a − b c − d ⎥⎦
2w z (1 − i ) − (1 + i )
⇒ =
2 − z (1 + i ) + 1 − i
⎡ z (1 − i ) ⎤
⎢ − 1⎥ (1 + i )
−iz − 1 iz + 1
⇒ w = ⎣ 1+ i ⎦ ⇒ w = = [using (1)]
⎡ 1− i ⎤ −z − i z +i
⎢⎣ − z + 1 + i ⎥⎦ (1 + i )
which is the required bilinear transformation.
iz + 1
Now w =
z +i
1 − iw
⇒ w ( z + i ) = iz +1 ⇒ z (w − i ) = 1 − iw ⇒ z =
w −i
1 − i (u + iv )
∴ x + iy =
u + iv − i
(1 + v ) − iu
=
u + i (v − 1)
[(1 + v ) − iu ][u − i (v − 1)]
=
[u + i (v − 1)][u − i (v − 1)]
u (1 + v ) + u (v − 1) − i[u 2 + (v + 1)(v − 1)]
=
u 2 + (v − 1) 2
u + uv + uv − u − i[u 2 + v 2 − 1]
=
u 2 + (v − 1) 2
2uv [u 2 + v 2 − 1]
= − i
u 2 + (v − 1) 2 u 2 + (v − 1) 2

(u 2 + v 2 − 1)
∴ y =−
u 2 + (v − 1) 2
Upper part of z-plane is y>0

(u 2 + v 2 − 1)
∴ − >0 ⇒ −(u 2 + v 2 − 1) > 0
u 2 + (v − 1) 2
⇒ u2 + v 2 −1 < 0 ⇒ u2 + v 2 < 1 ⇒ w <1
which is interior of the circle w = 1
EXAMPLE 7
Find the bilinear map if 1 and i are fixed points and origin goes to 21.
Solution.
Since 1 and i are the fixed points of the transformation, 1 and i are mapped onto 1 and i
Given 0 goes to −1
∴ z1 = 1, z2 = i, z3 = 0 are mapped onto w1 = 1, w2 = i, w3 = −1.
∴ the bilinear transformation is
(w − w 1 )(w 2 − w 3 ) ( z − z 1 )( z 2 − z 3 )
=
(w − w 3 )(w 2 − w 1 ) ( z − z 3 )( z 2 − z 1 )
(w − 1)(i + 1) ( z − 1)(i − 0)
⇒ =
(w + 1)(i − 1) ( z − 0)(i − 1)
(w − 1)(i + 1) ( z − 1)i
⇒ =
(w + 1) z
w − 1 ( z − 1)i
⇒ =
w + 1 z (1 + i )
w − 1 + w + 1 ( z − 1)i + z (1 + i )
⇒ =
w − 1 − (w + 1) ( z − 1)i − z (1 + i )
2w z (1 + 2i ) − i z (1 + 2i ) − i
= ⇒ w=
−2 −( z + i ) z+i
EXAMPLE 8
2i 2 6 z
Find the fixed points and critical points of the bilinear map w 5 .
iz 2 3
Solution.
2i − 6 z
Given w =
iz − 3

Fixed points are given by w = z

2i − 6 z
∴ z = ⇒ z (iz − 3) = 2i − 6 z
iz − 3
⇒ iz 2 − 3z + 6 z − 2i = 0 ⇒ iz 2 + 3z − 2i = 0
Multiply by −i.
3i ± −9 + 8 3i ± i 4i 2i
∴ z 2 − 3iz − 2 = 0 ⇒ z= = = , = 2i, i
2 2 2 2
∴ the fixed points are 2i, i.
z0 is said to be a critical point of f(z) if f ′(z0) = 0 or f ′(z0) does not exist.
2i − 6 z
Now w =
iz − 3
dw (iz − 3)( −6) − ( 2i − 6 z )(i )

∴ =
dz (iz − 3) 2
−6iz + 18 + 2 + 6iz 20
= = ≠ 0 for all values of z in the doomain of the function.
(iz − 3) 2
(iz − 3) 2
∴ there is no critical points.
EXERCISE 15.4
1. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points −1, 0, 1 in the z-plane onto the points 0, i,
3i in the w-plane.
2. Find the bilinear transformation which maps z = 0, −i, −1 onto w = i, 1, 0 respectively.
3. Find the bilinear transformation which maps z = 0, 1, ∞ onto the points w = −5, −1, 3 respectively.
What are the fixed points?
4. Find the bilinear transformation which maps z = −i, 0, i into the points w = ∞, −1, 0.
5. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points ∞, i, 0 onto 0, i, ∞ respectively.
6. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points z = 0, −1, i onto w = i, 0, ∞. Also find the
image of z = 1.
7. Obtain the bilinear transformation which maps z = 0 onto w = −i and has −1, 1 as fixed
points. Also show that the upper half plane is mapped onto the interior of the unit circle in the
w-plane.
8. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points −2, 0, 2 into the points w = 0, i, −i.
9. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points i, −1, 1 of the z-plane into the points 0, 1,
∞ of the w-plane respectively.
i (1 − z )
10. Show that the transformation w = maps the circle z = 1 onto the real axis of the w-plane
1+ z
and the interior of the circle z = 1 onto the upper half of the w-plane.


( z + 1) (1 + z ) 3z − 5
1. w = −3i 2. w = i 3. w = ; 1 ± 2i
z −3 1− z z +1
z −1 −1 z +1
4. w = 5. w = 6. w = ;v = u
z +1 z z −i
z −1 − i ( z + 2) 2z − 2i
7. w = ; y > 0 ⇒ u2 + v 2 < 1 8. w = 9. w =
1 − iz 3z − 2 (1 + i )( z − 1)
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Show that the function f ( z ) 5 z is nowhere differentiable.
2. Test the analyticity of the function w 5 sin z.
3. Find the constants a, b, c if f(z) 5 x 1 ay 1 i(bx 1 cy) is analytic.
4. Show that u 5 3x2y 2 y3 is harmonic.
5. Show that the function y 1 excosy is harmonic.
ay
6. Find the value of a so that the function u 5 2 is harmonic.
x 1y2
7. Show that x2 1 iy3 is not analytic anywhere.
8. Construct an analytic function f(z) for which the real part is ex cos y.
9. Construct an analytic function f(z) 5 u 1 iv given that v 5 y 1 ex cos y.
10. For the conformal mapping f(z) 5 z2, find the scale factor at z 5 i.
1
11. Find the image of the line x 5 k under the transformation w 5 .
z
12. Find the critical points for the transformation w2 5 (z 2 a)(z 2 b).
1
13. Find the image of the line x 2 y 1 1 5 0 under the map w 5 .
z
6z 2 9
14. Find the fixed points of the transformation w 5 .
z
2z 1 6
15. Find the invariant points of the transformation w 5 .
z 17
16. Find the image of the first quadrant in the z-plane by the transformation w = z2.
p
17. Find the image of the region 21 ≤ x ≤ 1, 2p ≤ y ≤ 2 by the map w 5 ez
2
18. State the basic difference between the limit of a function of a real variable and that of a complex
variable.
19. Prove that the bilinear transformation has atmost two fixed points.
20. Find the image of the infinite strip 0 < y < p by the transformation w 5 ez.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

A. Fill up the blanks
1. If u + iv is analytic, then 2iu − 2v is ______.
2. If f(z) and f ( z ) are analytic functions, then f(z) is ______.
3. If f ( z ) = u + ic is analytic, where c is a constant, then u is ______.
4. If f ( z ) = z , f(z) is ______.
5. If w = f ( z ) is analytic, then ∂ w = ______.
2
∂z ∂z
6. The image of z = 1 under the transformation w = z + 2i is ______.
7. The image of the point (0, 1) under the transformation w = (1 + i )z is ______.
1
8. The transformation w = maps the line y = 1 onto ______.
z
9. The transformation w = z 2 maps the line x = a onto ______.
10. The transformation w = e z maps the real axis onto ______.
11. The principal value of the argument of −1–i is ______.
B. Choose the correct answer
2
1. The function f ( z ) = z
(a) is not analytic (b) is analytic
(c) does not satisfy the C-R equations at (0, 0) (d) None of these
2. If w = f ( z ), when z = x + iy, is analytic, then
dw ∂w dw ∂w dw ∂w
(a) = (b) = (c) = −i (d) None of these
dz ∂x dz ∂y dz ∂x
3. The function u ( x , y ) = 3x 2 y + 2x 2 − y 3 − 2 y 2 is
(a) not differentiable (b) harmonic (c) not harmonic (d) None of these
4. The transformation w = z + 2 − 2i is
(a) conformal at each point (b) not conformal at z = 0
(c) does not satisfy C-R equations (d) None of these
5. The image of the circle z = 2 under the map w = z + (1 + i ) is
(a) a straight line (b) an equal circle (c) unit circle (d) a circle of radius 4
1
6. The image of the circle z = 2 under the map w = is
(a) a circle of radius 2 z (b) a circle of radius 1
(c) a circle through the origin (d) None of these 2
1
7. The image of the circle z − 2i = 2 under the transformation w = is
z
(a) an equal circle (b) a circle through origin
(c) a straight line not through origin (d) a straight line through origin
3z − 5
8. The invariant points of the transformation w = are
z +1
(a) i, −i (b) i2, −i2 (c) 1 + i2, 1 − i2 (d) 2 − i, 2 + i

i (1 − z )
9. The transformation w = maps the interior of the circle z = 1 onto
1+ z
(a) the u-axis (b) the v-axis
(c) the upper half of the w-plane (d) the lower half of the w-plane
10. The analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv has real part u = e x sin y is
(a) e z + c (b) i e z + c (c) −i e z + c (d) 2i e z + c
ANSWERS
1. analytic 2. constant 3. constant
4. analytic 5. 0 6. circle w − 2i = 1
7. (−1, 1) 8. circle u 2 + v 2 + v = 0 9. parabola v 2 = −4a2 (u − a2 )

3p
10. the positive u-axis 11. −
4
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)

Complex Integration 16
16.0 INTRODUCTION
Integrals are extremely important in the study of functions of a complex variable mainly for two reasons.
Some properties of analytic functions can be proved by complex integration easily. For instance, the
existence of higher derivatives of analytic functions. Secondly in applications real integrals occur
which cannot be evaluated by usual methods, but can be evaluated by complex integration.
We know that definite integral of a real function is defined on an interval of the real line. But integral
of a complex valued function of a complex variable is defined on a curve or arc in the complex plane.
A complex definite integral is called a (complex) line integral.
Definition 16.1 Contour

A contour is a piecewise smooth path consisting of finite number of smooth arcs joined end to end. An
arc is given by an equation z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, where x(t) and y(t) are continuous functions of t.
16.1 CONTOUR INTEGRAL

Definition 16.2 If f(z) is a function of a complex variable z which is defined on a given arc or curve C
in the complex plane, then the complex line integral is written as ∫ f ( z )dz .
C
If the equation of C is z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b and C is the contour from z1 = z(a) to z2 = z(b),
z2
then we write ∫ f (z )dz .

z1
If f(z) is piecewise continuous on C then f [z(t)] is piecewise continuous on [a, b]. We define the
line integral or contour integral of f along C as
b
∫ f (z ) dz = ∫ f [z (t )]
C a
z ′(t )dt (1)
If f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), then
∫ f (z ) dz = C∫ (u + iv )(dx + idy )
C
= ∫ (u dx − v dy ) + i ∫ (v dx + u dy )
C C
16.1.1 Properties of Contour Integrals

1. ∫z
C
0 f ( z ) dz = z 0 ∫ f ( z )dz , where z0 is a constant.
C
2. ∫ [f (z ) + g (z )]dz = C∫ f (z )dz + C∫ g (z )dz
C
M16_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH16.indd 1 5/18/2016 11:36:25 AM

3.
−C
∫ f (z ) dz = −C∫ f (z ) dz
4. ∫ f (z ) dz = C∫ f (z ) dz + C∫ f (z ) dz
C
where C is broken up into C1 and C2
1 2
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Evaluate ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) 5 y 2 x 2 i3x2 from z 5 0 to z 5 1 1 i along the path (i) from (0, 0)
C
to A(1, 0) and to B(1, 1), (ii) y 5 x.
Solution.
Given f(z) = y − x − i3x2 y
B (1, 1)
(i) ∫ f (z ) dz =
C OA
∫ f ( z ) dz + ∫
AB
f ( z ) dz
y=x
on OA: y = 0, z = x ∴ dz = dx
and f(z) = −x − i3x 2 x=1
∴
OA
∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ ( − x − i 3x 2 ) dx
0 O
y=0 A (1, 0) x
1
⎡x 3x ⎤ 2
⎡1 ⎤
3
= −⎢ +i ⎥ = − ⎢ + i⎥
⎣2 3 ⎦0 ⎣2 ⎦ Fig. 16.1
on AB: x = 1 and z = 1 + iy ∴ dz = idy and y varies from 0 to 1
1
∴
AB
∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ ( y − 1 − 3i )idy
0
1
⎡y 2 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ −i
= i ⎢ − (1 + 3i ) y ⎥ = i ⎢ − (1 + 3i ) ⎥ = i ⎢ − − 3i ⎥ = +3
⎣ 2 ⎦0 ⎣2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ 2
1 i 5 − 3i
∴ ∫ f (z ) dz = − 2 − i − 2 + 3 =
C 2
(ii) on C: y = x ∴
z = x + ix = (1 + i)x and f(z) = x − x − i3x2 = −i3x2.
∴ dz = (1 + i)dx and x varies from 0 to 1.
1
1
⎡x3 ⎤
∴ ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ ( −i 3x 2 )(1 + i ) dx = −i (1 + i ) ⋅ 3 ⎢ ⎥ = −i (1 + i ) = 1 − i
C 0 ⎣ 3 ⎦0
EXAMPLE 2
Evaluate ∫ z 2 dz where C is the arc from A(1, 1) to B(2, 4) along (i) y = x2, (ii) y = 3x 2 2.
C

Complex Integration ■ 16.3
Solution.
∫z dz = ∫ ( x + iy ) 2 (dx + idy )
2
C C
= ∫ [( x 2 − y 2 ) + i 2xy ][dx + idy ] y

y = x2
C
(i) Along y = x2
B
∴ dy = 2xdx (2, 4)
dz = dx + i dy = dx + i 2xdx = (1 + i 2x)dx A(1, 1) x=2

and x varies from 1 to 2 x=1
O (1, 0) (2, 0) x
2
∴ ∫z dz = ∫ [ x − x + i 2x ⋅ x ][1 + i 2x ] dx
2 2 4 2
C 1
Fig. 16.2
2
= ∫ [x 2 − x 4 − 4 x 4 + i ( 2x 3 − 2x 5 + 2x 3 )] dx
1
2 2
= ∫ [x 2 − 5x 4 ] dx + i ∫ ( 4 x 3 − 2x 5 ) dx
1 1
2 2
⎡x 5x ⎤ 3
⎡ x4
5
x6 ⎤
=⎢ − ⎥ + i ⎢ 4 − 2 ⋅ ⎥
⎣3 5 ⎦1 ⎣ 4 6 ⎦1
1 ⎡ 1 ⎤ 7 ⎡ 86 ⎤
= ( 23 − 13 ) − ( 25 − 1) + i ⎢ 24 − 14 − ( 26 − 16 ) ⎥ = − 31 + i[15 − 21] = − ⎢ + 6i ⎥
3 ⎣ 3 ⎦ 3 ⎣3 ⎦
(ii) Along y 5 3x 2 2 ∴ dy = 3dx y = 3x − 2

y
B
dz = dx + idy = (1 + i3)dx (2, 4)
and x varies from 1 to 2.
2
(1, 1)
∴ ∫ z 2 dz = ∫ [x 2 − (3x − 2) 2 + 2ix (3x − 2)][1 + 3i ] dx x=2
A
C 1
2
= ∫ [ −8x 2 + 12x − 4 + i (6 x 2 − 4 x )](1 + 3i ) dx

O (1, 0) (2, 0) x
1
⎡2 2
⎤ Fig. 16.3
= (1 + 3i ) ⎢ ∫ ( −8x 2 + 12x − 4) dx + i ∫ (6 x 2 − 4 x ) dx ⎥
⎣1 1 ⎦
⎧⎪ ⎡ x 3 ⎡ 6 x 3 4 x 2 ⎤ ⎫⎪
2 2
x2 ⎤
= (1 + 3i ) ⎨ ⎢ −8 + 12 − 4 x ⎥ + i ⎢ − ⎥ ⎬
⎣ 3 2 ⎦1 ⎣ 3 2 ⎦1 ⎪
⎩⎪ ⎭
⎧⎡ 8 ⎤ ⎫
= (1 + 3i ) ⎨ ⎢ − ( 23 − 1) + 6( 2 2 − 1) − 4( 2 − 1) ⎥ + i[2( 23 − 1) − 2( 2 2 − 1)]⎬
⎩ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎭

⎡ 56 ⎤
= (1 + 3i ) ⎢ − + 18 − 4 + i (14 − 6) ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦
⎡ 56 ⎤
= (1 + 3i ) ⎢ − + 14 + i 8⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦
⎡ 14 ⎤ 14 ⎡ 86 ⎤
= (1 + 3i ) ⎢ − + i 8⎥ = − − 24 + i (8 − 14) = − ⎢ + 6i ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦ 3 ⎣ 3 ⎦
Note that the value of ∫ f ( z ) dz along the different paths are same, because f(z) is analytic
[Refer note in page 6] C
16.1.2 Simply Connected and Multiply Connected Domains

Definition 16.3 A domain D in the complex plane is called simply connected if every simple closed
curve which lies in D can be shrunk to a point without leaving D.
Example: Interior of a circle and ellipse are simply connected domains.

A domain D which is not simply connected is called multiply connected.
Simply connected regions
Multiply connected regions
Fig. 16.4
16.2 CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL THEOREM OR CAUCHY’S FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM

Statement If f(z) is analytic and f ′(z) is continuous on and inside a simple closed curve C, then
∫ f ( z ) dz = 0
C
Proof Let f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
and z = x + iy ∴ dz = dx + idy.
Then ∫ f ( z) dz = C∫ ( u + iv )( dx + idy ) = C∫ ( udx −v dy ) + i C∫ (v dx + udy)

C
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
Since f ′(z) is continuous, the four partial derivatives , , , are also continuous.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Hence, by Green’s theorem

⎛ ∂Q ∂P ⎞
∫ (P dx + Q dy ) = ∫∫
C
⎜
R ⎝ ∂x
−
∂y ⎠⎟
dxdy
∴
C
∫ f ( z) dz = ∫∫R ( − v x − uy ) dxdy + i ∫∫ (ux − v y ) dxdy
R
where R is the region bounded by C.
Since f(z) is analytic, u and v satisfy C-R equations.
∴
∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫∫R (u
C
y − u y )dxdy + i ∫∫
R
(u x − ux ) dy = 0 + i 0 = 0 ■
The French Mathematician E. Goursat proved the above theorem without the condition of continuity
of f ′(z).
So, the modified statement due to Goursat is known as Cauchy-Goursat theorem, which is given
below.
16.2.1 Cauchy-Goursat Integral Theorem

If f(z) is analytic at all points inside and on a simple closed curve C, then ∫ f ( z ) dz = 0
C
Note Cauchy’s integral theorem proved for a simply connected region can be extended to multiply
connected regions.
Corollary If f(z) is analytic in a domain D and if P and Q are two points in D and if C1 and C2 be the
two different paths joining P and Q, then
∫ f (z ) dz = C∫ f (z ) dz
C1
y Q
2
C2
Proof Given f(z) is analytic in D.
C1 and C2 are two paths joining the points P
and Q in D. E
By Cauchy’s theorem,
PRQEP
∫ f ( z ) dz = 0 R
C1
⇒ ∫
PRQ
f ( z ) dz +
QEP
∫ f ( z ) dz = 0 P
x
O
⇒ ∫ f (z ) dz + −C 2
∫ f ( z ) dz = 0
C1 Fig. 16.5
⇒ ∫ f (z ) dz − C∫ f (z ) dz = 0
C1
⇒ ∫ f (z ) dz = C∫ f (z ) dz
C1
■
2 2

Note The theorem says that if f(z) is analytic in a domain D, then ∫ f ( z ) dz does not dependent on
the path when the end points are same. C
Definition 16.4 Singular Points

If a function f fails to be a analytic at a point z0, but is analytic at some point in every neighbourhood
of z0, then z0 is a singular point of f.
1
Example: For f ( z ) = , z = 0 is a singular point.
z
16.3 CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL FORMULA
Statement Let f(z) be an analytic function inside and on a simple closed contour C, taken in the posi-
tive sense. If a is any point interior to C, then
1 f ( z ) dz
2pi C∫ z 2 a
f (a) =
Proof
f (z ) y
Since f(z) is analytic on and inside C, is analytic
z −a
except at z = a
f (z )
i.e., a is a singular point of . C
z −a
Hence, we draw a small circle C1 with centre at a and C1
a
radius r (and omit the point a). C1 is interior to C.
f (z )
Since is analytic in the closed region consisting
z −a
of the contour C and C1 and all points between them, O x
by Cauchy’s integral formula to the multiply connected Fig. 16.6

region, we get
f (z ) f (z )
∫
C z −a
dz = ∫
C z −a
dz
1
Since | z − a | = r, z − a = reiu ⇒ z = a + re i u ⇒ dz = ire iu d u
2p 2p
f (z ) f (a + re iu )ire iu d u
∴ ∫C z − a dz = ∫
0 re i u
= i ∫ f ( a + re i u ) d u
0
1
Since r is small, taking r → 0, we get

2p
f (z )
∫
C z −a
dz = i ∫ f (a) d u = if (a)[u]02p = if (a) ⋅ 2p = 2pi f (a)
0
1 f ( z)
⇒ f (a) 5 ∫
2pi C z 2 a
dz ■

Note Cauchy’s integral formula tells us that if a function f(z) is analytic within and on a simple
closed contour C, then the value of f at an interior point of C is completely determined by the values
of f on C. When the sense of a curve is not specified, we take the anticlockwise sense as the positive
sense.
16.3.1 Cauchy’s Integral Formula for Derivatives

If f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C, then
Cauchy’s integral formula is
1 f (z )
f ( a) = ∫
2pi C z − a
dz
Differentiating w.r.to a,
1! f (z ) 2! f (z ) n! f (z )
f ′ ( a) = ∫ f ′′(a) = ∫ dz , …, f ( a) = ∫
(n)
dz , dz
2pi C ( z − a) 2 2pi C ( z − a)3 2pi C ( z − a) n +1
f ( z ) dz f ( z ) dz 2pi f ( z ) dz 2pi
∫ = 2pif ′(a), ∫ = f ′′(a), …, ∫ = (n)
i.e., n +1
f (a)
C ( z − a) C ( z − a) C ( z − a)
2 3
2! n!
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
cos pz 2 3
Evaluate ∫C ( z 2 1)( z 2 2 ) dz , where C is | z | = 2 .
Solution.
f (z )
Cauchy’s integral formula is ∫
C z −a
dz = 2pif (a) (1)
cos pz 2
Given I= ∫
C ( z − 1)( z − 2)
dz
y
∴ z = 1, z = 2 are the singularities.

3 3
C is the circle z = , with centre (0, 0) and radius =
2 2
z=2
3
If z = 1, then | z | = | 1 | = 1 < ∴ z = 1 lies inside C O x
2 z=1
3
If z = 2, then | z | = | 2 | = 2 > ∴ z = 2 lies outside C. (3/2, 0)
2
cos pz 2
cos pz 2
z − 2 dz
Now I= ∫
C ( z − 1)( z − 2)
dz = ∫
z −1
C Fig. 16.7

cos pz 2
Here a = 1 and f ( z ) = is analytic inside and on C.
z −2
cos p
∴ f (a) = f (1) = =1
1− 2
∴ by (1), I = 2pif (a) = 2pi
EXAMPLE 2
z 14
Evaluate ∫
C z
2
1 2z 1 5
dz , where C is the circle (i) | z 1 1 1 i | 5 2 (ii) | z 1 1 2 i | 5 2.
Solution.
Cauchy’s integral formula is
f (z )
∫
C z −a
dz = 2pif (a) (1)
z +4
The given integral is I= ∫
Cz
2
+ 2z + 5
dz
−2 ± 4 − 20 −2 ± 4i
The singular points are given by z2 + 2z + 5 = 0 ⇒ z = = = −1 ± 2i
2 2
∴ z1 = −1 + 2i and z2 = −1−2i are the singular points.
∴ z2 + 2z + 5 = (z − z1)(z − z2) = [z − (−1 + 2i)][z − (−1 − 2i)]

y
(i) Given C is the circle | z + 1 + i | = 2
⇒ | z − (−1 − i) | = 2, with (−1, 2)

centre P(−1, −1) and radius = 2 z1
C
If z1 = −1 + 2i, then | z + 1 + i | = | −1 + 2i + 1 + i |
x' O x
= | 3i | = 3 > 2
(−1, 1) P
∴ z1 = −1 + 2i lies outside C.
z2
If z2 = −1 − 2i, then | z + 1 + i | = | −1−2i + 1 + i |
(−1, −2)
= | −i | = 1 < 2 y'
∴ z2 lies inside C
Fig. 16.8
z +4
z +4 z +4 z − z1
Now I = ∫ + 2z + 5
dz = ∫ dz = ∫ dz
C ( z − z 1 )( z − z 2 ) z −z2
2
Cz C
z +4 z +4
Here a = −1 − 2i and f ( z ) = = is analytic inside and on C.
z − z 1 z − ( −1 + 2i )

−1 − 2i + 4 (3 − 2i )
∴ f (a) = f ( −1 − 2i ) = =−
−1 − 2i − ( −1 + 2i ) 4i
⎡ (3 − 2i ) ⎤ p
∴ by (1), I = 2pif (a) = 2pi ⎢ − = ( 2i − 3)
⎣ 4i ⎥⎦ 2
(ii) C is the circle | z + 1 − i | = 2 y
⇒ | z − (−1 + i) | = 2, with centre

P(−1, 1) and radius = 2. z1 A
(−1, 2)
We have z1 = −1 + 2i, and z2 = −1 − 2i P
(−1, 1)
If z1 = −1 + 2i, then | z + 1 − i | = | −1 + 2i + 1 − i |
x' x
= |i| = 1 < 2
∴ z1 lies inside C
B z2
If z2 = −1 − 2i, then | z + 1 − i | = | −1 − 2i + 1 − i | (−1, −2)
= | −3i | = 3 > 2 y′
∴ z2 lies outside C Fig. 16.9

z +4
z +4 z +4 z −z2
∴ I= ∫
Cz
2
+ 2z + 5
dz = ∫
C ( z − z 1 )( z − z 2 )
dz = ∫
C z − z1
dz
z +4 z +4
Here a = −1 + 2i and f (z ) = =
z − z 2 z − ( −1 − 2i )
is analytic inside and on C.
−1 + 2i + 4 3 + 2i
∴ f (a) = f ( −1 + 2i ) = =
−1 + 2i − ( −1 − 2i ) 4i
3 + 2i p
∴ by (1), I = 2pif (a) = 2pi = (3 + 2i )
4i 2
EXAMPLE 3
sin pz 2 1 cos pz 2
Evaluate ∫
C ( z 2 1)( z 2 2 )
dz, where C is | z | = 3.
Solution.
f (z )
Cauchy’s integral formula is ∫
C z −a
dz = 2pif (a) (1)
sin pz 2 + cos pz 2
Given integral is I= ∫
C ( z − 1)( z − 2)
dz
The singular points are z = 1 and z = 2

The circle is | z | = 3 with centre (0, 0) and radius = 3

If z = 1, then | z | = | 1 | = 1 < 3 y
and if z = 2 then | z | = | 2 | = 2 < 3
∴ z = 1, z = 2 lie inside C.
C
Here f(z) = sinpz2 + cospz2 is analytic on and inside C.
1 A B
Let = + z=1 z=2
( z − 1)( z − 2) z − 1 z − 2
x' (3, 0) x
∴ 1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1) O (1, 0) (2, 0)
Put z = 1. ∴ 1 = A(1 − 2) ⇒ A = −1
Put z = 2. ∴ 1 = B(2 − 1) ⇒ B=1
1 1 1
∴ =− + y'
( z − 1)( z − 2) z −1 z − 2
Fig. 16.10
(sin pz 2 + cos pz 2 ) sin pz 2 + cos pz 2
∴ I = ∫− + dz
C
z −1 z −2
∴ by (1), I = −2pif (1) + 2pif (2)
= −2pi[sin p + cos p] + 2pi[sin 4p + cos 4p]
= −2pi (0 − 1) + 2pi (0 + 1) = 2pi + 2pi = 4pi
EXAMPLE 4
z 11
By Cauchy’s integral formula, evaluate ∫
C z
4
2 4 z 31 4 z 2
dz , where C is the circle | z 2 2 2i | 5 2.
Solution.
z +1
Given I= ∫
Cz
4
− 4z 3 + 4z 2
dz
y
z +1 z +1
= ∫
Cz
2
( z 2 − 4 z + 4)
dz = ∫ 2
C z ( z − 2) 2
dz
(2, 1)
∴ singular points are z = 0 and z = 2.
(2, 0)
C is the circle | z − 2 − i | = 2 with centre (2, 1)
x
and radius = 2 O
If z = 0, then | z − 2 − i | = 0 − 2 − i = 5 > 2
∴ z = 0, lies outside C
y′
If z = 2, then | z − 2 − i | 2 − 2 − i = 1 < 2
Fig. 16.11
∴ z = 2, lies inside C
z +1
z +1 2
∴ I=∫ 2 dz = ∫ z 2 dz
C z ( z − 2) C ( z − 2)
2

f (z )
By Cauchy’s integral formula for derivative, ∫
C ( z − a)
2
= 2pif ′(a) (1)
z +1
Here f (z ) = and a = 2
z2
z 2 ⋅1 − ( z + 1)2z − z 2 − 2z z +2
∴ f ′( z ) = 4
= 4
=− 3
z z z
2+2 1
∴ f ′(a) = f ′( 2) = − =−
8 2
⎛ 1⎞
∴ by (1), I = 2pif ′( 2) = 2pi ⎜ − ⎟ = −pi
⎝ 2⎠
EXAMPLE 5
3z 2 1 7 z 1 1
If f ( a ) 5 ∫ dz , where C is | z | = 2, find f(3), f(1), f ′(1 2 i), f ″(1 2 i).
C z 2a
Solution.
3z 2 + 7z + 1 1 2pi (3z 2 + 7z + 1)
Given f ( a) = ∫ z −a
C
dz =
2pi C∫ z −a
dz
By Cauchy’s integral formula,

1 f (z )
2pi C∫ z − a
f ( a) = dz
Here f(z) = 2pi(3z2 + 7z + 1) and C is the circle | z | = 2 with centre (0, 0) and radius = 2
(i) If z = 3, then | z | = | 3 | = 3 > 2 ∴ z = 3 lies outside C

f (z ) f (z )
∴
z −3
is analytic inside and on C. ∴ ∫
C z −3
dz = 0 ⇒ f(3) = 0
(ii) Now z = 1 lies inside C, since | z | = | 1 | = 1 < 3

∴ f(1) = 2pi(3 ⋅ 1 + 7 ⋅ 1 + 1) = 22pi
(iii) We have f(z) = 2pi(3z2 + 7z + 1)

∴ f ′(z) = 2pi(6z + 7), f ″(z) = 2pi × 6 = 12pi
If z = 1 − i, then |z| = |1 − i| = 2 < 3 ∴ (1 − i) lies inside C
∴ f ′(1 − i ) = 2pi (6 ⋅ (1 − i ) + 7) = 2pi (13 − 6i ) = 2p(6 + 13i )
and f ′′(1 − i ) = 12pi

EXAMPLE 6
7z 2 1
Using Cauchy’s integral formula evaluate ∫
C z
2
2 3z 2 4
dz , where C is the ellipse x2 1 4y2 5 4.
Solution.
7z − 1
Let I= ∫
Cz
2
− 3z − 4
dz ,
x2
where C is the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 4 ⇒ +y2 =1
4
Singular points are given by z2 − 3z − 4 = 0 ⇒ (z − 4) (z + 1) = 0 ⇒ z = −1, 4
If z = −1, then x + iy = −1 ⇒ x = −1, y = 0
x2 1 1
∴ + y2 = +0 = <1
4 4 4
So, z = −1 lies inside the ellipse.
If z = 4, then x + iy = 4 ⇒ x = 4, y = 0
2 2
x 4
∴ +y2 = +0 = 4 >1
4 4
So, z = 4 lies outside the ellipse.
⎛ 7z − 1⎞
7z − 1 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
dz = ∫ z − 4 dz = ∫
f (z )
∴ I=∫ dz
C ( z − 4 )( z + 1) C z + 1 C z +1
7z − 1
where f ( z ) = is analytic inside and on C and a = −1
z −4
f (z )
∴ Cauchy’s integral formula is ∫
C z −a
dz = 2pi f (a) = 2pi f ( −1)
⎛ 7( −1) − 1⎞ 8 16
∴ I = 2pi f ( −1) = 2pi ⎜ = 2pi ⋅ = p i
⎝ −1 − 4 ⎟⎠ 5 5
EXERCISE 16.1
Evaluate the following integrals using Cauchy’s integral formula.
e 2z z +1
1. ∫
C ( z − 1)( z − 2)
dz , where C is the circle | z | = 3. 2. ∫
C ( z − 1)( z − 3)
dz , where C is | z | = 2.
sin pz 2 + cos pz 2 z2
3. ∫ (z − 2)(z − 3) dz , where C is | z | = 4.
C
4. ∫
C ( z + 1)
2
dz , where C is | z − i | = 1.
dz zdz 1
5. ∫
C (z
2
+ 4) 2
, where C is | z − i | = 2. 6. ∫
C ( z − 1)( z − 2)
, where C is | z − 2 | = .
2

z 2 +1 e 2z
7. ∫
C ( z − 1)( z − 2)
dz , where C is | z | = 3. 8. ∫
C ( z + 1)
4
ez
9. ∫
Cz
2
+4
dz , where C is | z − i | = 2.
4z 2 + z + 5 x2 y 2
10. If f (a) = ∫
C z −a
dz , where C is the ellipse
4
+
9
= 1, find the values of f(i), f ′(−1) and
f ″(−i).
e iz sin pz 2 + cos pz 2
11. ∫
C z
3
dz where C is | z | = 2. 12. ∫
C ( z − 1) 2 ( z − 2)
1
e z dz
∫ z ⋅ e z dz where C is | z | = 1. ∫ , where C is | z | = 3.
2
13. 14.
C ( z + 2)( z + 1)
2
C
e 2z z −1
15. ∫
C ( z + 1)
4
dz , where C is | z | = 2. 16. ∫
C ( z + 1)( z − 2)
2
dz, where C is | z − i | = 2.
zdz 1
17. ∫
C ( z + 1) ( z − 2)
2
, where C is the circle z −2 = .
2
dz
18. ∫
C z −2
, where C is the circle whose centre is (2, 0) and radius 4.
z +1
19. ∫
Cz
2
( z − 2)
dz , where C is the circle | z − 2 − i | = 2.
z
20. ∫
C ( z − 1)
3
dz , where C is | z | = 2, using Cauchy’s integral formula.
z 2 +1
21. ∫ 2 dz , where C is z − 1 = 1.
C z −1
dz 3 z +3
22. ∫
C ( z + 1) ( z − 2)
2
, where C is the circle z =
2
. 23. ∫
C 2z + 5
dz, where C is | z | = 3.

p p
1. 2pi(e4 − e2) 2. 2pi 3. −4pi 4. 5. 6. 4pi 7. 6pi
2 16
8p −2 p
8. ie 9. e 2i 10. 2p(−1 + i); −14pi, 16pi 11. −pi 12. 4p(p + 1)i
3 2
pi 2pi 8pi 4 3pi
13. 14. 15. 16. − pi 17. −2pi 18. 2pi 19.
3 e2 3e 2 9 2
pi
20. 0 21. 2pi 22. − 2pi 23.
9 2

16.4 TAYLOR’S SERIES AND LAURENT’S SERIES

Complex power series are the most important and fundamental series in complex analysis because
power series represent analytic functions. Conversely, every analytic function can be represented by a
power series namely Taylor’s series.
Power series methods are considered as efficient tools for solving various physical and engineering
problems.
Definition 16.5 Power Series

∞
A series of the form ∑ an ( z − a) n = a0 + a1 ( z − a) + a2 ( z − a) 2 + … (1)
n=0
where z is a complex variable, a0, a1, a2, … and a are complex constants, is called a power series in
powers of z − a or a power series about the point a.
a0, a1, a2, … are called the co-efficients of the series and a is called the centre of the series.
If a = 0, then we get the particular power series in powers of z or power series about the origin
∞
∑a z
n=0
n
n
= a0 + a1z + a2 z 2 + …
Note
1. The power series converges at all points inside a circle z − a = R for some positive number R
and diverges outside the circle. This circle is called the circle of convergence and its radius R is
called the radius of convergence.
a ∞
1
2. If lim n +1 = l , then R = is the radius of convergence of the series ∑ an ( z − a) n .
n →∞ a l
n n=0
This formula is called Hadmard’s formula.

If l = 0, then R = ∞ and so the power series converges for all z in the finite plane.
If l = ∞, then R = 0 and so the series converges only at the centre z = a.
16.4.1 Taylor’s Series

If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a and radius R, then at each point z inside the circle,
f(z) has the series representation
f ′ ( a) f ′′(a) f ( n ) ( a)
f ( z ) = f ( a) + ( z − a) + ( z − a) 2 + … + ( z − a) n + … ∞
1! 2! n!
Note
1. This equation means that the power series converges to f(z) at each point z inside C.
Further, this is the expansion of f(z) into a Taylor’s series about the point a.
2. Any function f(z) that is known to be analytic at a point a must have a Taylor’s series about a
3. If a = 0, we get the Taylor’s series about the origin which is called the Maclaurin’s series.
f ′( 0) f ′′(0) 2 … f ( n ) (0) n …
f ( z ) = f ( 0) + z+ z + + z +
1! 2! n!
We now list below the Maclaurin’s series for some elementary functions.

z z2 z3 …
1. e z = 1+ + + + if z < ∞
1! 2 ! 3!
z3 z5 …
2. sin z = z − + + if z < ∞
3! 5!
z2 z4 z6 …
3. cos z = 1 − + − + if z < ∞
2! 4 ! 6 !
4. (1 − z ) −1 = 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + … if z < 1
5. (1 − z ) −2 = 1 + 2z + 3z 2 + 4 z 3 + … if z < 1
6. (1 + z ) = 1 − z + z − z + …
−1 2 3
if z < 1
2 3 4
z z z
7. log e (1 + z ) = z − + − +… if z < 1
2 3 4
16.4.2 Laurent’s Series
Let C1 and C2 be concentric circles with centre a and radii r1, r2
(r1 > r2).
Let f(z) be analytic in the annular domain between the circles.
r1
Then at each point of the annular domain f(z) has the series
representation a
∞ ∞
r2
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − a) + ∑ b n ( z − a) ,
C1
n −n
r2 < z − a < r1 (1) C2
n=0 n =1
1 f (w )
where an = ∫
2pi C1 (w − a) n +1
dw , n = 0, 1, 2, …
1 f (w ) Fig. 16.12
and bn = ∫
2pi C 2 (w − a)1− n
dw , n = 1, 2, 3, …
Note
1. The series (1) is called Laurent’s series about z = a.
Laurent’s series is a series with positive and negative integral powers of (z − a). The part of the
series with positive powers of (z − a) is called the analytic part or regular part and the part with
negative powers of (z − a) is called the principal part of the Laurent’s series.
2. Taylor’s series of an analytic function is unique and Laurent’s series of an analytic function f(z) in
its annular region is unique. So, we can find the series by any method, not necessarily using the
formula for an and bn given above. Binomial series is usually used.
3. If f(z) is analytic at a point a we find Taylor’s series expansion about a.
If f(z) is not analytic at a but is analytic in some neighbourhood of a, then we find Laurent’s series
expansion of f(z) about a.
Important Remark If f(z) has many isolated singular points then there are many annular regions
R1, R2 … in which f(z) is analytic and so there are many Laurent’s series for f(z) about a, one for each region.
The Laurent’s series is usually taken as the one that converges near a.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
z 2 21
Find the Taylor’s series to represent the function in z ,2.
( z 1 2 )( z 1 3)
Solution.
z 2 −1
Let f (z ) =
( z + 2)( z + 3)
The singular points z = −2, z = −3 are outside | z | < 2.
So, f(z) is analytic in the open disk | z | < 2 about 0.
We shall split f(z) into partial fractions.
Since the degrees of Nr. and Dr. are same, we have,
z 2 −1 A B
= 1+ +
( z + 2)( z + 3) z +2 z +3
⇒ z2 − 1 = (z + 3)(z + 2) + A(z + 3) + B(z + 2)
Put z = −2, then 4 − 1 = A(−2 + 3) ⇒ A = 3
Put z = −3, then 9 − 1 = B(−3 + 2) ⇒ B = −8
z 2 −1 3 8
∴ = 1+ −
( z + 2)( z + 3) z +2 z +3
z z 2
Now z < 2 ⇒ < 1 and < < 1.
2 3 3
∴ the Taylor’s series is
3 8
f (z ) = 1 + −
⎛ z⎞ ⎛ z⎞
2 ⎜1 + ⎟ 3 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
−1 −1
3⎛ z⎞ 8⎛ z ⎞
= 1 + ⎜1 + ⎟ − ⎜1 + ⎟
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 3 ⎝ 3⎠
3 ⎡ z ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤ 8 ⎡ z ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤
2 3 2 3
= 1+ ⎢1 − + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥ − ⎢1 − + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥
2⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦ 3⎣ 3 3 3 ⎦
EXAMPLE 2
p
Expand f(z) = sin z about z 5 .
4
Solution.
Given f(z) = sin z. It is analytic for all z
p
∴ f(z) can be expanded as Taylor’s series about z = .
4
⎛ p⎞ ⎛ p⎞ ⎛ p⎞
f ′⎜ ⎟ f ′′ ⎜ ⎟ f ′′′ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ ⎛ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎛ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎛
2 3
⎛ p⎞ p⎞ p⎞ p⎞
∴ f (z ) = f ⎜ ⎟ +
⎝ 4⎠ ⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ + …
1! 4 2! 4 3! 4

f ( z ) = sin z , ⎛ p⎞ p 1
We have f ⎜ ⎟ = sin =
⎝ 4⎠ 4 2
∴ f ′( z ) = cos z , ⎛ p⎞ p 1
f ′ ⎜ ⎟ = cos =
⎝ 4⎠ 4 2
f ′′( z ) = − sin z , ⎛ p⎞ p 1
f ′′ ⎜ ⎟ = − sin = −
⎝ 4⎠ 4 2
f ′′′( z ) = − cos z , ⎛ p⎞ p 1
f ′′′ ⎜ ⎟ = − cos = −
⎝ 4⎠ 4 2
2 3
1 1 ⎛ p⎞ 1 ⎛ p⎞ 1 ⎛ p⎞
∴ f (z ) = + ⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ + …
2 1! 2 4 2! 2 4 3! 2 4
1 ⎡ ⎛ p⎞ 1 ⎛ p⎞
2
1⎛ p⎞
2
⎤
= ⎢1 + ⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ + …⎥
2⎣ 4 2 ! 4 3! 4 ⎦
EXAMPLE 3
1
Expand in the region (i) 1 < | z | < 2 (ii) 0 < | z 2 1 | < 2 (iii) | z | > 2
z 2 2 3z 1 2
Solution.
1 1
Let f (z ) = =
z − 3z + 2 ( z − 1)( z − 2)
2
1 A B
Let = +
( z − 1)( z − 2) z − 1 z − 2
∴ 1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)
Put z = 1, then 1 = A(1 − 2) ⇒ A = −1
Put z = 2, then 1 = B(2 − 1) ⇒ B = 1
1 1
∴ f (z ) = − +
z −1 z − 2
(i) If 1 < | z | < 2, then z lies in the annular region about z = 0, where f(z) is analytic.
So, we expand as Laurent’s series about z = 0
z 1
Now z <2 ⇒ < 1 and 1 < z ⇒ <1
2 z
So, the Laurent’s series is
1 1
f (z ) = − +
z −1 z − 2
1 1 1 1
=− −
z ⎛ 1⎞ 2 ⎛ z ⎞
⎜⎝ 1 − ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 − ⎟⎠
z 2
−1 −1
1 ⎛ 1⎞ 1⎛ z⎞
= − ⎜1 − ⎟ − ⎜1 − ⎟
z ⎝ z⎠ 2 ⎝ 2⎠

1 …⎤ 1 ⎡ z ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤
2 3
1⎡ 1 1
=− 1 + + + + ⎥⎦ 2 ⎣ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ + ⎥⎦
− ⎢1 + + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
z ⎢⎣ z z 2 z 3
1⎡ z z2 z3 ⎤
= −[z −1 + z −2 + z −3 + …] − ⎢1 + + 2 + 3 + …⎥
2⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦
(ii) Given 0 < | z − 1 | < 2
This region is annular about z = 1
So, the expansion of f(z) in the region is Laurent’s series about z = 1
Put t = z − 1 ⇒ z = t + 1 ∴ 0 < | t | < 2
∴ the Laurent’s series is
1 1 1 1
f (z ) = − + =− +
z −1 z − 2 t +1−1 t +1− 2
1 1
=− +
t t −1
1
= − − (1 − t ) −1
t
= −t −1 − [1 + t + t 2 + t 3 + …] [{ t < 2, t < 1 is true]
= −( z − 1) −1 − [1 + ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) 2 + …]
(iii) Given | z | > 2
This region is annular about z = 0, where f(z) is analytic.
So, the expansion is Laurent’s series about z = 0
z 2 1 1
Now z >2⇒ >1 ⇒ < 1 and < < 1.
2 z z 2
1 1 1 1
f (z ) = − + =− +
z −1 z − 2 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
z ⎜1 − ⎟ z ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ z⎠ ⎝ z⎠
−1 −1
1 ⎛ 1⎞ 1 ⎛ 2⎞
= − ⎜1 − ⎟ + ⎜1 − ⎟
z ⎝ z⎠ z ⎝ z⎠
1 …⎤ 1 ⎡ 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ …⎤
2 3
1⎡ 1 1
=− 1 + + + + ⎥⎦ z ⎣ z ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠ + ⎦⎥
+ ⎢1 + + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
z ⎢⎣ z z 2 z 3
= −[z −1 + z −2 + z −3 + z −4 + …] + [z −1 + 2z −2 + 4 z −3 + 8z −4 + …]
∴ f ( z ) = z −2 + 3z −3 + 7z −4 + …
EXAMPLE 4
z 2 21
Expand f ( z ) 5 as a Laurent’s series if (i) 2 < | z | < 3, (ii) | z | > 3.
( z 1 2 )( z 1 3)

Solution.
z 2 −1 3 8
Let f (z ) = = 1+ − [Ref. Example 1]
( z + 2)( z + 3) z +2 z +3
(i) Given 2 < | z | < 3
The region is annular about z = 0 and f(z) is analytic in this region.
So, the expansion is Laurent’s series about z = 0
z 2
Now z <3⇒ < 1 and 2 < z ⇒ <1
3 z
3 8
f (z ) = 1 + −
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ z⎞
z ⎜1 + ⎟ 3 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ z⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
−1 −1
3 ⎛ 2⎞ 8 ⎛ z⎞
= 1 + ⎜1 + ⎟ − ⎜1 + ⎟
z⎝ z⎠ 3 ⎝ 3⎠
3 ⎡ 2 ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
2 3
⎤ 8 ⎡ z ⎛ z⎞ 2 ⎛ z⎞3 ⎤
= 1 + ⎢1 − + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + …⎥ − ⎢1 − + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + …⎥
z ⎣ z ⎝ z⎠ ⎝ z⎠ ⎦ 3 ⎣ 3 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎦
8 ⎡ z z 2 z 3 …⎤
= 1 + 3[ z −1 − 2 z −2 + 4 z −3 − 8 z −4 + …] − ⎢1 − + − + ⎥
3 ⎣ 3 9 27 ⎦
(ii) Given | z | > 3
This region is annular about z = 0, where f(z) is analytic.
1 1 2 2 3
Now z >3⇒ < ⇒ < < 1 and <1
z 3 z 3 z
3 8
f (z ) = 1 + −
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
z ⎜1 + ⎟ z ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ z⎠ ⎝ z⎠
−1 −1
3 ⎛ 2⎞ 8 ⎛ 3⎞
= 1 + ⎜1 + ⎟ − ⎜1 + ⎟
z ⎝ z⎠ z ⎝ z⎠
3 ⎡ 2 ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎤ 8 ⎡ 3 ⎛ 3⎞ 2 ⎛ 3⎞ 3 ⎤
2 3
= 1 + ⎢1 − + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + …⎥ − ⎢1 − + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + …⎥
z ⎣ z ⎝z⎠ ⎝z⎠ ⎦ z ⎣ z ⎝z⎠ ⎝z⎠ ⎦
= 1 + 3[ z −1 − 2 z −2 + 4 z −3 − 8 z −4 + …] − 8[ z −1 − 3 z −2 + 9 z −3 − 27 z −4 + …]
= 1 − 5 z −1 + 18 z −2 − 60 z −3 + 192 z −4 + …
EXAMPLE 5
7z 2 2
Find the Laurent’s series expansion of f ( z ) 5 in 1 < z 2 1 < 3 .
z ( z 2 2 )( z 1 1)

Solution.
7z − 2
Given f (z ) = and 1 < z + 1 < 3
z ( z − 2)( z + 1)
The singular points are z = 0, z = 2, z = −1 which lie outside the annular region 1 < z + 1 < 3 about z = −1
So, we can expand f(z) as a Laurent’s series about z = −1 or in terms of z + 1.
We shall split f(z) into partial fractions.
7z − 2 A B C
Let = + +
z ( z − 2)( z + 1) z z − 2 z + 1
⇒ 7z − 2 = A(z − 2)(z + 1)+Bz(z + 1) + Cz(z − 2)
Put z = 0, then −2 = A(−2)(1) ⇒ A=1
Put z = 2, then 14 − 2 = B ⋅ 2(2 + 1) ⇒ B=2
Put z = −1, then −7 − 2 = C(−1)(−1 − 2) ⇒ C = −3
7z − 2 1 2 −3
∴ = + +
z ( z − 2)( z + 1) z z − 2 z + 1
We have 1 < |z + 1| < 3. put t = z + 1 ⇒ z = t − 1 ∴ 1 < | t | < 3
1 t
Now 1< t ⇒ < 1 and t < 3 ⇒ < 1.
t 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
f (z ) = + − = + −
z z − 2 z +1 t −1 t − 3 t
1 1 2 3
= + −
t ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ t⎞ t
⎜⎝1 − ⎟⎠ ( −3) ⎜⎝1 − ⎟⎠
t 3
−1 −1
1 ⎛ 1⎞ 2⎛ t⎞ 3
= ⎜1 − ⎟ − ⎜1 − ⎟ −
t ⎝ t⎠ 3 ⎝ 3⎠ t
⎤ 2⎡ t ⎛t⎞ ⎛t⎞ ⎤ 3
2 3
1⎡ 1 1 1
= ⎢1 + + 2 + 3 + …⎥ − ⎢1 + + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + …⎥ −
t⎣ t t t ⎦ 3⎣ 3 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦ t
2 1 1 2 ⎡ t t 2 t 3 …⎤
= − + 2 + 3 + … − ⎢1 + + + + ⎥
t t t 3 ⎣ 3 9 27 ⎦
−1 −2 −3
= −2( z + 1) + ( z + 1) + (zz + 1) + …
2 ⎡ z + 1 ( z + 1) 2 ( z + 1)3 …⎤
− ⎢1 + + + + ⎥
3⎣ 3 9 27 ⎦
EXAMPLE 6
z
Find the Laurent’s series of f ( z ) 5 in 1 < | z | < 2.
( z 1 1)( z 2 1 4 )
2
Solution.
z
Given f (z ) = and 1 < | z | < 2
( z + 1)( z 2 + 4)
2
Singular points are z = ±i, z = ±2i, which lie outside 1 < | z | < 2

∴ f(z) is analytic in this annular region about z = 0

z A z + B Cz + D
Let = 2 + 2
( z + 1)( z + 4)
2 2
z +1 z +4
∴ z = (Az + B)(z2 + 4) + (Cz + D)(z2 + 1)
Equating coefficients of z3, 0 = A + C ⇒ A = −C
Equating coefficients of z2, 0 = B + D ⇒ D = −B
1
Equating coefficients of z, 1 = 4A + C ⇒ 1 = 4A − A ⇒ 3A = 1 ⇒ A=
3
1
∴ C=−
3
Put z = 0, then 0 = 4B + D ⇒ 4B − B = 0 ⇒ B = 0 ∴ D = 0
z z z
∴ = −
( z + 1)( z + 4) 3( z + 1) 3( z + 4)
2 2 2 2
z z
∴ f (z ) = −
3( z + 1)
2
3( z + 4)
2
z2
Now z < 2 ⇒
2
<4 ⇒ <1 ⎡{ z 2
= z 2 ⎤⎦
z
4 ⎣
1 1
and 1 < z ⇒ <1 ⇒ <1
z z2
∴ z 1 z 1
f (z ) = ⋅ − ⋅
3 ⎡ 1⎤ 3 ⎡ z2⎤
z 2 ⎢1 + 2 ⎥ 4 ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ z ⎦ ⎣ 4⎦
−1 −1
1 ⎡ 1⎤ z ⎡ z2⎤
= 1 +
⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ − ⎢1 + ⎥
3z 2
12 ⎣ 4⎦
1 ⎡ 1 1 1 …⎤ z ⎡ z 2 z 4 z 6 …⎤
= ⎢⎣ z 2 z 4 z 6 + ⎥⎦ − 12 ⎢⎣1 − 4 + 16 − 64 + ⎥⎦
1 − + −
3z
EXAMPLE 7
Find the Laurent’s series of the following functions
1
e 2z
(i) f ( z ) 5 z 2 e z about z 5 0 (ii) f ( z ) 5 about z 5 1
( z 2 1) 3
Solution.
1
(i) Given f ( z ) = z 2 e z . z = 0 is a singular point
∴ f(z) is analytic for | z | > 0 and the Laurent’s series is
⎡ 1 1 1 1 …⎤
f ( z ) = z 2 ⎢1 + + + + ⎥
⎣ z 2 ! z 2 3! z 3 ⎦
1 1
= z 2 + z + + z −1 + …
2 ! 3!
M16_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH16.indd 21 6/3/2016 8:46:09 PM

e2z
(ii) Given f ( z) = . z = 1 is a singular point.
( z − 1)3
So, in the region | z − 1 | > 0, f(z) is analytic and so f(z) can be expanded as Laurent’s series in the
annular region about z = 1
Put t = z − 1. ∴ z = t + 1
e2z e 2( t +1) e 2 2t
∴ f ( z) = = = 3e
( z − 1)3 t3 t
e 2 ⎡ 2t ( 2t ) 2 ( 2t )3 ( 2t ) 4 …⎤
= ⎢1 + + + + + ⎥
t 3 ⎣ 1! 2! 3!! 4! ⎦
⎡ 1 2 2 4 2 ⎤
= e 2 ⎢ 3 + 2 + + + t + …⎥
⎣t t t 3 3 ⎦
⎡ 1 2 2 4 2 ⎤
= e2 ⎢ + + + + ( z − 1) + …⎥
⎣ ( z − 1 ) 3
( z − 1) 2
( z − 1 ) 3 3 ⎦
EXERCISE 16.2
I. Find the Taylor’s series for the following functions about the indicated point.
z z −1
1. f ( z ) = about z = 0. 2. f ( z ) = 2 about z = 1.
( z + 1)( z + 2) z
1 1
3. f ( z ) = about z = 2. 4. f ( z ) = 2 about z = 4.
z z − 4z + 3
1 1
5. f ( z ) = when | z | < 1. 6. f(x) = at z = 1.
(1 + z )( z + 2)
2
z −2
1
7. f(x) = valid in | z | < 3.
z −3
II. Expand the following functions as a Laurent’s series.
z −1 z +3
1. f ( z ) = valid in 2 < | z | < 3. 2. f ( z ) = valid in 1 < | z | < 2.
( z + 2)( z + 3) z ( z 2
− z − 2)
1 z −1
3. f ( z ) = valid in 1 < | z | < 2. 4. f ( z ) = 2 valid in | z − 1 | > 1.
( z − 1)( z − 2) z
1
5. f ( z ) = for 0 < | z | < 1 and 0 < | z − 1 | < 1.
z ( z − 1)
z 2 −1 z2
6. f ( z ) = valid in 2 < | z | < 3. 7. f ( z ) = valid in 2 < | z | < 3.
z 2 + 5z + 6 ( z + 2)( z − 3)
1
8. f ( z ) = valid in 1 < | z | < 2.
z ( z 2 − 3z + 2)
12
9. f ( z ) = valid in (a) 0 < | z | < 1, (b) 1 < | z | < 2.
z ( 2 − z )(1 + z )
1
10. f(x) = valid in | z | > 3.
z −3

z
11. f ( z ) = valid in the following region 0 < | z − 1 | < 2.
( z − 1)( z − 3)
1
12. f ( z ) = valid in the region | z + 1 | > 2.
z (1 − z )
1
13. f ( z ) = valid for the regions z > 3 and 1 < z < 3.
( z + 1) ( z + 3)

⎡ z ⎛ z ⎞2 ⎛ z ⎞3 ⎤
I 1. −[1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + …] + ⎢1 − + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + …⎥
⎣ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
2. ( z − 1) − 2( z − 1) + 3( z − 1) − 4( z − 1) + …
2 3 4
1 1 1
3. − ( z − 2) + 3 ( z − 2) 2 − …
2 22 2
1 4 13 40
4. − ( z − 4) + ( z − 4) 2 − ( z − 4)3 + …
3 9 27 81
1 ⎡ z ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤ 2 − z
2 3
5. ⎢1 − + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎥+
− (1 − z 2 + z 4 − z 6 + …)
10 ⎣ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ 5
6. −[1 + ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) 2 + ( z − 1) 3 + …]
1⎡ z ⎛z⎞ ⎛z⎞ ⎤
2 3
7. − ⎢1 + + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + …⎥
3 ⎣ 3 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎦
3 ⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ …⎤ 4 ⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤
2 3 2
II 1. − ⎢1 − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥ + ⎢1 − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − ⎥
z⎣ z z z ⎦ 3⎣ 3 3 ⎦
5 ⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤ 3 2 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
2 3 2 3
2. − ⎢1 + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥ − + ⎢1 − + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + …⎥
12 ⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦ 2z 3z ⎣ z ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎦
1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ …⎤ 1 ⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤
2 2
3. − ⎢1 + + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥ − ⎢1 + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥
z⎣ z z ⎦ 2⎣ 2 2 ⎦
1 2 3
4. − + −…
z − 1 ( z − 1) 2 ( z − 1)3
1 1
5. − [1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + …] and − [1 − ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) 2 − ( z − 1)3 + …]
z z −1
3 ⎡ 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ …⎤ 8 ⎡ z ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤
2 3 2 3
6. 1 + ⎢1 − + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥ − ⎢1 − + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥
z⎣ z z z ⎦ 3⎣ 3 3 3 ⎦
4 ⎡ 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ …⎤ 3 ⎡ z ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤
2 3 2
7. 1 − ⎢1 − + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥ − ⎢1 + + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎥
5z ⎣ z z z ⎦ 5⎣ 3 3 ⎦

1 1 ⎡ 1 1 …⎤ 1 ⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z ⎞ …⎤
2 3
8. − 1+ + + ⎥ − ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎥
2z z ⎢⎣ z z 2 ⎦ 4 ⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦
1⎡ z ⎛z⎞ ⎛z⎞ ⎤
2 3
4
9. (a) [1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + …] + ⎢1 + + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + …⎥
z 2 ⎣ 2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦
2 3
2 4 4 z ⎛z⎞ ⎛z⎞
(b) 1 +
+ − + …+ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + …
z z2 z3 2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
10. z + 3z + 3 z + …
−1 −2 2 −3
−( z − 1) −1 3 ⎡ ( z − 1) ( z − 1) 2 ( z − 1)3 …⎤
11. − ⎢1 + + + + ⎥
2 4⎣ 2 4 8 ⎦
−2 −3 −4 …
12. −[( z + 1) + 3( z + 1) + 7( z + 1) + ]
1 ⎡ 1 1 1 1 …⎤ 1 ⎡ z z 2 z 3 …⎤
13. 1 − + − + − ⎥ − ⎢1 − + 2 − 3 + ⎥
2 z ⎢⎣ z z 2 z 3 z 4 ⎦ 6⎣ 3 3 3 ⎦
16.5 CLASSIFICATION OF SINGULARITIES

A point at which a complex function f(z) is analytic is called a regular point or ordinary point of f(z).
A point z = a is a singular point of f(z) if f(z) is not analytic (or not even defined), but is analytic at
some point in every deleted neighbourhood of a.
EXAMPLE
1
1. f ( z ) = has z = 0 as singular point, since f(z) is not analytic at z = 0 but analytic at other points.
z
1
2. f ( z ) = has z = 0, z = 1 as singular points, because f(z) is not analytic at these points, but
z ( z − 1)
there are neighbourhoods where f(z) is analytic.
But f ( z ) = z 2 has no singular points, since it is analytic everywhere.
Definition 16.5 Isolated Singularity

A singular point z = a is called an isolated singularity of the function f(z) if there exists a
neighbourhood of a in which there is no other singularity.
In example 2, we can find a circular disk with centre z = 1 and radius r < 1 in which there is no
other singularity.
A singular point which is not isolated is called a non-isolated singularity.
1
For example, f ( z ) = 1 has z = , n ∈Z
1 np
sin
z
as singular points, while 0 is a non-isolated singular point because every deleted neighbourhood of 0
1
contains a singularity for large n.
np

Note If a function has only finite number of singularities in a region, then they are isolated
singularities.
Isolated singularities are further classified as (i) poles, (ii) essential singularities.
These classifications are made on the basis of the principal part of Laurent’s series.
Definition 16.6 Pole

An isolated singular point a of f(z) is said to be a pole of order m, if there exists a positive integer m
such that bm ≠ 0 and bm + 1 = bm + 2 … = 0 in the Laurent’s series of f(z) about a.
In other words, if the Laurent’s series is of the form
∞
b1 b2 bm
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − a) n + + + …+ , r2 < z − a < r1 , where b m ≠ 0 , then the
n=0 z − a ( z − a) 2
( z − a) m
point a is called a pole of order m.
If m = 1, then a is called a simple pole and if m = 2, then a is called a double pole or pole of order 2.
1
For example, f ( z ) = has z = 0 as a simple pole and z = 1 as a pole of order 2.
z ( z − 1) 2
Definition 16.7 Essential Singularity

An isolated singular point a is said to be an essential singularity of f(z) if the principal part of Laurent’s
series of f(z) about a contains infinitely many terms.
1
For example: f ( z ) = e z has z = 0 as essential singularity because
1
1 1 1
e z = 1+ + 2
+ + … if 0 < z < ∞
z 2! z 3! z 3
z −2 z −3 …
= 1 + z −1 + + +
2! 3!
has infinitely many terms in the principal part. We also say z = 0 is an isolated essential singularity.
An important note: Consider the expansion of
∞
zn ∞ 1
f (z ) = ∑ n
+ ∑ n , 1 < z < 3, which is Laurent’s series.
n=0 3 n =1 z
There are infinite number of negative powers of z. Yet z = 0 is not an essential singularity of
f(z). Why? The reason is the domain of convergence of f(z) is 1 < | z | < 3 which is not a deleted
neighbourhood of 0.
2z
It can be seen that it is the Laurent’s series of the function f ( z ) = in the
(1 − z )( z − 3)
annular region 1 < | z | < 3. So, it is important to consider the Laurent’s series valid in the immediate
neighbourhood of a singular point.
Definition 16.8 Removable Singularity
An isolated singular point z = a of f(z) is called a removable singularity of f(z) if in some
neighbourhood of a the Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) has no principal part.
sin z
For example: f ( z ) = , z ≠0
z

1⎡ z 3 z 5 …⎤ z2 z4 …
= ⎢z − + − ⎥ = 1− + − 0< z <∞
z⎣ 3! 5! ⎦ 3! 5!
sin z
It has no principal part. So, z = 0 is a removable singularity if is not defined at z = 0
z
⎧ sin z
⎪ if z ≠ 0
Suppose f (z ) = ⎨ z
⎪⎩ 1 if z = 0
then the series converges to 1 at z = 0 and so f(z) is analytic at z = 0.
Note From the above definitions, the following results follow.
1. A singularity z = a is an essential singularity if there is no integer n such that
lim( z − a) n f ( z ) = A ≠ 0
z →a
2. A singularity z = a is a pole of order m if lim( z − a) m f ( z ) = A ≠ 0

z →a
3. A singularity z = a is a removable singularity of f(z) if lim f ( z ) = a finite number A.

z →a
Zero of order m
Let f(z) be analytic at z = z0. If f(z0) = 0 then z0 is called a zero of f(z). If there is a positive integer m
such that f ′( z0 ) = 0, f ′′( z0 ) = 0, f ′′′( z0 ) = 0, …, f ( m −1) ( z0 ) = 0 and f ( m ) ( z0 ) Þ 0,
then f(z) is said to have a zero of order m at z0.
Thus, f ( z ) = ( z − z0 ) m g ( z ), g ( z 0 ) ≠ 0
p(z )
Note If f ( z ) = , where p(z), q(z) are analytic at z = a and p(a) ≠ 0 and if a is a zero of order m
q( z )
for q(z), then a is a pole of order m for f(z).
16.6 RESIDUE
Definition 16.9
Let z = a be an isolated singular point of f(z). The coefficient b1 of (z − a)−1 in the Laurent’s series
expansion of f(z) about a is called the residue of f(z) at z = a. We denote b1 = [Res f(z)]z = a or R(a).
16.6.1 Methods of Finding Residue

1. If z = a is a simple pole, then R (a) = lim( z − a)f ( z )
z →a
2. If z = a is a pole of order m, then
1 ⎧ d m −1 ⎫
R ( a) = lim ⎨ m −1 [( z − a) m f ( z )]⎬
( m − 1)! z → a
⎩ dz ⎭
g (z )
3. Let f ( z ) = , where g(z) and h(z) are analytic functions at z = a. If h(a) = 0, h′(a) ≠ 0 and
h(z )
g (z )
g(a) ≠ 0 are finite, then z = a is a simple pole of f(z) and R (a) = lim
z → a h ′( z )

Note
1. Residue is not defined for non-isolated singularity of f(z).
2. The residue at an essential singularity of f(z) is found out using Laurent’s expansion of f(z)
directly.
3. Residue at a removable singularity of f(z) is equal to zero.
4. The number of isolated singular points inside a simple closed curve is finite. This fact is used in
Cauchy’s residue theorem.
16.7 CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM

Statement If f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C, except at a finite number of
singular points z1, z2, …, zn lying inside C, then
∫ f (z )dz = 2pi[R (z 1 ) + R ( z 2 ) + R ( z 3 ) + … + R ( z n )]
C
where the integral over C is taken in the anticlockwise Cn

sense. zn
C2
Proof Since z1, z2, …, zn are finite number of
singular points lying inside the simple closed curve, they are
z2
isolated singular points.
So, we can find non overlapping neighbourhoods
of these points which are small circles with these points C1
as centres. Let C1, C2, …, Cn be positively oriented z1
circles with centres at z1, z2, z3, …, zn respectively. So, f(z)
C
is analytic in the multiply connected region bounded by
C1, C2, …, Cn and C.
Fig. 16.13
Hence, by Cauchy’s extension theorem to multiply
connected region, we have
∫ f (z )dz = C∫ f (z ) dz + C∫ f (z ) dz + … + C∫ f (z ) dz
C 1 2 n
1
2pi C∫k
But R ( z k ) = [Res f ( z )]z = z k = f ( z ) dz
∴ ∫ f (z ) dz = 2piR (z
Ck
k )
∴ ∫ f (z ) dz = 2pi[R (z
C
1 ) + R ( z 2 ) + … + R ( z n )] ■
Note
1. Limit point of zeros is an isolated essential singularity.
2. Singularities of rational functions are poles.
Working Rule for Detecting the Type of Singularity

1. If lim f ( z ) exists and is finite, then z = a is removable singularity.
z →a

2. If lim f ( z ) = ∞, then z = a is a pole of f(z).

z →a
3. lim f ( z ) does not exist, then z = a is an essential singularity.
z →a
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Discuss the nature of singularities of the following functions. 1
sin z 2 z z 22 1 ez
(i) (ii) sin (iii)
z 3 z 2
z 2 1 ( z 2 a) 2
ez cot pz
(iv) (v)
z2 14 ( z 2 a) 3
Solution.
sin z − z
(i) Given f (z ) =
z3
1 ⎡ z3 z5 … ⎤ 1 z2 z4 …
= ⎢z − + + −z⎥ = − + − +
z3 ⎣ 3! 5! ⎦ 3! 5! 7 !
1 1
lim f ( z ) = − = − = finite
z →0 3! 6
∴ z = 0 is a removable singularity.
(or)
Since there is no negative powers of z, z = 0 is a removable singularity.
⎛ 1 ⎞
( z − 2) sin ⎜
⎝ z − 1⎟⎠
(ii) Given f (z ) = 2
z
Poles of f(z) are given by denominator of f(z) = 0 ⇒ z2 = 0 ⇒ z = 0, twice
∴ z = 0 is a pole of order 2 of f(z).
z = 1 is a singular point, as f(z) is not defined when z = 1.
Zeros of f(z) are given by the Numerator of f(z) = 0
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
⇒ ( z − 2) sin ⎜ =0 ⇒ z = 2 and sin =0
⎝ z − 1⎟⎠ z −1
1 1
Now sin =0 ⇒ = np, n ∈Z
z −1 z −1
1 1
⇒ z −1 = ⇒ z = 1+ , n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3…
np np
1
The limit of the zeros 1 + is 1.
np
∴ z = 1 is an isolated essential singularity.

1
ez
(iii) Given f (z ) =
( z − a) 2
Poles of f(z) are given by (z − a)2 = 0 ⇒ z = a, a
∴ z = a is a pole of order 2 of f(z).
1
Now zeros of f(z) are given by e z = 0
1 1 1 1 1 …
⇒ 1+ + ⋅ + ⋅ + =0
z 2 ! z 2 3! z 3
There is no z in the complex number system which satisfies this.
So, f(z) has no zeros.
∴ lim f ( z ) = ∞
z →0
i.e., the limit does not exist.
Hence, z = 0 is an essential singular point.
ez
(iv) Given f (z ) =
z2 +4
Poles of f(z) are given by z2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ z = ±2i,
which are simple poles.
cot pz cos pz
(v) Given f (z ) = =
( z − a) 3
sin pz ( z − a)3
Poles of f(z) are given by sin pz ( z − a)3 = 0 ⇒ sin pz = 0 and ( z − a)3 = 0

∴ sin pz = 0 ⇒ pz = np, ⇒ z = n, n ∈ Z ,
and ( z − a) = 0 ⇒ z = a ( thrice )
3
∴ z = a is a pole of order 3 and z = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3… are all simple poles.
EXAMPLE 2
1 2 e 2z
Calculate the residue of f ( z ) 5 .
z3
Solution.
Given
⎡ 2 z ( 2 z ) 2 ( 2 z )3 ( 2 z ) 4 ⎤
1 − ⎢1 + + + + + …⎥
1− e2z
⎣ 1! 2! 3! 4! ⎦
f ( z) = .=
z3 z3
⎡ 2 2 8 16 z …⎤ ⎡ 4 2 ⎤
= −⎢ 2 + + + + ⎥ = − ⎢ 2 z −2 + 2 z −1 + + z + …⎥
⎣z z 3! 4 ! ⎦ ⎣ 3 3 ⎦
As there are two negative powers of z, z = 0 is a pole of order 2 and R(0) = coefficient of z−1 = −2.
EXAMPLE 3
1
Find the residue at z 5 0 for (i) cot z (ii) cosec2z (iii) .
z ez
2

Solution.
cos z
(i) Given f ( z ) = cot z =
sin z
Poles are given by sin z = 0 ⇒ z = np, n ∈ Z,
If n = 0, z = 0, which is a simple pole.
cos z cos z 1
∴ R (0) = lim zf ( z ) = lim z = lim = =1
z →0 z →0 sin z z → 0 ⎡ sin z ⎤ 1
1 ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦
(ii) Given f ( z ) = cosec 2 z =
sin 2 z
1 1
= 2
= 2
⎡ z z …⎤3 5
2 ⎡ z z 4 …⎤2
⎢⎣ z − + + ⎥⎦ z ⎢⎣ 3! 5! + ⎥⎦
1 − +
3! 5!
∴ z = 0 is a pole of order 2.
1 d
∴ R ( 0) = lim [z 2 f ( z )]
( 2 − 1)! z → 0 dz
d ⎡ 2 1 ⎤
= lim ⎢ z 2⎥
⎢ z 2 ⎡1 − z + z − …⎤ ⎥
z →0
dz 2 4
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣ 3! 5! ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎦
d ⎡ 1 ⎤
= lim ⎢ 2⎥
⎢ ⎡1 − z + z − …⎤ ⎥
z → 0 dz 2 4
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣ 3! 5! ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎦
−2 −3
d ⎡ z2 z4 ⎤ ⎡ z2 z4 ⎤ ⎡ 2z ⎤
= lim ⎢1 − + − …⎥ = lim − 2 ⎢1 − + − …⎥ ⎢ − + …⎥ = 0
z → 0 dz ⎣ 3! 5 ! ⎦ z →0 ⎣ 3! 5 ! ⎦ ⎣ 3! ⎦
z z 2 z3 z 4 …
+ − + −
−z 1−
1 e 1! 2 ! 3! 4 !
(iii) Given f ( z ) = 2 z = 2 =
z e z z2
1 1 1 z z2 1 z z2
= 2 − + − + + … = z −2 − z −1 + − + − …
z z 2 ! 3! 4 ! 2 ! 3! 4 !
As there are 2 terms with negative powers, z = 0 is a pole of order 2.
∴ R(0) = Coefficient of z−1 = −1.
Problems Using Residue Theorem
EXAMPLE 4
dz
Evaluate ∫
C (z
2
1 4)2
, where C is the circle | z 2 i | 5 2.
Solution.
1 1
Let f ( z ) = =
( z 2 + 4) 2 ( z + 2i ) 2 ( z − 2i ) 2

The poles of f(z) are z = −2i, 2i which are poles of order 2. y

C is the circle | z − i | = 2 with centre (0, 1) and radius r = 2. 3i
Put z = 2i, then
2i
z − i = 2i − i = i = 1 < 2
∴ z = 2i lies inside the circle C. i
O
Put z = −2i, then x' x
z − i = − 2i − i = − 3i = 3 > 2 −i
∴ z = −2i lies outside the circle C. −2i
1 d
Now R ( 2i ) = lim ⎡⎣( z − 2i ) 2 f ( z ) ⎤⎦ y'
( 2 − 1)! z → 2i dz
d ⎡ ( z − 2i ) 2 ⎤ Fig. 16.14
= lim ⎢ ⎥
z → 2 i dz ( z + 2i ) 2 ( z − 2i ) 2
⎣ ⎦
d ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ 2 ⎤ 2 −2 1
= lim = lim − =− = =
z → 2 i dz ⎜
⎝ ( z + 2i ) 2 ⎟⎠ z → 2i ⎢⎣ ( z + 2i )3 ⎥⎦ ( 4i )3 −64i 32i
By Cauchy’s residue theorem,
dz 1 p
∫
C (z
2
+ 4) 2
= 2piR ( 2i ) = 2pi =
32i 16
EXAMPLE 5
z 21
Evaluate ∫
C ( z 1 1)
2
( z 2 2)
dz , where C is | z 2 i | 5 2.
Solution.
z −1
Given ∫
C ( z + 1) ( z − 2)
2
dz
z −1 y
Let f (z ) =
( z + 1) 2 ( z − 2) (0, 3)
The poles of f(z) are given by (z + 1)2(z − 2) = 0

(0, 1)
⇒ z = −1, twice, z = 2
O x
x' (2, 0)
∴ z = −1 is a pole of order 2 and z = 2 is a simple pole. (−1, 0)
C is the circle | z − i | = 2 with centre (0, 1) and radius r = 2

Put z = −1, then | z − i | = | −1 − i | = 2 < 2
∴ z = −1 lies inside C y'
Put z = 2, then | z − i | = | 2 − i | = 5 > 2 Fig. 16.15

∴ z = 2 lies outside C.

1 d
∴ R ( −1) = lim [( z + 1) 2 f ( z )]
( 2 − 1)! z →−1 dz
d ⎡ z −1 ⎤
= lim ⎢( z + 1) ⋅ ( z + 1) 2 ( z − 2) ⎥
2
z →−1 dz ⎣ ⎦
d ⎡ z −1 ⎤
= lim
z →−1 dz ⎢⎣ z − 2 ⎥⎦
( z − 2) ⋅1 − ( z − 1) ⋅1 −1 1 1
= lim = lim =− =−
z →−1 ( z − 2) 2 z →−1 ( z − 2) 2 ( −1 − 2) 2 9
∴ by Cauchy’s residue theorem,
z −1 ⎛ 1⎞ 2pi
∫C (z + 1)2 (z − 2) dz = 2piR ( −1) = 2pi ⎜⎝ − 9 ⎟⎠ = − 9
EXAMPLE 6
(sin pz 2 1 cos pz 2 ) dz
Evaluate ∫ ( z 2 1) 2 ( z 2 2 ) , where C is | z | 5 3.
C
Solution.
y
sin pz 2 + cos pz 2
Given ∫C (z − 1)2 (z − 2) dz (0, 3)
sin pz + cos pz
2 2
Let f (z ) =
( z − 1) 2 ( z − 2) (2, 0)
The poles of f(z) are given by (−3, 0) O
(1, 0) (3, 0) x
(z − 1)2(z − 2) = 0 ⇒ z = 1, twice, 2
∴ z = 1 is a pole of order 2 and z = 2 is a simple pole.
(0, −3)
C is the circle | z | = 3
Clearly the poles lie inside C for | 1 | = 1 < 3 and | 2 | = 2 < 3
1 d
∴ R (1) = lim [( z − 1) 2 f ( z )] Fig. 16.16
( 2 − 1)! z →1 dz
d ⎡ ( z − 1) 2 [sin pz 2 + cos pz 2 ] ⎤
= lim ⎢ ⎥
z →1 dz
⎣ ( z − 1) 2 ( z − 2) ⎦
d ⎡ sin pz 2 + cos pz 2 ⎤
= lim ⎢ ⎥
z →1 dz ⎣ z −2 ⎦
( z − 2){cos pz 2 ( 2pz ) − sin pz 2 ( 2pz )} − {sin pz 2 + cos pz 2 } ⋅1
= lim
z →1 ( z − 2) 2
(1 − 2)[2p cos p − 2p sin p] − {sin p + cos p}
=
(1 − 2) 2
= ( −1)( −2p − 0) − (0 − 1) = 2p + 1

and R ( 2) = lim[( z − 2)f ( z )]

z →2
⎡ ( z − 2)(sin pz 2 + cos pz 2 ) ⎤
= lim ⎢ ⎥
z →2
⎣ ( z − 1) 2 ( z − 2) ⎦
sin pz + cos pz
2 2
sin 4p + cos 4p
= lim = =1
z →2 ( z − 1) 2
( 2 − 1) 2
∫ f (z )dz = 2pi[R (1) + R (2)] = 2pi[2p + 1 + 1] = 4pi[p + 1]

C
EXAMPLE 7
z
tan dz
Evaluate ∫ 2 ,where C is the boundary of the square whose sides are the lines x 5 62
C ( z 2 1 2 i )2
and y 5 62.
Solution.
z y
tan dz
Given ∫C (z − 12− i )2 y=2
x=2
z
tan (1, 1)
Let f (z ) = 2
o
(z − 1 − i )2 x′ 1 2 x
x = −2
The poles of f(z) are given by (z − 1 − i)2 = 0
y = −2
⇒ [z − (1 + i)]2 = 0
⇒ z = 1 + i, twice. y'
∴ z = 1 + i is a pole of order 2. Fig. 16.17

C is the square formed by x = ± 2, y = ±2
∴ z = 1 + i lies inside.
1 d
R (1 + i ) = lim [( z − 1 − i ) 2 f ( z )]
( 2 − 1)! z →1+ i dz
d ⎡ z⎤ ⎡ 2 z 1 ⎤ 1 2 ⎛1+ i ⎞
= lim ⎢⎣ tan 2 ⎥⎦ = zlim sec ⋅ ⎥ = sec ⎜
z → (1+ i ) dz →1+ i ⎢
⎣ 2 2⎦ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
1 ⎛1+ i⎞ 2 ⎛1+ i⎞
∫ f ( z )dz = 2piR(1 + i) = 2pi 2 sec ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = pi sec ⎜⎝ ⎟
2
C 2 2 ⎠

EXAMPLE 8
z 21
Evaluate ∫
C ( z 1 1)
2
( z 1 2)
dz , where C is the circle z 2 i 5 2 using Cauchy’s residue theorem.
Solution.
y
z −1 (0,3)
Given ∫C ( z + 1)2 ( z + 2) dz
z −1
Let f ( z) =
( z + 1) 2 ( z + 2) (−1,0)
(0,1)
The poles of f(z) are given by ( z + 1) 2 ( z + 2) = 0 x'

(−2,0)
O x
⇒ z = −1, twice and z = −2.

∴ z = −1 is a pole of order 2 and z = −2 is a simple pole.
C is the circle z − i = 2 with centre (0, 1) and radius r = 2.
y'
Put z = −1, then −1 − i = 2 < 2 ∴ z = −1 lies inside C.
Fig. 16.18
Put z = −2, then −2 − i = 5 > 2 ∴ z = −2 lies outside C.
1 d
R( −1) = lim [( z + 1) 2 f ( z )]
( 2 − 1)! z →−1 dz
d ⎡ z −1 ⎤
= lim ⎢ ( z + 1) 2 ⋅ ⎥
z →−1 dz ⎣ ( z + 1) ( z + 2) ⎦
2
d ⎡ z −1 ⎤
= lim
z →−1 dz ⎢⎣ z + 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ ( z + 2) ⋅1 − ( z − 1) ⋅1⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤ 3
= lim ⎢ ⎥ = zlim = = 3.
+ 2 →−1 ⎢ ( z + 2) 2 ⎥ − + 2) 2
z →−1
⎣ ( z 2 ) ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ( 1
z −1
∫
C ( z + 1)
2
( z + 2)
dz = 2pi R( −1) = 2pi × 3 = 6pi.
EXERCISE 16.3
I Find the nature of singularities of the following functions.
1 sin z 1
1. 2. 3. sin
( z − 5) ( z 2 − 4)
2
z5 z −2
1
tan z z
4. 5. 6. e z
z e −1
z
1− ez 1− ez
7. sin ⎛⎜
1 ⎞ 1
⎝ z + 1⎟⎠
8. 9. 10.
z (e − 1)
z
z4 1+ ez

II Find the residue of f(z) at the singularity z = 0, where f(z) is
1+ e z 1 z −2 1 1+ e z
1. 2. 3. 4. z cos 5. .
sin z + z cos z z (e − 1)
z
z ( z − 1) z sin z + z cos z
III Find the residue of f(z) at the singular points where, f(z) is
1 z z3 z +2 z 2 +1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
z +1
2
( z −1) 2 ( z + a) 2 ( z + 1) 2 z 2 − 2z
z +2
6. Determine poles and their orders for the function . Find the residue at the poles.
( z + 1) 2 ( z − 2)
sin z
7. Find the residue of f ( z ) = at z = i.
1− z 4
IV Evaluate the following integrals:

1 − 2z dz 3
1. ∫
C z ( z − 1)( z − 2)
dz where C is | z | = 1.5. 2. ∫
C (z
2
+ 1)( z − 4)
2
where C is | z | = .
2
dz ez
3. ∫
C (z
2
+ 4) 2
where C is | z − i | = 2. 4. ∫
Cz
2
+1
dz where C is | z | = 2.
z2 +2 12z − 7
5. ∫
Cz
2
+4
dz where C is | z − i | = 2. 6. ∫
C ( z − 1) ( 2z + 3)
2
where C is | z + i | = 3.
2z + 3 z cos z
7. ∫
C z ( z − 1)( z − 2)
where C is | z | = 2. 8. ∫ p⎞
3
dz where C is | z − 1 | = 1.
C⎛
⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠
2
ez
9. ∫ 2 2 dz where C is | z − i | = 3.
C z +p
z2 +2
10. ∫
C ( z + 3)( z + 2)
2
dz where C is the circle | z | = 2.
1
z 2 dz
∫ where C is | z | = 2.5. ∫ z e z dz where C is the unit circle.
2
11. 12.
C ( z − 1) ( z + 2)
2
C
e z dz
13. ∫ 2 ,where C is the circle | z | = 4 using Cauchy’s residue theorem.
C (z + p )
2 2
12z − 7
14. ∫
C (z
2
− 1)( 2z + 3)
dz, where C is | z − i | = 3.
z −3
15. ∫
Cz
2
+ 2z + 5
dz , where C is | z + 1 − i | = 2.
z sec z
16. ∫
C 1− z
2
dz , where C is the ellipse 4x2 + 9y2 = 9.

dz 3
17. ∫
C (z
2
+ 1)( z − 4)
2
, where C is z = .
2
4z 2 − 4z + 1
18. ∫
C ( z − 2)( z
2
+ 4)
dz , where C is the circle | z | = 1.
3z 2 + z − 1
19. ∫
C (z
2
− 1)( z − 3)
dz , where C is the circle | z | = 2.

I 1. z = 2, −2 are simple poles and z = 5 is a pole of order 2.
2. z = 0 is a pole of order 4
3. z = 2 is an essential singularity
4. z = 0 is a removable singularity
5. z = 0 is a removable singularity, z = 2npi (n ≠ 0) are simple poles.
8. z = 0 is a double pole and z = i2np, n = ±1, ±2, … are simple poles
9. z = 0 is a pole of order 3
10. z = i(2n + 1)p, n = 0, ±1, ±2, … which are simple poles
1
II 1. 1, 2. − , 3. 2, 4. −4 5. 1
2
1 −1
III 1. R (i ) = , R ( −i ) = , 2. R(1) = 1, 3. 3a2 4. 1
2i 2i
1 5 4 4 sin i
5. R (0) = − , R ( 2) = 6. R ( −1) = − ; R ( 2) = 7.
2 2 9 9 4i
p 3p
IV 1. 3pi, 2. 0, 3. , 4. p(e i − e − i ), 5. ,
16 8
−7pi
6. 4pi, 7. −7pi, 8. −2pi, 9. −1, 10.
2
11. 2pi 12. pi 13. i 14. 20pi 15. p(i − 2)
3 p
5pi
16. −2pi sec1 17. 0 18. 0 19. −
4
16.8 APPLICATION OF RESIDUE THEOREM TO EVALUATE REAL INTEGRALS

The applications of residue theorem include the evaluation of certain types of definite integrals,
improper integrals and complicated real integrals occurring in real analysis and applied mathematics.
Method of residues is used in inverse Laplace transforms. These real integrals are evaluated by
expressing them in terms of integrals of complex functions over a suitable contour and evaluated using
residue theorem. This process of evaluation of real integrals is called contour integration.
16.8.1 Type 1 2p
Real definite integrals of the form ∫ F (sin u, cos u)d u where F(sin u, cos u) is a real rational function
0
of cos u and sin u and is finite on the interval of integration.

1
Put z = e iu , then = e − iu
z
1
⇒ z = cos u + i sin u, = cos u − i sin u
z
1 1
∴ z+ = 2 cos u, z − = 2i sin u
z z
1⎛ 1⎞ 1⎛ 1⎞
cos u = ⎜ z + ⎟ , sin u = ⎜ z − ⎟
2⎝ z⎠ 2i ⎝ z⎠
Since F(sin u, cos u) is a rational function in sin u and cos u, we get a rational function of z, say f(z).
dz dz
∴ = ie iu = iz ⇒ du =
du iz
As u varies from 0 to 2p, z moves on the unit circle z = 1 in the anticlockwise sense.
So, the contour C is the unit circle z = 1
2p
dz
∴ ∫ F(sin u, cos u)du = ∫ f ( z ) iz , where C is z =1
0 C
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
2p
du
Evaluate ∫ 13 1 5 sin u by using contour integration.
0
Solution. 2p
du
Let I= ∫ 13 + 5 sin u
0
To evaluate this, consider the unit circle z = 1 as contour C

1
z−
1 dz z 2 −1
Putz = e , then
iu
=e − iu
∴ du = and sin u = z =
z iz 2i 2iz
dz dz
dz
∴ I=∫ iz =∫ iz = 2∫ 2
C 13 + 5 ( z − 1) C 26iz + 5z − 5 C 5z + 26iz − 5
2 2
2iz 2iz
1
Let f (z ) = 2 ∴ I = 2 ∫ f ( z ) dz
5z + 26iz − 5 C
The poles of f(z) are given by 5z2 + 26iz − 5 = 0
−26i ± ( 26i ) 2 − 4 ⋅ 5( −5)
∴ z =
10

y
−26i ± −676 + 100
=
10 C
−26i ± −576
=
10 i/5
−26i ± 24i i
= = − , − 5i x' o x
10 5 −i/5
Now 5z 2 + 26iz − 5 = 5 ⎛⎜ z + ⎞⎟ ( z + 5i )
i
−5i
⎝ 5⎠
y'
i i 1
Since z = − ⇒ − = < 1, Fig. 16.19
5 5 5
i
the pole z = − lies inside C.
5
and z = −5i ⇒ − 5i = 5 > 1 ∴ the pole z = −5i lies outside C.
⎡ ⎛ i⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜⎝ z + ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎛ i⎞ ⎛ i⎞ 5
Now R ⎜ − ⎟ = lim ⎜ z + ⎟ f ( z ) = lim ⎢ ⎥
⎝ 5⎠ z→ − i ⎝ 5⎠ z→ − ⎢ ⎛
i i⎞ ⎥
5 5 ⎜ z + ⎟ [ z + 5i ]
⎢⎣ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎥⎦
5
⎡ 1 ⎤ 1 1
= lim ⎢ = =
i 5( z + 5i ) ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
z→ − ⎣ ⎦ 5 − + 5i
i 24 i
5
⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
⎛ i⎞ 1 p
∫C f (z ) dz = 2piR ⎜⎝ − 5 ⎟⎠ = 2pi × 24i = 12
p p
∴ I = 2⋅ =
12 6
EXAMPLE 2
2p
du
Evaluate ∫ 1 2 2 p sin u 1 p
0
2
, p < 1.
Solution. 2p
du
Let I= ∫ 1 − 2 p sin u + p
0
2
Consider the unit circle z = 1 as contour C 1

z−
z = z −1
2
1 dz
Put z = e iu , then = e − iu ∴ du = and sin u =
z iz 2i 2iz
dz
dz
∴ I=∫ iz =∫
dz = −∫ 2
C pz − (1 + p )iz − p
2
⎛ z − 1⎞ C (1 + p )iz − pz + p
2 2 2
C
1 − 2p ⎜ +p 2
⎝ 2iz ⎟⎠

1
Let f (z ) = ∴ I = − ∫ f ( z ) dz
pz − (1 + p 2 )iz − p
2
C
The poles of f(z) are given by pz − (1 + p )iz − p = 0

2 2
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ i⎞ i
⇒ z2 − ⎜ + p⎟ iz − 1 = 0 ⇒ ( z − ip) ⎜ z − ⎟ = 0 ⇒ z = ip,
⎝p ⎠ ⎝ p⎠ p

⎛ i⎞
∴ pz 2 − (1 + p 2 )iz − p = p ⎜ z − ⎟ ( z − ip )
⎝ p⎠
Given p <1 ⇒ ip = p < 1 ∴ z = ip lies inside C

1 i 1 i
and p <1 ⇒ >1 ∴ = >1 ∴ z = lies outside C
p p p p
( z − ip)
Now R(ip) = lim( z − ip) f ( z ) = lim
z → ip z → ip ⎛ i⎞
p( z − ip) ⎜ z − ⎟
⎝ p⎠
1 1 1
= lim = =
z → ip ⎛ i⎞ ⎛ i ⎞ i( p 2 − 1)
p ⎜ z − ⎟ p ⎜ ip − ⎟
⎝ p⎠ ⎝ p⎠
1 2p
∫ f (z ) dz = 2piR (ip ) = 2pi i ( p
C
2
− 1)
=
p2 −1
p 2p
∴ I = −2 =
p2 −1 1− p2
EXAMPLE 3
2p
cos 3u
Evaluate ∫ 5 2 4 cos u d u using contour integration.
0
Solution.
2p
cos 3u
Let I= ∫ 5 − 4 cos u d u
0
Consider the unit circle z = 1 as contour C.

1
z+
z = z +1
2
1 dz
Put z = e iu , then = e − iu ∴ du = and cos u =
z iz 2 2z
z 3 = e i 3u = cos 3u + i sin 3u and cos 3u = R .P of z 3 .

dz
z3
1 z 3 dz
I = R .P of ∫
i C∫ 5z − 2z 2 − 2
∴ iz = R .P of
⎛ z 2 + 1⎞
C
5 − 4⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2z ⎠
⎛ −1⎞ z 3 dz
= R .P of ⎜ ⎟ ∫ 2
⎝ i ⎠ C 2 z − 5z + 2
z3 ⎛ 1⎞
Let f ( z) =
2 z − 5z + 2
2
∴ I = R.P of ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ i⎠ ∫ f ( z ) dz
C
The poles of f(z) are given by

2 z 2 − 5z + 2 = 0 ⇒ 2z 2 − 4 z − z + 2 = 0 ⇒ 2z ( z − 2) − ( z − 2) = 0
1
⇒ ( 2z − 1)( z − 2) = 0 ⇒ ( 2z − 1) = 0, z − 2 = 0 ⇒ z = ,2
2
∴ ⎛ 1⎞
2z 2 − 5z + 2 = 2 ⎜ z − ⎟ ( z − 2) .
⎝ 2⎠
C is the contour z = 1
1 1 1
∴ z = ⇒ z = <1 ∴ z = lies inside C
2 2 2
and z =2 ⇒ z = 2 >1 ∴ z = 2 lies outside C .
⎛ 1⎞ 3
⎜⎝ z − ⎟⎠ z
⎛ ⎞
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
Now R ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎜ z − ⎟ f ( z ) = lim .
⎝ 2 ⎠ z→ ⎝
1 2⎠ z→
1 ⎛ 1⎞
2 2 2 ⎜ z − ⎟ ( z − 2)
⎝ 2⎠
1
z3 8 1
= lim = =−
1 2( z − 2) ⎛ 1 ⎞ 24
z→
2 2 ⎜ − 2⎟
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ pi
∫ f ( z ) dz = 2piR ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ = 2pi ⎜⎝ − 24 ⎟⎠ = − 12
C
∴ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ pi ⎞ p
I = R .P of ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ =
⎝ i ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ 12
EXAMPLE 4
2p
sin 2 u
Evaluate ∫
0
a 1 b cos u
d u , a > b > 0.

Solution.
2p 2p
sin 2 u (1 − cos 2u)
Let I= ∫
0
a + b cos u
du = ∫ 2(a + b cos u) d u
0
Consider the unit circle z = 1 as the contour C. 1

z+
z = z +1
2
1 dz
z iz 2 2z
z 2 = e i 2u = cos 2u + i sin 2u and cos 2u = R .P of z 2

∴ 1 − cos 2u = R .P of (1 − z 2 )
dz
(1 − z 2 )
1 (1 − z 2 ) dz
I = R .P of ∫
i C∫ 2az + b ( z 2 + 1)
∴ iz = R .P of
C ⎛ z 2 + 1⎞
2⎜a + b ⎟
⎝ 2z ⎠
1 (1 − z 2 ) dz
i C∫ bz 2 + 2az + b
= R .P of
1− z 2 1
i C∫
Let f (z ) = ∴ I = R .P of f ( z ) dz
bz + 2az + b
2

−2a ± 4 a 2 − 4b 2
bz 2 + 2az + b = 0 ⇒ z= (1)
2b
−2a ± 2 a2 − b 2 −a + a 2 − b 2 −a − a 2 − b 2
= = or
2b b b
−a + a2 − b2 −a − a 2 − b 2
Let z1 = and z2 =
b b
∴ z1 and z2 are simple poles
Now bz2 + 2az + b = b(z − z1)(z − z2)
1− z 2
∴ f (z ) =
b ( z − z 1 )( z − z 2 )
The contour is z = 1
a a2
Since a > b > 0, >1 ⇒ >1 ⇒ a2 > b 2 ⇒ a2 − b 2 > 0
b b2
−a − a 2 − b 2
∴ z2 =
b
a + a2 − b 2 a + a2 − b 2 a
= = > >1 ⎡⎣{ a + a2 − b 2 > a⎤⎦
b b b
∴ z2 lies outside C

1
Since z1z2 = 1, z1 z2 = 1 ⇒ z1 = <1 [product of the roots of the quadratic (1)]
z2
∴ z1 lies inside C.
y
R ( z 1 ) = lim( z − z 1 )f ( z )
z →z1
(0, 1)
( z − z 1 )(1 − z 2 ) C
= lim
z → z 1 b ( z − z )( z − z )
1 2 z1 z2
1− z 2 1 − z 12
= lim = x ′ (−1, 0)
o x
z →z1 b(z − z ) b(z 1 − z 2 )
2
2 (1, 0)
⎡ −a + a 2 − b 2 ⎤
Now 1− z = 1− ⎢
2
⎥ (0, −1)
1
⎢⎣ b ⎥⎦ y'
( −a + ) Fig. 16.20
2
a2 − b 2
= 1−
b2
=
(
b 2 − a2 + a2 − b 2 − 2a a2 − b 2 )
2
b
2 b − a + a a2 − b 2 ⎤ 2 a2 − b 2
⎡ 2 2 ⎡a − a 2 − b 2 ⎤
= ⎣ 2
⎦= ⎣
2
⎦
b b
⎡ 2⎤
−a + a 2 − b 2 ⎣ −a − a − b ⎦
2
−a + a 2 − b 2 + a + a 2 − b 2 2 a 2 − b 2
and z1 − z 2 = − = =
b b b b
b ⋅ 2 a2 − b 2
∴ b(z 1 − z 2 ) = = 2 a2 − b 2
b
∴ R (z 1 ) =
(
2 a2 − b 2 a − a2 − b 2 ) = a− a2 − b 2
b 2 ⋅ 2 a2 − b 2 b2
(a − a2 − b2 ) = 2pi (a − a2 − b2 )
∫
C
f ( z ) dz = 2piR( z ) = 2pi
1
b 2
b 2
∴
1
I = R .P. of 2pi
a − a2 − b 2(=
2p a − a2 − b 2
.
) ( )
i b2 b2

EXAMPLE 5
2p
1 1 2 cos u
Evaluate ∫ 5 1 4 cos u d u, using contour integration.
0
Solution. 2p
1 + 2 cos u
Let I= ∫ 5 + 4 cos u d u
0
Consider the unit circle z = 1 as the contour C.

1
z+
z = z +1
2
1 dz
z iz 2 2z
⎛ z 2 + 1⎞
1+ 2⎜
⎝ 2z ⎟⎠ dz 1 z + z 2 +1 1 ( z 2 + z + 1)
= ∫
i C∫ z ( 2z 2 + 5z + 2)
∴ I=∫ dz = dz
⎛ z 2 + 1⎞ iz i C z [5z + 2z 2 + 2]
C
5+ 4⎜
⎝ 2z ⎟⎠
y
z + z +1
2
1
i C∫
Let f (z ) = ∴ I= f ( z ) dz (0, 1)
z ( 2z 2 + 5z + 2) C
The poles of f(z) are given by (−2, 0) (−1/2, 0)
z ( 2z + 5z + 2) = 0
2
x ′ (−1, 0)
o x
⇒ z = 0, 2z 2 + 5z + 2 = 0
(1, 0)
1 (0, −1)
⇒ ( 2z + 1) ( z + 2) = 0 ⇒ z = − , −2
2
1 y′
∴ z = 0, − , − 2 are simple poles of f(z)
2 Fig. 16.21
1
Since C is z = 1 , z = 0 and z = − lie inside C and z = −2 lies outside C.
2
z ( z 2 + z + 1) z2 + z + 1 1
∴ R(0) = lim zf ( z ) = lim = lim 2 =
z→0 z→0 z ( 2 z + 5 z + 2) z → 0 2 z + 5 z + 2 2
2
⎛ 1⎞ 2
⎜⎝ z + ⎟⎠ ( z + z + 1)
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ z
R ⎜ − ⎟ = lim ⎜ z + ⎟ f ( z ) = lim
⎝ 2 ⎠ z→ − 1 ⎝ 2⎠ z→ −
1 ⎛ 1⎞
2 2 z ⎜ z + ⎟ ( z + 2)
⎝ 2⎠
2
1 1 3
− +1
z 2 + z +1 4 2 4 1
= lim = = =−
1 2z ( z + 2) ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ −1 ⎞ 3 2
z →−
2 ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ + 2⎟ −
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
2

∴ by Cauchy’s residue theorem

⎡ ⎛ −1⎞ ⎤ ⎡1 1⎤
∫ f ( z ) dz = 2pi ⎢⎣ R(0) + R ⎜⎝
C
⎟⎠ ⎥ = 2pi ⎢ − ⎥ = 0
2 ⎦ ⎣2 2⎦
1
∴ I = ×0 = 0
i
EXAMPLE 6
p
1 12cos u
Evaluate ∫ 514 cosu d u.
0
Solution.
2p
1 + 2 cos u
Let I= ∫ 5 + 4 cos u d u
0
112 cos u 112 cos( 2p2u) 112 cos u

If f (u) 5 , then f ( 2p2u) 5 = = f ( u)
514 cos u 514 cos( 2p2u) 514 cos u
2a a
We know ∫ f (x )dx = 2∫ f (x )dx if f (2a − x) = f ( x).

0 0
a 2a
1
∴ ∫ f (x )dx =
0
2 ∫0
f ( x )dx
p 2p
112 cos u 1 1 + 2 cos u
∴ ∫ 514 cosu du 5 2 ∫ 514 cos u du 5 0
0 0
[by example 5]
16.8.2 Type 2. Improper Integrals of Rational Functions

∞
In real calculus, we consider integrals of the type ∫ f (x )dx . For this integral, the interval of integration
−∞
is not finite and hence it is an improper integral.
If f(x) is continuous for all x, we define
∞ 0 R2
∫
−∞
f ( x ) dx = lim
R1 →∞ ∫
− R1
f ( x ) dx + lim
R 2 →∞ ∫ f (x ) dx
0
(1)
when both the limits exist on the right hand side. We then say that the improper integral converge.
We have another value of the integral called the Cauchy principal value, defined by
∞ R
PV ∫
−∞
f ( x ) dx = lim
R →∞ ∫ f (x ) dx
−R
(2)
if the limit exists.
Note It can be proved that the convergence of integral in (1) implies that its converging value coincide
with the Cauchy principal value. However, the converse is not true. That is the Cauchy principal value
may exist even if the limits in (1) do not exist.

For example, if f(x) = x

R
R
⎡x2 ⎤ 1
Then lim ∫ xdx = lim ⎢ ⎥ = lim [R 2 − R 2 ] = 0
R →∞ R →∞ ⎣ 2 ⎦ − R R →∞ 2
−R
∞
So, PV
−∞
∫ f (x ) dx = 0
R2 R2
⎡x2 ⎤ R2
But lim
R 2 →∞ ∫
0
x dx = lim ⎢ ⎥ = lim
R 2 →∞ ⎣ 2 ⎦ 0 R 2 →∞ 2
=∞
So, the integrals in (1) do not converge.

∞
∴ ∫ f (x ) dx is not convergent.
−∞
When f(x) is even, the integrals (1) and (2) converge or diverge together and in this case
∞ ∞
1
∫ f (x ) dx = 2 ∫ f (x ) dx
0 −∞
(3)
Usually, the integral on the R.H.S of (3) will be evaluated as the Cauchy principal value.
Now we state Cauchy’s lemma which will be used in type 2 problems.
Cauchy’s lemma If f(z) is a continuous function such that zf ( z ) → 0 as z → ∞ on the upper

semi-circle S : z = R then ∫ f ( z )dz → 0 as R → ∞
S
∞
P( x)
Type 2: Integrals of the form ∫ Q( x) dx,
−∞
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x such that the
degree of Q(x) is atleast 2 more than the degree of P(x) and Q(x) does not vanish for any real x.
P( z )
To evaluate this integral, we consider ∫ dz , where C is the simple closed curve consisting of
C Q (z )
the real axis from −R to R and the upper semi-circle S : z = R , for large R, taken in the anticlockwise
sense. R
P( z )
Let f (z ) = . Then ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz (1)
Q (z ) C −R S
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we evaluate ∫ f ( z ) dz y

C
and ∫ f (z ) dz = 2pi [sum of the residues of f(z)]
C
(0, R)
S
By Cauchy’s lemma, R
(−R, 0) (R, 0)
∫ f (z ) dz → 0 as R → ∞
S
o x
∴ From (1) we get,

R
lim
R →∞ ∫ f (x ) dx = 2pi [sum of the residues of f(z)]
−R
Fig. 16.22

⇒ ∫ f (x ) dx = 2pi [sum of the residues of f(z)]

−∞
∞
P( x ) dx ⎡ P( z ) ⎤
⇒ ∫ Q (x )
= 2pi ⎢sum of the residues of Q ( z ) ⎥
−∞ ⎣ ⎦
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 7
∞
x2 2 x 1 2
Evaluate ∫x
−∞
4
1 10 x 2 1 9
dx .
Solution.
∞ ∞
x2 − x + 2 ( x 2 − x + 2) dx
Given ∫ 4
−∞ x + 10 x + 9
2
dx = ∫ 2
−∞ ( x + 1)( x + 9)
2
The integrand is a rational function with degree of Dr. two more than the degree of Nr. and Dr. ≠ 0
for any real x.
z2 −z +2
Consider ∫ 2
C ( z + 1)( z + 9)
2
dz ,where C is the simple closed curve consisting of the real axis from
−R to R and the upper semi-circle S : z = R taken in the anticlockwise sense and R is large.
z2 −z +2
Let f (z ) =
( z + 1)( z 2 + 9)
2
R
Then ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f (x ) dx + S∫ f (z ) dz (1)
y
C −R
We shall evaluate ∫ f ( z ) dz by residue theorem. (0, R)

C S
R
(−R, 0) O (R, 0) x
(z2 + 1)(z2 + 9) = 0 ⇒ z = ±i and z = ± 3i,

But only z = i and z = 3i lie inside C. Fig. 16.23
Now R (i ) = lim( z − i )f ( z )
z →i
( z − i )[ z 2 − z + 2]
= lim
z →i ( z + i )( z − i )( z 2 + 9)
z2 − z + 2 i2 − i + 2 −1 − i + 2 1 − i
= lim = = =
z →i ( z + i )( z + 9) 2i(i + 9) 2i( −1 + 9) 16i
2 2

( z − 3i )( z 2 − z + 2)
and R(3i ) = lim( z − 3i ) f ( z ) = lim
z → 3i z → 3i ( z 2 + 1)( z + 3i )( z − 3i )
z2 − z + 2 (3i ) 2 − 3i + 2 −9 − 3i + 2 7 + 3i
= lim = = =
z → 3i ( z 2 + 1)( z + 3i ) ((3i ) + 1)(3i + 3i ) ( −9 + 1)6i
2
48i
⎡1 − i 7 + 3i ⎤
∫ f ( z ) dz = 2pi[ R(i) + R(3i)] = 2pi ⎢⎣ 16i +
C 48i ⎥⎦
2p[3(1 − i ) + 7 + 3i] p × 10 5p
= = =
48 24 12
∴ from (1) we get,
R
5p
∫R f (x ) dx + S∫ f (z ) dz = 12
−
z ( z 2 − z + 2)
But lim zf ( z ) = lim =0
z →∞ z →∞ ( z 2 + 1)( z 2 + 9)
∴ by Cauchy’s lemma ∫ f ( z ) dz = 0 as R → ∞
S
R ∞
5p 5p
∴
R →∞
lim ∫R f (x ) dx = 12
−
⇒
−∞
∫ f (x ) dx = 12
EXAMPLE 8
∞
x 2 dx
Evaluate ∫ , a > 0 , b > 0.
0 ( x 1 a )( x 1 b )
2 2 2 2
Solution.
x2
Let f (x ) =
( x 2 + a2 )( x 2 + b 2 )
Then f(−x) = f(x) ∴ f(x) is even function of x.

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
1
∴ ∫−∞ 0
f ( x ) dx = 2∫ f ( x ) dx
0
∫ f (x ) dx
2 −∞
⇒ ∫ f (x ) dx =
f(x) is a rational function with degree of the Dr. 2 more than degree of the Nr. and the Dr. ≠ 0 for any real x.
z 2 dz
Consider ∫
+ a2 )( z 2 + b 2 )
C (z
2
, where C is the simple closed contour consisting of the real axis
from −R to R and the upper semi-circle S : z = R taken in the anticlockwise sense and R is large.
z2
Let f (z ) =
( z + a )( z 2 + b 2 )
2 2
R
Then ∫ f (z ) dz =
C
∫ f (x ) dx + S∫ f (z ) dz
−R

y
We shall evaluate ∫ f ( z ) dz .
C
C (0, R)
(z2 + a2)(z2 + b2) = 0 ib S
ia R
⇒ z = ±ai , z = ±bi
which are simple poles. x ′ (−R, 0) O (R, 0) x
−ia
Since a > 0, b > 0, z = ai and z = bi lie inside C. −ib
Now R( ai ) = lim( z − ai ) f ( z ) y′
z → ai
2
z Fig. 16.24
= lim( z − ai )
z → ai ( z + ai )( z − ai )( z 2 + b 2 )
z2
= lim
z → ai ( z + ai )( z 2 + b 2 )
a2i 2 a
= =−
( ai + ai )( a i + b )
2 2 2
2i(b − a 2 )
2
−b b
Similarly, R (bi ) = =
2i (a − b ) 2i (b − a2 )
2 2 2
So, by Cauchy’s residue theorem,
⎡ a b ⎤ ⎡ b−a ⎤ p
∫ f ( z ) dz = 2pi[ R(ai) + R(bi)] = 2pi ⎢⎣ − 2i(b
C
2
+ 2 ⎥
− a ) 2i(b − a ) ⎦
2 2
= p⎢ 2 2⎥
⎣b − a ⎦
=
b +a
R
p
∴ from (1) we get, ∫R f (x ) dx + S∫ f (z ) dz = b + a
−
z ⋅ z2 1
Now lim zf ( z ) = lim = lim =0
z →∞ z →∞ ( z 2 + a 2 )( z 2 + b 2 ) z →∞ ⎛ a ⎞ ⎛ b2 ⎞
2
+ 2⎟
z ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ ⎜1+
⎝ z ⎠⎝ z ⎠
So, by Cauchy’s lemma, ∫ f ( z ) dz → 0 as R → ∞
S
R ∞
p p
∴ lim
R →∞ ∫R f (x ) dx = a + b
−
⇒ ∫ f (x ) dx = b + a
−∞
∞
1 p
∴ ∫ f (x ) dx = 2 (a + b )
0
EXAMPLE 9
∞
dx
Evaluate ∫ using Contour integration.
0 (1 1 x 2 )2
Solution.
∞ ∞
dx
I =∫
x 2 ) 2 ∫0
Let = f ( x ) dx
0 (1 +

1 y
Here f ( x ) = is even function of x, since f(−x) = f(x)
(1 + x 2 ) 2
C
Since f(−x) = f(x) S
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ S
1 R
∴ ∫
−∞
f ( x ) dx = 2∫ f ( x ) dx
0
⇒ ∫ f (x ) dx =
0
∫ f (x ) dx
2 −∞
ia
x′ (−R, 0) O (R, 0) x
dz −i
Now consider the integral ∫ , where C is the Contour
C (1 + z 2 )2
y′
consisting of the real axis from −R to R and upper semi-circle
Fig. 16.25
S : z = R taken with anticlockwise sense and R is large.
1
Let f ( z ) =
(1 + z 2 ) 2
R
Then ∫ f (z ) dz = ∫R f (x ) dx + S∫ f (z ) dz
C −
(1)
∴ the poles of f(z) are given by (1 + z2)2 = 0 ⇒ (1 + z2) = 0 ⇒ z = ±i, twice.

which are poles of order 2.
But only z = i lie inside C.
1 d
∴ R (i ) = lim ⎡⎣( z − i ) 2 f ( z ) ⎤⎦
( 2 − 1)! z → i dz
d ⎡ [z − i ]2 ⎤
= lim ⎢ ⎥
z → i dz ( z − i ) 2 ( z + i ) 2
⎣ ⎦
d ⎡ 1 ⎤ −2 2 2 1
= lim ⎢ 2⎥
= lim =− = =
z →i dz ⎣ ( z + i ) ⎦ z → i (z + i ) 3
(i + i ) 3
8i 4i
1 p
∫ f (z ) dz = 2piR (i ) = 2pi 4i =
C 2
R
p
From (1), we get, ∫R f (x ) dx + S∫ f (z ) dz =
−
2
z z
lim zf ( z ) = lim = lim =0
z →∞ (1 + z 2 ) 2 2
z →∞ z →∞
⎛ 1⎞
Now z ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
3
⎝ z ⎠
So, by Cauchy’s lemma, ∫ f ( z ) dz → 0 as R → ∞ .
S
R ∞
p p
∴ lim
R →∞ ∫R f (x ) dx =
−
2
⇒ ∫ f (x ) dx =
−∞
2
∞
1p p
∴ ∫ f (x ) dx = 2 2 =
0
4

16.8.3 Type 3
∞ ∞
P( x ) sin mx P( x ) cos mx
Integrals of the form ∫−∞ Q (x ) dx and ∫−∞ Q (x ) dx , m > 0, where P(x) and Q(x) are
polynomials in x such that the degree of Q(x) is greater than the degree of P(x) and Q(x) does not
vanish for any real x. These integrals occur in connection with Fourier integrals − the sine and cosine
transforms.
P( z )
To evaluate the above integrals, we consider ∫ f ( z )e imz dz , where f ( z ) = and C is the simple
C Q (z )
closed curve consisting of the real axis from −R to R and upper semi-circle S : z = R taken in the
anticlockwise sense and R is large.
R
∴ ∫ f (z )e dz = ∫ f (x )e dx + ∫ f ( z )e imz dz
imz imx
(1)
C −R S
We evaluate ∫ f ( z )e imz dz by using Cauchy’s residue theorem and substitute in (1).

C
By Jordan’s lemma ∫ f ( z )e imz dz → 0 as R → ∞

S
R
∫R f (x )e dx = value of ∫ f ( z )e imz dz
imx
and lim
R →∞
− C
∞
⇒ ∫ f (x )e dx = value of ∫ f ( z )e imz dz
imx
−∞ C
∞ ∞
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get the value of ∫

−∞
f ( x ) cos mx dx and ∫ f (x ) sin mx dx
−∞
respectively.
Jordan’s lemma If f(z) is a continuous function such that f ( z ) → 0 uniformly as z → ∞ then
∫ f (z )e dz → 0 as R → ∞, where S is the upper semi-circle z = R

imz
S
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 10
∞
x sin mx
Evaluate ∫
0 x 2 1 a2
dx , a > 0 , m > 0 .
Solution.
∞ ∞
I =∫
x sin mx 1 x sin mx
dx = ∫ 2 ⎡ x sin mx ⎤
Let
x 2 + a2 2 −∞ x + a2
dx ⎢⎣{ x 2 + a2 is an even function of x ⎥⎦
0
ze imz
Consider ∫ 2 dz , where C is the simple closed curve consisting of the real axis from −R to R and
C z +a
2
the upper semi-circle S : z = R taken in the anticlockwise sense and R is large.

ze imz
Let F(z ) =
z 2 + a2

R y
∴
C
∫ F (z ) dz = ∫
−R
F ( x ) dx + ∫ F ( z ) dz
S
(1)
(0, R)
C
we shall evaluate ∫ F ( z ) dz . ia S
C
The poles of F(z) are given by z2 + a2 = 0 ⇒ z = ±ia,
x′ o x
which are simple poles. (−R, 0) (R, 0)
−ia
But z = ia lies inside C and z = −ia lies outside C.
∴ R(ia) = lim( z − ia) F ( z ) y′
z → ia
( z − ia) ze imz
= lim Fig. 16.26
z → ia ( z − ia)( z + ia)
iae i ma iae − ma e − ma
2
ze imz
= lim = = =
z → ia ( z + ia) ia + ia 2ia 2
e − ma
∫ F (z ) dz = 2piR (ia) = 2pi
C 2
= pie − ma
R
∫ F (x ) dx + S∫ F(z ) dz = pie
− ma
−R
z
Let f (z ) =
z + a2
2
z
Since f (z ) = → 0 as z → ∞ ,
z 2 + a2
∫S f ( z )e dz = ∫ F ( z ) dz → 0 as R → ∞
imz
by Jordan’s lemma,
S
R
∫R F (x )dx = pie
− ma
∴ lim
R →∞
−
∫ F (x ) dx = pie
− ma
⇒
−∞
∞ ∞
pie − ma xe imx pie − ma
⇒ ∫ F (x ) dx =
0
2
⇒ ∫x
0
2
+a 2
dx =
2
∞ − ma
x (cos mx + i sin mx ) pie
⇒ ∫
0 x +a
2 2
dx =
2
Equating imaginary parts, we get,
∞
x sin mx pe − ma
∫0 x 2 + a2 dx =
2
.

EXAMPLE 11
∞
cos mx
Evaluate ∫ dx , m > 0.
0 ( 1
1 x 2 )2
Solution.
∞ ∞
I =∫
cos mx 1 cos mx
dx = ∫ ⎡ cos mx ⎤
Let
(1 + x 2 2
) 2 −∞ (1 + x 2 ) 2
dx ⎢{ (1 + x 2 ) 2 is an even funcition of x ⎥
0 ⎣ ⎦
e imz dz
Consider ∫
C (1 + z )
2 2
, where C is the Contour consisting of the real axis from −R to R and the upper
semi-circle S : z = R taken in the anticlockwise sense and R is large.

e imz
Let F(z ) =
(1 + z 2 ) 2
R
Then ∫ F (z ) dz = ∫R F (x ) dx + S∫ F(z ) dz
C −
(1)
The poles of F(z) are given by y
(1 + z 2 ) 2 = 0 ⇒ 1 + z 2 = 0 ⇒ z = ±i , (0, R)
C
which are poles of order 2. S
(0, 1) i
But z = i lies inside C.
1 d
∴ R (i ) = lim [( z − i ) 2 F ( z )] x ′ (−R, 0) o
(R, 0) x
( 2 − 1)! z → i dz (0, −1) −i
d ⎡ ( z − i ) 2 e imz ⎤
= lim ⎢ 2⎥ y′
⎣ (z + i ) (z − i ) ⎦
z → i dz 2
Fig. 16.27
d ⎡ e imz ⎤
= lim ⎢ 2⎥
z → i dz
⎣ (z + i ) ⎦
( z + i ) 2 ⋅ e imz ⋅ im − e imz 2( z + i )
= lim
z →i (z + i )4
[im ( z + i ) − 2]e imz [(i + i )im − 2]e mi ( −2m − 2)e − m ( m + 1)e − m

2
= lim = = =
z →i ( z + i )3 (i + i ) 3 −8i 4i
( m + 1)e − m p( m + 1)e − m
∫ F (z ) dz = 2piR (i ) = 2pi
C 4i
=
2
R
p( m + 1)e − m
∴ from (1) we get, ∫R F (x ) dx + S∫ F(z ) dz =
−
2

1
Let f (z ) = .
(1 + z 2 ) 2
1
Since f (z ) = → 0 as z → ∞, by Jordan’s lemma,
(1 + z 2 ) 2
∫ f ( z )e dz = ∫ F ( z )dz → 0 as R → ∞
imz
S S
p( m + 1)e − m
R
∴ lim
R →∞ ∫
−R
F ( x ) dx =
2
∞
p( m + 1)e − m
⇒ ∫
−∞
F ( x ) dx =
2
∞ ∞
p( m + 1)e − m e imx dx p( m + 1)e − m
⇒ ∫ F (x ) dx =
0
4
⇒ ∫0 (1 + x 2 )2 =
4
∞
cos mx + i sin mx p( m + 1)e − m
⇒ ∫
0 (1 + x )
2 2
dx =
4
∞
cos mx p( m + 1)e − m
Equating real parts, we get, ∫ dx =
0 (1 + x )
2 2
4
EXAMPLE 12
∞
sin x dx
Evaluate ∫x
−∞
2
1 4x 1 5
using Contour integration.
Solution.
∞
sin x dx
Let I= ∫x
−∞
2
+ 4x + 5
e iz dz
Consider ∫ 2
C z + 4z + 5
, where C is the simple closed curve
y
consisting of the real axis from −R to R and the upper
semi-circle S : z = R taken in the antilock-wise sense (0, R)
and R is large. C
S
e iz
Let F(z ) = 2 (−2, 1)
z + 4z + 5 x′ o x
(−R, 0) (R, 0)
R
Then
C
∫ F (z ) dz = ∫R F (x ) dx + S∫ F(z ) dz
−
(−2, −1)
(0, −R)
y′
We shall evaluate ∫ F ( z ) dz .
C
Fig. 16.28

The poles of F(z) are given by z2 + 4z + 5 = 0

−4 ± 16 − 20 −4 ± i 2
⇒ z = = = −2 ± i,
2 2
Then z 2 + 4 z + 5 = [z − ( −2 + i )][z − ( −2 − i )]
∴ z = −2 + i lies inside C.
∴ R ( −2 + i ) = lim {[z − ( −2 + i )]F ( z )}
z →−2 + i
[ z − ( −2 + i )]e iz
= lim
z →−2 + i [ z − ( −2 + i )][ z − ( −2 − i )]
e iz e i ( −2 + i ) e −1− 2i e −1e −2i e −2i

= lim = = = =
z →−2 + i z − ( −2 − i ) −2 + i − ( −2 − i ) 2i 2i 2ie
By Cauchy’s residue theorem,
e −2i pe −2i
∫ F (z ) dz = 2piR ( −2 + i ) = 2pi 2ie
C
=
e
pe −2i
R
∫R F (x ) dx + S∫ F(z ) dz =
−
e
1
Let f (z ) =
z 2 + 4z + 5
1
Since f ( z) = → 0 as z → ∞, by Jordan’s lemma,
z2 + 4z + 5
∫ f ( z )e dz = ∫ F ( z ) dz → 0 as R → ∞
imz
S S
R
pe −2i
∴ lim
R →∞ ∫R F (x ) dx =
−
e
∞ ∞
pe −2i e ix dx pe −2i
⇒ ∫
−∞
F ( x ) dx =
e
⇒ ∫ 2
−∞ x + 4 x + 5
=
e
∞
(cos x + i sin x ) dx p[cos 2 − i sin 2]
⇒ ∫
−∞ x 2 + 4x + 5
=
e
Equating imaginary parts we get,

∞
sin x dx p sin 2
∫x
−∞
2
+ 4x + 5
=−
e
.
∞
cos x dx p cos 2
Note Equating real parts we get, ∫x
−∞
2
+ 4x + 5
=
e
.

EXERCISE 16.4
I. Using Contour integration evaluate the following integrals.
2p 2p 2p
du du du
1. ∫
0 2 − cos u
2. ∫
0
17 − 8 cos u
3. ∫ 5 + 4 sin u
0
2p 2p
du du
4. ∫
0
5 + 4 cos u
5. ∫ 1 − 2 p cos u + p
0
2
if p < 1
2p 2p 2p
du du sin u
6. ∫
0
a + b sin u
, a>b >0 7. ∫
0 (a + b cos u) 2
, a > b >0 8. ∫ 5 + 4 cos u d u
0
2p 2p 2p
cos 2u sin 2 u du
9. ∫
0
5 − 4 cos u
du 10. ∫
0
5 − 3 cos u
du 11. ∫ 2 + cos u
0
2p p
cos 2u du
12. ∫ 1 2 2a cos u 1 a
0
2
d u, a < 1 13. ∫a
0
2
+ sin 2 u
,a>0
II. Using Contour integration evaluate the following integrals.

∞ ∞ ∞
x 2 dx x 2 dx dx
1. ∫0 (x 2 + 9)(x 2 + 4) 2. ∫0 x 4 + 1 3. ∫ (x
0
2
+ a2 )( x 2 + b 2 )
a>b >0
∞ ∞ ∞
dx x2 dx
4. ∫x
0
4
+ 10 x 2 + 9
5.
−∞
∫ (1 + x 2 3
)
dx 6. ∫ (x
0
2
+ a 2 )3
, a>0
∞ ∞ ∞
dx x2 dx
7. ∫−∞ (1 + x 2 )2 8. ∫ 6 dx
−∞ x + 1
9. ∫x
0
4
+1
∞ ∞ ∞
2x 2 − 1 x2 + x +3 x 2dx
10. ∫0 x 4 + 5x 2 + 4 dx 11. ∫ 4 2 dx
−∞ x + 5x + 4
12. ∫ 2
−∞ ( x + 1)( x + 4)
2
∞ ∞
x2 x 2 dx
13. ∫0 (x 2 + 1)2 dx 14. ∫0 ( x 2 + 9)( x 2 + 4)2
III. Evaluate using contour integration

∞ ∞
cos mx cos mx
1. ∫0 x 2 + a2 dx , a > 0, m > 0 2. ∫ (x
0
2
+ a2 ) 2
dx , a > 0, m >0
∞ ∞ ∞
cos x dx cos x cos 3x
3. ∫−∞ (x 2 + a2 )(x 2 + b 2 ) , a > b > 0 4. ∫0 1 + x 2 dx 5. ∫ (x
−∞
2
+ 1) 2
dx

∞ ∞ ∞
x sin xdx x sin mx cos ax
6. ∫−∞ x 2 + 2x + 2 7. ∫0 x 2 + a2 dx , m >, a > 0 8. ∫x
0
2
+1
dx , a > 0
∞
x 2 cos mx
9. ∫ (x
0
2
+ a2 )( x 2 + b 2 )
dx , m > 0, a > b > 0

I.
2p 2p 2p 2p
1. 2p 2. 3. 4. 5.
5 3 3 1− p2
2p 2p p 2p
6. 7. 8. 0 9. 10.
a −b
2 2 (a 2 − b 2 ) 3 / 2 5 3
2p 2pa2 p
11. 12. 13.
3 1 − a2 a a2 + 1
II.
p p p p p
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
10 2 2 2ab (a + b ) 24 8
3p p p p p
6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
16a5 2 6 2 2 4
5p p
11. 12. p 13. p 14.
6 3 4 200
III.
p − ma p p ⎡ e −b e − a ⎤
1. e 2. (1 + ma)e − ma 3. ⎢ − ⎥
2a 4a 3 a2 − b 2 ⎣ b a ⎦
p 2p p p − ma
4. 5. 6. (sin 1 + cos 1) 7. e
e e3 e 2
p[ae − ma − be − mb ]
8. p e − a 9.
2 2(a2 − b 2 )
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

∫e dz where C is z 51.
z
1. Evaluate
C
z 2 15
2. Evaluate ∫
dz , where C is z 5 4.
C z 23
z 12
3. Evaluate ∫ dz, where C is the circle z 5 2 in the z-plane.
C z

z 2 11
4. Evaluate dz, where C is the circle z 2 1 5 1.
C z 21
2
dz
5. Evaluate ∫ where C is the circle z 5 2.
C 14
z
cos pz
6. Evaluate ∫ dz if C is z 5 2.
C z 21
cos pz 2
7. Evalute ∫ ( z 2 1)( z 2 2 ) dz where C is z 5 3 / 2.
C
z 14
8. Evaluate ∫z 2
1 2z 1 5
dz , where C is the circle z 1 1 5 1.
C
3z 2 1 7 z 1 1 1
9. Evaluate ∫ z 1 1 dz , where C is z 5 2 .
C
1
10. Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate ∫ 2 dz , where C is the circle with centre 1 and
radius 5 1. C z 21
∫z dz , where C is z 51.
2 1/ z
11. Evaluate e
C
4
12. Find the residue of f ( z ) 5 at a simple pole.
z 3 ( z 2 2)
1 2 e 2z
13. Find the residue of at z = 0.
z4
z 12
14. Find the singular point of and hence find its residue.
( z 1 1) 2
z 12
15. Determine the residue at the simple pole of .
( z 1 1) 2 ( z 2 2 )
16. Obtain the expansion of loge (1 1 z) when z < 1.
1
17. Write down the singularity of the function .
12ez
e 2z
18. Calculate the residue of f ( z ) 5 at its pole.
( z 1 1) 2
19. If C is the circle z 5 2, evaluate ∫ tan z dz .

C
1
20. If f ( z ) 5 z cos find the residue at z = 0.
z
p
21. Evaluate ∫ z sec z dz where C is z − p /2 =
2
.
C

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

z 3
1. The value of ∫ z − 2 dz , where c is the circle
C
z − 2 = , is _____________.
2
z
2. If C is the circle z = 2, then ∫ ( z − 1)
C
3
dz = _____________.
2z2 − z − 2
3. If C is the circle z = 3 and if f ( z0 ) = ∫ dz , then F(2) = _____________.
C
z − z0
4. If C is the circle whose centre is 2 and radius is 4, then the value of ∫ ( z − 2) n dz , n > 0, is _____________.
C
1 z2 − z + 1
5. If C is z =
2 ∫C z − 1 dz = _____________.
, then
1
6. The Taylor’s series expansion of at z = 1 is _____________.
z +2
sin z − z
7. The nature of the singularity of is _____________.
z3
1− ez
8. The order of the pole z = 0 for is _____________.
z4
1 − e 2z
9. The residue of f ( z ) = at z = 0 is _____________.
z3
z 2 −1
10. The order of the pole z = 1 for is _____________.
( z − 1)3
⎛ 1 ⎞
11. The nature of singularity of sin ⎜
⎝ z + 1⎟⎠
is _____________.
1 1
12. The Taylor’s series for − in the region z < 1 is _____________.
z − 2 z −1
13. The residue of f ( z ) = e1/ z at z = 0 is _____________.
sin z
14. For , z = 0 is _____________ singularity.
z
1
15. For f ( z ) = , R (0) = _____________.
z 2e z

z +2
1. ∫
C
z
dz , where C is the circle z = 2, is
(a) 0 (b) 2pi (c) 4pi (d) None of these

z
2. If C is the circle z = 2, then ∫ ( z − 1)
C
3
dz is
(a) 4pi (b) 2pi (c) 0 (d) None of these

cospz 3
3. ∫
C
z − 1
dz , if C is z = , is
2
(a) 2pi (b) 4pi (c) pi (d) −2pi
1+ i
∫ (x − iy )dz along the path y = x is

2
4.
0
1 1 5−i 3 − 4i
(a) +i (b) (c) (d) None of these
3 2 6 2
1
5. The nature of singularity of f ( z ) = ze z is

2
(a) z = 0 is a pole of order 2 (b) z = 0 is a removable singularity

(c) z = 0 is an essential singularity (d) None of these
1
6. For the function f ( z ) = , z = 0 is a pole of order
z (e z − 1)
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) None of these
z +2
7. The residue at the simple pole of the function f ( z ) = is
( z + 1) 2 ( z − 2)
4 4 3 3
(a) (b) − (c) (d) −
9 9 5 5
1
8. If f ( z ) = − − 2[1 + ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) 2 + …] , then the residue of f(z) at z = 1 is
z −1
(a) −1 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) −2
1+ ez
9. The residue of f ( z ) = at z = 0 is
sin z + z cos z
1
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) (d) None of these
2
z 2 −1
10. The poles of f ( z ) = are
( z − 1) 2 ( z + 2)
(a) z = 1, −2 are of order 2 (b) z = 1 is of order 2, z = −2 is of order 1
(c) z = 1, −2 are of order 1 (d) None of these
sin z
11. For f ( z ) = , R (0) is
z
1 1
(a) 0 (b) − (c) (d) −1
6 2
z − sin z
12. For f ( z ) = , z = 0 is
z3
(a) a pole of order 3 (b) a pole of order 2

(c) a removable singularity (d) an essential singularity
1− ez
13. For f ( z ) = , R (0) is
z4
1 1
(a) 1 (b) (c) − (d) −1
6 6

4z2 − z + 5
14. If C is the ellipse 9x 2 + 4 y 2 = 36, then the value of ∫
C
z−4
dz is
(a) 0 (b) 130pi (c) 65pi (d) None of these

dz
15. If C is the circle z = 2, then the value of ∫ 2z − 3
C
is
pi
(a) 0 (b) 2pi (c) 4pi (d)
3
ANSWERS
1. 4pi 2. 0 3. 8pi
4. 0 5. 0
⎡ z − 1 ( z − 1) 2 ( z − 1)3 ⎤
6. 3 ⎢1 − + 2
− 3
+ …⎥ , z − 1 < 3
⎣ 3 3 3 ⎦
7. z = 0 is a removable singularity 8. 3
9. −2 10. z = 1 is a pole of order 2 11. z = −1 is an essential singularity

1 3 7 15
12. + z + z 2 + z3 + … 13. 1 14. Removable
2 4 8 16
15. −1
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)

Unit 4 Analytic Functions

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Unit 4 Analytic Functions

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Analytic Functions 15

6. z 1 + z 2 ≤ z 1 + z 2 . This is called triangle inequality.

4. Geometric representation of complex numbers

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 1 5/17/2016 8:59:30 PM

Euler’s formula: For any real u, e iu = cos u + i sin u

15.1 FUNCTION OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 2 5/17/2016 8:59:35 PM

If w = u + iv is the value of f at z = x + iy, then u + iv = f(x + iy).

where u ( x , y ) = x 2 − y 2 and v = 2xy.

15.1.1 Geometrical Representation of Complex Function or Mapping

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 3 5/17/2016 8:59:38 PM

15.1.2 Extended Complex Number System

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 4 5/17/2016 8:59:40 PM

15.1.3 Neighbourhood of a Point and Region

15.2 LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 5 5/17/2016 8:59:43 PM

Symbolically, we write lim f ( z ) = w 0 .

lim u( x , y ) = u0 and lim v (x , y ) = v 0

15.2.1 Continuity of a Function

This means that for continuity at a point.

lim f ( z ) = f ( z 0 ) if and only if

lim u( x , y ) = u0 and lim v (x , y ) = v 0 .

15.2.2 Derivative of f(z)

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 6 5/17/2016 8:59:48 PM

When f ′( z 0 ) exists, we say the function f is differentiable at z0.

which varies with m. So, the limit is not unique.

15.2.3 Differentiation Formulae

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 7 5/17/2016 8:59:54 PM

15.3 ANALYTIC FUNCTION

Note An analytic function is also known as regular function or holomorphic function.

15.3.1 Necessary and Sufficient Condition for f(z) to be Analytic

The second condition ux 5v y and u y 5− v x are known as Cauchy-Riemann equations or brieﬂy

Proof Necessary condition

We know that when f ′(z) exists, it is unique.

We shall ﬁnd the limit Δz → 0 along two paths.

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 8 5/17/2016 8:59:56 PM

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 9 5/17/2016 8:59:59 PM

15.3.2 C-R Equations in Polar Form

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.to r and u we get

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 10 5/17/2016 9:00:02 PM

Definition 15.6 Entire Function

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 11 5/17/2016 9:00:06 PM

∴ ux = vy and uy = − vx at this point z0.

Let g(z) = cf(z) = c(u + iv) = cu + icv = U + iV

Here U and V satisfy C-R equations.

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 12 5/17/2016 9:00:06 PM

Given f ( z ) is also analytic. ∴ it satisﬁes C-R equations.

∴ u = (x − y)2 and v = 2(x + y)

Given ⎢f(z) ⎢ is constant.

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 13 5/17/2016 9:00:09 PM

where C is a constant. (1)

∴ f(z) = u + iv = c1 + ic2 ⇒ f(z) = constant.

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 14 5/17/2016 9:00:11 PM

= sin x cos(iy ) + cos x sin(iy ) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y

u x = cos x cosh y and v x = − sin x sinh y

u y = sin x sinh y and v y = cos x cosh y

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 15 5/17/2016 9:00:14 PM

Hence, the C-R equations are satisﬁed at (0, 0).

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 16 5/17/2016 9:00:17 PM

M15_ENGINEERING_MATHEMATICS-I _CH15_PART A.indd 17 5/17/2016 9:00:24 PM

then u = r (cos3 u − sin 3 u) and v = r (cos3 u + sin 3 u)

and lim v = lim r (cos3 u + sin 3 u) = 0

∴ lim f ( z ) = lim u + i lim v = 0 = f (0)

∂u u (0, y ) − u (0, 0) 0−y