Culture and Society | Social Groups

1. Socio-cultural Evolution

1.1. Transformation and Change of Societies

1.2. Socio-Cultural Change
1.1. Transformation and Change of Societies

Included in socio-cultural transformation is the evolution and transformation of society as a whole. This
comes about through the influence of the totality of individuals and communities, groups and movements
within that society as a whole.

Such transformation is difficult to achieve because the center of gravity of such societies is almost always at
a very low, exoteric, non-gnostic, level. In the West, it is based on religion and secular modernity. In non-
Western countries it is almost always religious, generally fundamentalist, interwoven with folk superstitions,
and occasional esoteric insights from authentic indigenous mystics.

Social and cultural transformation will always lag behind individual transformation, because of the even
greater inertia and lesser consciousness in the larger collectivity. Nevertheless, there does seem to be
something of a revolution of consciousness occurring, especially in the Western world, which can for the
sake of convenience be called Postmaterialism.

The following then represents a simplistic mapping of Socio-Cultural transformation, from negative to
positive.

Delusional.

Extremist religion, paranoid or genocidal regimes, gospels of hate; at war with or in league with the selfish
and dualistic above who have totally lost all contact with larger reality. Puppets of adverse forces.

Egocentric/Selfish

Imperial Consciousness (Korten - SD equivalent is Multiplistic-achievist in part), Social Darwinism (based on

the As above, the untransformed lower emotional body, necessary for survival in the wild environment, but
only one half of the natural equation), unregulated capitalism, imperialism, jingoism, totalitarianism,
authoritarianism (may be religious or secular), dominated by lack of empathy. May be selfish/narcissistic (if
secular) or Ego-shadow (if religious) psychological dynamics. Secular and conservative religious factions
fight with Reformist ideologies for the heart and soul of the "Ethnocentric"/ Dualistic/ Baseline mainstream.
For example Egocentric/Selfish corporations support polluting the Earth and exploiting Third World people
in order to maximize profits, deny climate change for short term gain, and so on. Politicians and political
parties will tend to support either Egocentric/Selfish, Ethnocentric, or Pluralistic/Reform/Worldcentric
pressure groups. In non-western countries, takes the form of authoritarian regimes, terrorist organizations,
and so on. In all cases, under the influence of adverse forces. Of course, even the adverse and anti-divine
ultimately further the Divine, so things should never be considered in too simplistically dualistic a manner.

"Ethnocentric"/Dualistic/Baseline

Ordinary society, the moral baseline that needs to be transformed. May be Traditional/Religious,
Rational/Modern and similar religio- /ethno- / anthropo- and other -centric society and culture, status quo,
most social interactions, Socialized Consciousness, "Good citizens", Conservatism, limited consciousness
rather than bad or exploitative. Current world situation; attempts reform of selfish and delusional by
selecting some as global pariahs, while maintaining business as usual with others; often actively support
them. In natural ecologies and ecosystems takes the form of predation, parasitism, inter-species
competition, intra-species competitiveness, old paradigm view of "survival of the fittest" and "nature red in
tooth and claw", a subset of the larger synergetic whole. Mix of selfish and altruistic: Some higher influences,
but also under the sway of adverse forces, can go either way.

Pluralistic/Worldcentric/(R) Evolutionary

In natural ecologies and ecosystems takes the form of Emergent evolution, ecosystems, ecology. In human
societies the movement to pluralistic, postmodernist, multicultural, ecologically sustainable, society, which is
resisted by traditionalism. This stage represents a Worldcentric, "Aquarian", emerging Rising
Culture/Postmaterialism, which is finally rising to the level of synergetic nature. In the human social realm
this reform movement is resisted by traditionalism (and interestingly even by elements of integral
movement: egotistic rivalry/jealousy?). Representatives of this stage of development fight with
Egocentric/Selfish ideologies for the heart and soul of the "Ethnocentric"/Dualistic mainstream. Inspired by
ideational plane pure ideas, but mixed with lower influences. Represents consciousness under the influence
of higher impulses, with the adverse receding.

Holistic/Systems/New Paradigm/Integral

This is the Rising Culture/Postmaterialism, New Age as subculture, movement to pluralistic, postmodernist,
multicultural, ecologically sustainable, societies, which is resisted by traditionalism. The Alternative and New
Age and New Paradigm society, including Commercial and pop New Age (wherein some cases the
influences are mixed with baser selfish-imperialistic consciousness), and social and spiritual ideology and
Cultural Creatives. Understanding Gaia, nature as synergetic biological and spiritual interactions, quantum
mysticism and other ideas. There is the ideal of establishing new global Civilization and Integral world
government, not yet achieved. Inspiration is from the ideational and higher emotional plane, pure ideas and
empathy.

Mesoteric/pre-gnosis

The Ideal of New global Civilization; is not yet realized. Inspired by spiritual hierarchies, subtle physical in
interaction with gross physical. Mixed energy, some pure ideas, some subtle/astral/spiritual experiences,
some lower influences, surface astral/mental.

Esoteric/Gnostic

It may be that a few societies e.g. Egypt, India, Tibet, etc. attained this in the past (collective esoteric
worldview), but this was always mixed up with religious literalism. There is also the New
Age/mythic/messianic "Golden Age", as well as traditionalist ideas of a past Golden Age, subtle physical
spiritual hierarchies behind events and behind the the natural world; spiritual and esoteric traditions and
teachings, celestial hierarchies, adepts, realizers, active in the world, but not yet actualized collectively or
globally. Inspiration here from subtle physical/astral/spiritual realms (include positive, mixed, and
sometimes negative).

Partial and Complete Realization and above.

So far individual only, requires Divinization to be collectively attained.

1.2. Socio-Cultural Change

A change is a means, a process or an end. It can be an ideology or a doctrine. It may be an adoption of new
objects and materials to attain certain goals.
Characteristics of Social Change

1. Pervasive. Change cannot be avoided and is happening in every culture, society and even
personality. The process by which a person or group of persons work together to prevent, resist or
accept change due its possible consequences is referred to as a social movement.
2. Continuous transformation. It is continuous since man is continuously interacting with people and
has to survive in the community where he lives.
3. May be constructive or destructive. Any change has an effect and impact on the concerned
society. It is constructive if it has positive results and destructive if in the course of time, social
problems have accelerated and positive values have vanished slowly.

Sources of Social Change

1. Physical environment. Physical environment includes the climate and the natural and physical
resources of the land. Any change among these will result in the change of people’s life pattern for
people will find ways to cope with such change in order to survive. Drastic changes in physical
environment will make people change their lifestyles and adopt mechanisms in their social
organization.
2. Population. Any change in a country’s population size is most likely to have an effect in the lives of
its people. A country with zero population growth rate or decline in number is in danger of being
extinct while a country with excessively large population may not be able to provide for all the
people’s needs.
3. Technology. Technology is considered as a major source of change today. It is observed that in a
country, as the pace of technological development becomes rapid, so does the pattern of behavior
of its people.
4. Cultural innovation. Introduction of cultural innovation among groups possessing similar cultures
is faster than among the groups with varied cultures.
5. Conflict and change. Conflict which arises from the struggle between capitalists and workers, or
between the exploiting and the exploited class, changes society.
6. Ideology. Ideology of charismatic personalities in religion and in politics led to the formation of
social movements.
7. Individual action. Actions of individuals (political and religious leaders) may also influence the
course of social change.
8. Collective behavior. Collective behavior is a relatively spontaneous action which occurs when
people try to work out common responses to situation. The behavior includes rumors, riots,
demonstrations and rallies. These represent an attempt by the people to change aspects f their
social government. In some cases, the effects may be lasting, bringing about major social v\changes.

Causes of Social Change

1. Man’s Physical, Psychological and Sociological Needs. Aside from man’s basic needs such as
food, water and air, he also has other needs to satisfy in order to cope with the changing
environment and the demands of society in which the changing environment and the demands of
society in which he is part of. In order to satisfy these needs, man used his mind and ability, resulting
to inventions, discoveries and innovations that brought about social change.
2. Group Conflict and Social Inequality. The long time social conflict of the peasant and the
bourgeoisie and the capitalist and the laborers resulted in class struggle and imposed a forced
change in every society.
3. Thoughts and Ideas. Man is a thinker. He has the capacity to think and influence others – whether
by speaking up or writing – resulting to social change.

Theories of Social Change

 1. Evolutionary theory views society as moving in a definite direction, characterized by constant
development or change.

1. Unilinear evolutionary theory views society as progressing from a simple to a complex

form of organization.
2. Multilinear evolutionary theory, in contrast, views the occurrence of change in several lines
that do not lead to a single direction.

2. Conflict theory, exponented by Karl Marx, the conflict theory views society’s structure and elements
as constantly changing resulting in conflict. Conflict is accepted as a normal and desirable aspect of
social change and cannot be avoided.
3. “Rise and fall” or cyclical theory sees society, culture and civilization moving in cycles. Some
civilizations which experienced progress and glory before slowly regress while societies which have
been weak before in technology and in political power have now accelerated.
4. Structural functionalism theory or functionalist theory believed in a balanced system of
institution. This theory, forerunned by Talcott Parsons, emphasized that society is composed of
different parts, each of which has complementary functions. Identified here are the four processes of
social change:

1. Differentiation refers to the increasing complexity of social organization.

2. Adaptive upgrading happens when social institutions become more specialized in their
purposes.
3. Inclusion refers to the assimilation of groups into society which were previously excluded
due to gender, social class and other factors.
4. Value generalization means the development of new values lead to legitimizing and
tolerating activities.

2. Social Groups and Organizations

2.1. Nature of groups and its classifications

2.2. Social Groups
2.3. Classification of Groups
2.4. The Importance of Group Status and Role in Social Interaction
2.1. Nature of groups and its classifications

In the social sciences a social group can be defined as two or more humans who interact with one another,
share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity. By this definition, a society can be viewed
as a large group, though most social groups are considerably smaller.

Man is by nature a social being. He does not live in isolation but has to relate with other people. His relation
with others results in the formation of a group that will help him in the development of his personality. The
impact of influence will bear either a positive or a negative effect on him depending on the kind of people
he is interacting with and how these people will react to him and to his environment.

A true social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or
aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop, or people waiting in a line. Characteristics
shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background,
and kinship ties. Paul Hare regards the defining characteristic of a group as social interaction. The members
of the groups contact each other which Ackeema Johnson calls a "regular interaction." This group also
should have, a common identity, rules, structure, etc.
Man’s need to associate with other people, to belong as a social being and depend on other people as
others depend on him in some aspects gradually turns him into a member of a group which exerts
influence in shaping his personality.

Concept of Society and its Characteristics

Society is a group of different personalities from identified and classified groups with distinct characteristics.

 Largest among the groups because it has various types. A number of small groupings may
comprise a particular society.
 Society has a distinct culture shared by most or almost all of its members. A pattern of
behavior, values and language exist among the members.
 Membership comes from a reproductive source. Individuals almost automatically become
members of society when they are born while the old ones who passed away are replaced by
young individuals who are socialized according to the adopted culture.
 Society lasts longer than its lifetime individual group members. If a member with a lifetime
membership passes away, the society remains as a human race and still exists on this earth.

Nature and Concepts of Groups

Social groups may have varied forms and may be classified into several categories depending on one’s
perception. Some sociologists have identified groups depending on their shown behavior and practices in
the society, others have perceived social groupings into two level concepts: macro and micro-
social systems. These are very important for sociology because they are the keys to the whats, whys, and
hows of behavior.

 Dyad, the simplest social relationship, is a pair of people with attached roles. It is characterized
by a high exchange of information and intimacy because it allows the greatest opportunity for
total involvement between two persons.
 Triad is composed of three or more people interacting as a group.
 Subgroup is simply a group that is a part of a larger group.

Groups may be contrasted to social categories which is a set of people with one or more social statuses in
common. Being of similar status, members of social categories often become oriented with similar cultural
ideas, but do not usually identify themselves as units nor interact with one another in a regular patterned
way as members of a group do.

2.2. Social Groups

A group is a unit of interacting personalities with an interdependence of roles and statuses existing
between the members. It is a collective effort of behavior in a particular organization in society. Members
usually share same beliefs, behavior, attitudes and actions based on adopted norms and standards. A group
also refers to one or more people who identify and interact with one another.

Some sociologists refer to social group as any system of social relationship in which members have a
culture that defines the roles and statuses from whom members are differentiated from nonmembers.
Social groups vary in form each member has his own role expected of him to perform in the social grouping
to which he belongs.

Groups or social groups are organizations of people where individual members are aware that they belong
to it. Group is visible and real because they exist in time and space. It vary in size, quality of group
interaction, purpose, structure or combinations.
Furthermore, groups are basic units of sociological analysis. We perform most of our roles with time. Roles
are important sources of both social control and conflict. The cultural and structural characteristics of many
social groups affect not only the lives of individuals, but the fate of the entire society as well.

Characteristics of Groups

1. A group consists of people who interact and form social patterns. A group is at least one person
larger than a dyad. It has three or more people. Groups are different from dyads in that they depend
less on the individual actor for continuity.
2. Increase in size equals loss of freedom. As the group grows in numbers, the individual freedom of
any particular member is de-emphasized. Furthermore, as the group grows in size, more emphasis is
put on the well-being of the group.
3. Interaction reaffirms social patterns. Groups depend on interaction to affirm and reaffirm social
patterns. The strength of patterns in the group depends on the history of the interaction. Usually,
the longer the group exists, the stronger the bonds become.
4. Groups contribute to larger organization. Social organization at the "formal level" is sufficiently
large that continuous interaction among all actors is impossible. Even in large organizations
interaction between individuals still occurs in small groups. The interaction of small groups within
the frame work of larger organizations reaffirms the social patterns of the larger social organizations.
5. Groups define reality for the individual. The group's definition of reality is a pattern that the
individual assumes. The individual forms expectations about the world through group involvement.
One learns within the group what the important issues are and the guide lines (the rules) that the
group expects you to live by.
6. Group members interact with one another over a period of time. The process of interaction may
be done through words, actions, symbols or through music where one’s action is influenced. If well-
organized, a group will exist longer for a period of time especially if the channel of communication
is always open.
7. Each member identifies with the group and is recognized as part of the group by other
members. Each member are acknowledged and the belief that their group is distinct from other
groups. A well-organized and managed group can motivate each member to love the group, always
identify with it and display loyalty too the group.

Each member is expected to accept responsibilities and duties abide by certain norms. Members may enjoy
some benefits and privelges the group would extend.

Members follow specialization in carrying out performances of their respective roles. In a cooperative
organization, a group is assigned a particular role to perform.

Importance of Groups

Some basic needs cannot be provided by an individual alone. Everyone needs the help of group members
to procure these needs.

1. Group is a transmitter of culture. The process of socialization carries a strng influence in the
dissemination of information within a group. Each member of the group is considered as an agent
of culture.
2. Group is a means of social control. The process which induces a person to comply with the
collective standards of action and belief is called social control. It includes the imposition by the
leaders of the group in order for the members to conform to acceptable standards of the group to
be considered as a member. Thus, a group helps shape one’s personality; it imposes restrictions and
disciplines on its members to some extent which the members must conform to get the group’s
approval and acceptance.
 3. Group socializes the individual. The full development of a person starts from where he belongs –
the group. This can be shown clearly in the family, being the basic social unit.
4. Group is the fundamental source of ideas. The daily interactions of the group’s members
influence their thinking, feelings and even their behavior and actions. It has been noted that a
member of a group has his own personal biases and prejudices because he is a unique individual.
However, his actions can be modified or adjusted either favorably or unfavorably, depending on
how he reacts to his social and physical environment, based on the influence of his groupmates.
5. Group trains the individual in communications. Through communication of the members, the
group is a source of information. The more active members of a group share available information
with their other passive members. Thus, the group is considered as the “communication network.”

2.3. Classification of Groups

 According to Social Boundaries and Adherence to a Special Set of Norms

1. Categorical group refers is where members tend to share certain characteristics and interests and
are aware of their similarities with other members in their own social category. The idea of
categorical groupings has a practical application to life situations wherein the focus is on the
support of the members.
2. Aggregate group is where members stay in one place, but do not necessarily interact with each
other. Members of this group are concerned only with their own feelings and attitudes.
3. Collective group refers to a crowed whose members are not governed with laws or norms, but
share the same beliefs that motivate them to action.
4. Associational group is composed of a group of people who organize themselves to pursue a
common interest with a formal organizational structure. In an associational group, there is a set of
officers elected by its members which is responsible for running the association.

 According to Interaction and Relationship

1. Primary group refers to a small, informal group of people who interact in a more personal, intimate
manner and who always have direct and face-to-face communication with each other. It is
characterized as the nursery of human nature because it is the group where the child is socialized,
acquires and experiences love, affection, sympathy, kindness, tolerance, fairness, loyalty and justice.
The individual learns the meaning of personal worth and dignity of a person.
2. Secondary group involves indirect, impersonal interaction where members are forced to interact
because of business transactions and the likes. Members can function effectively because of the
absence of the touch of familiarity where subjectivity comes in.

 According to membership

1. In-group refers to a group of people with strong sense of belongingness. It is a group to which we
do belong and a group that an individual identifies in positive direction. Its members have a strong
“we feeling,” share common orientation, come from the same background, roots and origin and
adhere to the ideology. An in-group is further characterized by a feeling of companionship and a
great sense of loyalty.
2. Out-group is exactly the opposite of in-group. It is a group to which we do not belong and a group
that an individual identifies in negative direction. This group is made up of people whose feelings
are antagonistic to the group itself. There is physical membership but in mind and heart, the
members dislike the group because of the concept that another group is superior to their group. It
is a stereotype where members of the group have specialized trademarks.
3. Reference group is a group where people identify themselves physically and psychologically to
which other people refer in evaluating their behavior and actions. The group becomes the
 individual’s frame of reference for his motivations, aspirations, experiences, attitudes and social
affiliations. A reference group often tends to give an impression to a articular person as to his social,
economic and even political status in the community. Sometimes, individuals try to identify
themselves with groups whose standing is well-known regionally, nationally or even internationally
to demand high respect and special treatment from others.
4. Peer group is a group with members of approximately the same age, social status, and interests. It
is a small kind of grouping whose members have the same level, interests and economic standing in
the community. Consciously and unconsciously, the members group themselves because they share
the same interests and talents. There is also a sense of belongingness, sympathy and loyalty among
themselves. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact with peers.
5. Voluntary association is an organization where membership is free and voluntary. Though
voluntary in nature, members follow some seta of rules or policies. Voluntary associations are found
usually in some relatively simple societies composed of members with varied and competing
interests.
6. Military associations are noncommercial societies whose goals are to unite members through their
common experiences. Memberships in these associations are voluntary and based on a member’s
achieved criterion.
7. Secret societies are principally characterized by limited membership and by secret rituals (taboos)
generally believed to increase the supernatural powers of its members.
8. Regional associations are clubs that bring together migrants from common geographical
backgrounds. It actually gives rise to out-groups, particularly when in a foreign milieu. The tendency
towards “crab mentality” is heightened in certain cases.

 According to Their Nature, Form, Objectives and Interactions

1. Informal group is the most common type of grouping based on nature, form, objectives and
interaction. It occurs when two or more people interact with each other on issues affecting their
welfare. An informal group could be a product of an impulsive act but later on grows into a
partnership endeavor with the constant sharing of emotions and sentiments of members. The group
ensures cooperation from each member because of their sense of belongingness and self-
confidence.
2. Formal group is an organization where the specific organizational structure is constructed to
achieve specific goals and objectives. This group has to fulfill a variety of specialized social and
personal needs that influence one’s personality. Regardless of its nature, a formal organization has
an established philosophy, mission, vision and goals as its guiding premises in the discharge of its
functions. It is in this concern that formal organizations meet their fundamental needs and continue
their collaborative efforts to attain these aspirations in a highly complex, industrial and business
society. Formal organization plays an important role in social interaction.

It enables people to work harmoniously to achieve a common goal. There is a focus among its
members because members work not as individuals but as a team with a common goal following one
direction.

It defines the specific functions of each personnel in the organization. There are clear-cut policies that
guide the members so members are aware of their statuses and roles. Specialization of tasks is
observed which results in better productivity in the organization.

It creates a level of authority as to the channeling of communication. The flow of communication

should be open to all channels so that members can readily present their ideas or feedback to the right
person in authority.

 Other types of groups include the following:

 1. Clique - A group of people that have many of the same interests & commonly found in a High
School/College setting; most of the time they have a name & rules for themselves.
2. Club - A club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a member. Such clubs may
be dedicated to particular activities: sporting clubs, for example.
3. Household - All individuals who live in the same home. Anglophone culture may include various
models of household, including the family, blended families, share housing, and group homes.
4. Community - A community is a group of people with a commonality or sometimes a complex net
of overlapping commonalities, often–but not always–in proximity with one another with some
degree of continuity over time.
5. Franchise - An organization which runs several instances of a business in many locations.
6. Gang - A gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is a group of people
that often hang around each other. They can be like some clubs, but much less formal. They are
usually known in many countries to cause social unrest and also have negative influence on the
members and may be a target for the law enforcers in case of any social vices
7. Mob -A mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their own hands. Mobs are
usually groups which gather temporarily for a particular reason.
8. Posse - A posse was originally found in English common law. It is generally obsolete, and survives
only in America, where it is the law enforcement equivalent of summoning the militia for military
purposes. However, it can also refer to a street group.
9. Squad - This is usually a small group, of around 3 to 15 people, who work as a team to accomplish
their goals.
10. Team - Similar to a squad, though a team may contain many more members. A team works in a
similar way to a squad.

Groups can also be categorized according to the number of people present within the group. This makes
sense if the size of the group has consequences for the way group members relate with each other. In a
small group, for example, "each member receives some impression ... of each other member distinct
enough so that he or she ... can give some reaction to each of the others as an individual person." This
personal interaction is not possible in larger groups.

2.4. The Importance of Group Status and Role in Social Interaction

Status, considered as one of the building blocks of social structure, is a position that an individual occupies
in a particular group or society. Social identities help one define his relationship in an organization. Each has
a specific function to perform and has corresponding targets to achieve.

Status set is the varied statuses a person holds. It incorporates all the occupied statuses of an individual.
With these status sets, one has varied roles to perform.

 Classification of Status

1. Ascribed status refers to a social position a person receives at birth or assumes involuntarily later in
life. It is hereditary and without regard to a person’s ability or performance. Each of us possesses an
ascribed status.
2. Achieved status refers to a position a person assumes voluntarily and reflects personal ability and
efforts.
3. Master status is the most important status occupied by an individual which affects almost every
aspect of his day-to-day existence.

Role, another component of social interaction refers to the behavior expected of someone who holds a
particular status. People hold a status to perform a role. Actual performance varies according to an
individual’s unique personality.
  Kinds of Roles

1. Role conflicts are difficulties that occur when incompatible expectations arise from two or more
social positions held by the same individual. It occurs when one’s responsibility in one of his social
positions interferes with the other.
2. Role strain refers to tensions among roles connected to a single status. Role strain presents a
serious problem in performing roles inherent even to one’s status.
3. Role exit is a process where the person starts to disengage from his particular role or social role.
This is exemplified by the so-called “exes.”

3. Socialization

Socialization is a complex lifetime social experience by which individuals develop their human potentials
and learn culture. Individuals need social experiences to learn their culture and survive. Socialization shapes
individual’s self-image and is the foundation of personality.

Society has basic agents to socialize and mold one’s personality from womb to tomb. As such, individuals
are always in contact with one another, thus establishing person-to-person relations or “social relations.”

As individuals assume new social and occupational positions, it is necessary to discard their previous
behavior patterns and accept the new behavior patterns of his/her new status. This process is known as
socialization.

3.1. Concept of Social Interaction

According to sociologists, group interaction is the process of defining and responding to various actions
and relations of individuals in social situations. It provides a framework for a dynamic social relationship.
Social interaction is the way persons or groups act or communicate with one another. It takes place in social,
political and economic institutions and social structures which give impetus to social relationship. It is the
process of defining and responding to various actions and reactions of individuals in social situations.

 Classification of Social Interaction

1. Structural interaction is where a communication network is established based on structure.

Interaction is more formal based on the role function of each member.
2. Cultural interaction emphasizes cultural aspects of social relationships.
3. Religious interaction refers to innovation and changes which can be affected through interaction
among religious organizations.
4. Geographical interaction is based on geographical domains and its varying effects on social
interaction.

3.2. Social Processes

Social process refers to any mutual interaction experienced by an individual or a group on each other in an
attempt to solve problems and achieve desired goals. This process may be in varied forms depending on
the degree of its complexity. Social process consists of repetitive forms of behavior commonly found in
social life and refers to a consistent pattern of social interaction which can be identified in the society.

 Classification of Social Processes

1. Conjunctive social process is where members maintain and practice consensus, cooperation and
unification.
 2. Cooperation is sharing the responsibility or act of working together in order to achieve a common
goal or vision. It is a social process where people work together to achieve a group’s common
objectives and share some benefits derived from it. Basic cooperation is experienced in the family
and other social group where members share their talents, time, resources and expertise along their
fields of specialization.

 Types of Cooperation

1. Informal is a spontaneous give-and-take relationship. It is commonly shown in primary groups or in

Gemeinschaft societies.
2. Formal sets formal goals and objectives in social interaction. It is contractual in nature with
reciprocal rights and obligations of members.
3. Symbiotic cooperation is where one or two members of society live together harmoniously and
support one another for mutual interest.

 Function of Cooperation

1. It creates social cohesion and integration among the members of the group
2. It contributes to social stability and order.
3. It fosters consensus and compromise in various social, economic and political issues.

Accommodation, defined by sociologists as the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups, is an

adjustment to conflict, past, present and incipient. Likewise, another authority described it as either
permanent or temporary termination of conflict which permits the rival parties too function together
without open hostility. Accommodation is a process of establishing temporary agreements, compromises or
negotiations among group members to be able to work for a particular period of time without friction.

Accommodation refers to the actual act of working together among individuals or groups in spite of
differences or latent hostility. Different forms of accommodation are planned and formally negotiated
or unplanned, the product of group interaction or brainstorming.

Unplanned displacement occurs when the source of frustration is vague and intangible or when the
person responsible for the frustration is so powerful than an attack would be dangerous, aggression may be
displaced and the aggressive reactions may be directed to an innocent person or object rather than toward
the actual cause of frustration. Hence, it is a process of ending a conflict by using a scapegoat wherein the
failure of one person or group for poor performance or noncompliance to certain norms and standards.

A conflict occurs between persons or groups with unequal status and ends by the acceptance of defeat by
the weaker group over the powerful group.

1. ·Superordination-subordination works only when it is impossible for one group to continue the
aggression against the more powerful group. There is a realization of the weaker group that their
effort of struggle to prevail is futile.
2. Compromise is where extreme demands are given up to achieve limited goals and could be
described as a “loss-loss” or “win-win” situation.
3. Release from hostility is where most individuals who are in trouble experience problems but still
find ways to release their worries through relaxation.
4. Toleration occurs when both parties realize that a settlement of conflict is impossible. If an
agreement is not necessary to solve the problem, then the group will just let go or accept each
other’s rights to different actions to the problem’s resolution.
5. Assimilation refers to the process of interpretation and fusion in which persons and groups acquire
the memories, sentiments and attitudes of other persons and by sharing their experiences and
history, which are incorporated with them in a cultural life.
 o As process it reduces social conflict because the person assimilated in a group tends to
combine or integrate their own culture with the group’s culture. On the negative note,
however, there were some cases that a member loses his own social identity as a result of
adapting to changes to conform to the group standards and norms in order to be accepted
and gain the group’s approval. Assimilation process is easier when there is direct contact,
intimate and personal interaction.

6. Amalgamation is a biological interbreeding of two peoples of distinct physical appearance until

they became one stock.
7. Acculturation is a process and effect of significant change through mutual barrowings and
adoptions by people of different cultures in contact with some continuity. It is also a process of
acquiring the culture of another ethnic group. In other words, one may adopt the culture and
practices of the society where he works but still retain his own social identity or nationality.

Disjunctive Social Processes

Conflict occurs when two goals of equal importance are scarce. There is a need to prioritize social
needs. Conflict occurs when a particular goal is opposing one’s own principle in attaining the desired
or targeted purpose. It is a struggle in which the claims of the conflicting parties are not only to give
the desired values but also to neutralize, injure or eliminate rivals (Coser, 1968). In conflict, there is
pgysicl or psychological sacrifices on the part of the persons involved.

War is a destructive and violent way to settle conflicts and disputes which are resorted to by men when
they have tensions and economic, demographic, religious, cultural and technological differences.

Feud is rampant among clans, fraternities, and politics; it is triggered by feelings of bitterness between
parties or groups because of some injustice done ot their members.

Litigation or Legal Battle occurs when conflict between individuals or groups can no longer be
resolved amicably so it is taken to the courts where a judge presides on the merits of the case.

Conflicts of Impersonal Ideals is carried on by individuals or groups for a principle or an ideal, not for
personal benefit but for the group or society’s wellbeing.

Arbitration, a less formal process, is resorted to when decision of courts tends to be slow and
litigation is expensive for both conflicting parties. The two conflicting parties agree to accept the
decision of a third party.

Compromise occurs when the conflicting parties agree to settle for less than their demand objectives.
It is difficult because both parties have to surrender their principles to reach an agreement.

Competition may have merit and demerit in human behavior. It is a from of opposition, struggle or
competition between two or more parties who vie for superiority or to secure any predefined endeavor.

Personal competition involves direct and face-to-face contact where individuals or groups may
employ varied strategies to excel in their fields of specialization to be superior to others. Innovations
and creative works may be employed by individuals or groups just to outdo their opponents in
securing promotions in positions.

Impersonal competition refers to individuals or groups or business entities struggling, not directly
aware of each other’s presence. It may be person-to-person or by groups, referred to as teams.
 Differentiation is a social process of iliminating competition. It is thecreation of interest in individuals
or groups needing or wanting different things or services rather than the same thing. Differentiation of
status, lifestyle and prestige leads to the creation of subcultures as as well as in the development of
social stratifications.

Interrelationships of Social Processes

Conjunctive and disjunction social processes are interrelated. They are intertwined and occur simultaneously.
Competition occurs when resources are scarce, leading to variation or differentiation. Specialization leads to
delineation of functions, but it can also lead to cooperation and integration of groups.

Cooperation exists side by side with competition. Conflict, on the other hand, as a condition and as a
process. As a process, accommodation refers to the conscious efforts of man to develop working
arrangements arrangements among themselves in order to suspend conflict. Likewise, as a condition,
accommodation refers to the fact of equilibrium between individuals and groups and the rules of the game
which have to be followed.

3.3. Socialization and Personality

Personality is the sum total of a person’s character traits. It is the person’s fairly consistent pattern of acting,
thinking and feeling (Maciones, 2002). Personality may also be the product of hereditary and environment
(Santos, 1995).

Etymologically, personality, originated from the Latin word persona which means a theatrical mask worn by
Roman actors in Greek drams to Project a role or false appearance. Psychologists, however, see personality
as something more than the roles people play. It is a pattern of relatively permanent traits, dispositions or
characteristics that give some measure of consistency to a person’s behavior and these may be unique,
common to some group or shared by people.

Most of this topic are discussed in your Senior High School subject, Personal Development, and one of your
GE subject, Understanding the Self.

3.4. Agents of Socialization

Every social experience, which may come from social institutions like the family, school, church/religion
and government/politics peer group, mass media and health services available to individuals, affects the
individual in one way or another.

Agencies and types of socialization

Family

The basic social unit; the first school of life and love; the seedbed of values and “nurturer of human nature;”
the family has the greatest impact on the individual. It is the most influential agent of socialization and plays
a pivotal role in shaping the personality of children. Thus, the family is the main link between the individual
and society. Here is where the child is oriented into the culture of a group – its norms, goals, types of
consensus, and sanctions. Parents do the delicate task of personality formation by inculcating values and role
modeling and guiding them to personal integrity, civic consciousness and social responsibility. Performance
of socially accepted behavior is rewarded, while the socially undesirable ones are punished. Hence, the
family is an ever-pervasive influence on the individual’s behavior, even up to adulthood.

School
The second home of children where teachers, by principle of loco parentis, are their second parents, the
school is the primary agent for weaning children from home and introducing them to the society. Schooling
broadens children’s social milieu and expands their interactions with people of different personality traits
while learning the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes expected of them which would prepare them for
life ahead. The school reinforces what the family misses.

Peer Group

A social group whose members have common interests, social position and age, and have the same
economic standing in the community, peer group has a unique understanding of how to behave and trying to
escape direct supervision from adults. As an influencing factor in socialization, the peer group arises from
the individual’s need to belong and be recognized. Vigor is built into man’s nature s a social being. Peer
pressure exists such that a child or a teenager conform his or her behavior to the behavior of his or her peers
in order to belong and be accepted in the peer group. Because of the powerful influence the group may have,
to avoid negative influences on its members peer group needs adult guidance to serve as a check and balance
and to direct its members’ potentials and activities toward wholesome endeavors.

Mass Media

An impersonal communication aimed at a vast audience, either print or broadcast mass media plays an
important role in the socialization process. The term “media” comes from the Latin word middle, suggesting
that media serves to link or connect people of different races and religious affiliations. The wide array of
information brought about by technology in the Information Age either positively or negatively influence the
way people think and act.

Church/Religion

An agent of socialization known as “conscience formators” of people, church is a social institution entrusted
with the task of teaching morality to individuals and groups who reach out to others and learn obligations
toward self, family, church, society and God.

Religion refers to a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature and purpose of the universe. Ecumenism, i.e.,
different religions strongly encouraged to be friendly and tolerant with one another, is encouraged in a
democratic society.

Government/Politics

Individuals belonging to the other societal agencies continue to expand their social interaction and learn to
obey laws and perform social functions in the community with civic consciousness and commitment.
Respect for authority, or officials in the government, is fostered and bureaucracy which started in school is
more understood.

Government and politics exist in all human organizations, groups, or societies, but in form both have
different dimensions. Politics refer to the processes in society; the way people manage their affairs and
activities in society. Government, on the other hand, is the organization through which the state expresses
and enforces its will. A government exists for the good of its constituents. It is there to protect its people
from harm, ensure safety and security, as well as promote their economic, cultural, moral, and social
wellbeing.

Health Sector

Health affects the way a person behaves and interacts with others. That is why the health sector providing
health services also affects the socialization process of the individual. A person suffering from illness limits
his/her social functions and social activities. A healthy person, on the other hand, has the vigor to join social
functions and civic activities.
4. Basic Social Institutions

A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the preservation of a basic
societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not define institutions in the same way as does the person on
the street. Lay persons are likely to use the term "institution" very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and
many other things as institutions.

Sociologists often reserve the term "institution" to describe normative systems that operate in five basic
areas of life, which may be designated as the primary institutions. (1) In determining Kinship; (2) in
providing for the legitimate use of power; (3) in regulating the distribution of goods and services; (4) in
transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next; and (5) in regulating our relation to the
supernatural. In shorthand form, or as concepts, these five basic institutions are called the family,
government, economy, education and religion.

The five primary institutions are found among all human groups. They are not always as highly elaborated
or as distinct from one another, but, in rudimentary form at last, they exist everywhere. Their universality
indicates that they are deeply rooted in human nature and that they are essential in the development and
maintenance of orders. Sociologists operating in terms of the functionalist model society have provided the
clearest explanation of the functions served by social institutions. Apparently there are certain minimum
tasks that must be performed in all human groups. Unless these tasks are performed adequately, the group
will cease to exist. An analogy may help to make the point. We might hypothesize that cost accounting
department is essential to the operation of a large corporation. A company might procure a superior
product and distribute it then at the price which is assigned to it, the company will soon go out of business.
Perhaps the only way to avoid this is to have a careful accounting of the cost of each step in the production
and distribution process.

4.1. Religion and Society

Religions, whatever their form, can have major social impact in some societies - for good or for evil. Of
course in some religions any social impact they have may be secondary or incidental to their main declared
aim of relating people to God. This site is not here concerned with considering the religious aspect of
religions, but only with considering their impact on society. And the social impact of religions is normally
less to do with the religion itself than its institutional form or church.

The social impact of any one religion in any society is strongly affected by whether it is supported by the
majority of the population or by a minority. A majority religion not only directly impacts more people, but is
also likely to have substantial impact on government and on society values. Generally it is the poorest
societies that have the greatest proportion of the population supporting religion, though that may mean
several religions rather than one religion. But for religion's social impact, the major difference will often be
between poorer societies and less-poor societies.

Poorer Societies. Religions generally have greater social impact in poorer societies, where they tend to be
supported more strongly by the majority. Often one religion will predominate and will have substantial
effect on the government - either the religion controlling the government, or the government using the
religion in a majority-poverty society.
It is this type of situation that Karl Marx referred to when he stated that "Religion is the opium of the
masses". Any religion that has a 'better afterlife' will tend to help the poor to live with their poverty and
perhaps with exploitation and government oppression. So the poor will tend to more strongly support
religion, and governments in poor societies can tend to encourage or use religion to help maintain
social control. Churches as institutions tend to support governments and the wealthy who can finance
 churches better than poor believers can. In these societies religions will help maintain a social order
that can include exploitation and oppression.

While a religion can be an ally of government or a tool of government, there are of course cases of a
religion gaining control over government and effectively being government, and this often means
church policies dominating a society - especially 'spread our religion'. This can mean other religions
being oppressed and wars being encouraged or started against other religions. Christian Europe saw
anti-heretic and anti-witch oppression and crusade wars against 'Infidels', moving to missionary-led
worldwide oppressive colonization - and societies motivated by other religions have done similar. And
where a poor society had substantial support for two or more religions then fierce civil wars have often
resulted. An additional issue when a religion controls government is that they are often lacking in the
kinds of skills needed for efficient government, lacking skills in business, in dealings, in compromising
and in handling opponents. So with the best intentions, religious government often achieves little
actual good.

News. The world economic crisis that hit in 2009 sees poorer countries being hit by dramatic declines in
trade and in foreign investment, and their poor facing more hardship now. This economic downturn seems
to have increased the abandonment of children and of elderly women in poorer countries, and to have
increased the murder of children and of elderly women in poorer countries. Often with 'justifications' that
they are witches or devil-possessed, with total annual numbers estimated to be some millions.

Less-poor Societies. In less-poor societies, religions generally are not supported as widely or as strongly as
in poor societies, and many people will generally have less social problems also. There is somewhat less of a
social need for religion, and generally religion has a somewhat weaker social impact.

Where the poor have become a minority, support for a formerly majority religion tends to coming
predominantly from the non-poor and shrinks among the poor who see the church as having deserted
them. Many of the minority poor will tend to switch to other minority religions, while the mainstream
religion continues to give weakened support for a social order that can include social exclusion of the
poor and other minorities.

Minority Religion. However, religions can often be socially at their best where they are a minority religion -
especially if the minority concerned is oppressed or socially excluded. Then the church may have a useful
role in socially supporting that minority. The church will be seen as independent of government and of the
wealthy, and be seen as 'our church'. In this case the minority religion may also be able to somewhat press
government to moderate the social exclusion of that minority. In the modern richer countries which have
seen a general shrinkage in support for religion, there has also tended to be an increase in the diversity of
religions with particular religions associated with particular social classes or with particular minorities.

Charities. In many societies there are charities that have been set up often by churches or religious
individuals, and by others. These charities generally aim to somehow help some people with some
problems. Sometimes their good intentions do actually achieve a lot of real good, sometimes a little good
and sometime more harm than good.

One main problem with charities is that they are often run by people who do not really understand the
needs of those they are meant to help. Charities for the poor are generally run by the rich. Some do try
to find out what help is really needed but many charities only do what they think is needed and get it
very wrong. Instead of giving training a charity may give food, and instead of helping a family a charity
may split-up the family. Of course government 'help' will often have similar problems and often also do
little real good.

The social significance of different religions.

The relative social significance of different religions in the world today is perhaps somewhat difficult to
estimate.

Statistics indicate Christianity as currently having the world's largest number of supporters, around 33%,
and as being concentrated more in richer countries. But at present Islam seems a close second on number
of supporters, about 22%, with Hinduism in third place at around 15%. Currently Buddhist supporters seem
to follow on about 6%, with Chinese Traditionalism at around 4% and Judaism at only about 0.2%.

However, these numbers do not fully take account of the fact that most religions are divided between often
many different competing churches. And these numbers do not take account of strength of support - for
some religions including many more nominal or marginal supporters than for other religions. Also some
religions may help or encourage business or political action more by its members, than other religions do.

Generally it seems that the social impact of religions is tending to fall as countries get richer, but much of
the world does still remain in poverty with religions having much influence.

NOTE. Some religions have a 'God made the universe and mankind' creation story and, despite the fact that
such religious stories are about God and do not claim to be science, some see a claimed conflict with
evolution science. Interestingly the Jewish-Christian creation story involves mankind (many of whom are
very ungodly) being created 'in the image of the maker' and then immediately the maker 'ends his work
and rests'. This looks quite like the development of an intelligent species progressing to making robots in
their own image to do their work - like the development of mankind, or of another intelligent alien species.

4.2. Government and Law

At one point, the study of politics was considered to be merely a part of the study of social organization,
owing perhaps to the holistic nature of the discipline. Later, however, anthropologists interested in political
studies worked hard towards the recognition of political anthropology as a subdivision of social
anthropology. Its reclassification emanates from the contention that politics begin where kinship ends.
Here the interplay of other factors into the political organization was seen.it is the maintenance or
establishment of social order with territorial framework, by the organized exercise of coercive authority
through the use or the possibility of use of physical force.

Political organization is a part of the total organization concerned with the preservation of social order
within a specified territory by a duly recognized authority. In many instances, the said authorities are
recognized through formal election, while in some tribal societies, the basis or criteria for their designations
are informal and loose.

Criteria of leaders in a tribal society. Hunting and gathering societies throughout the world are classified
as bands composed mostly of kinsmen. Members ranged from 30-100 and hardly had any concept of
property (except for personal possessions like clothes, weapons, and tools used for economic activities).
Since survival required them to move from place to place at curtain seasons of the year, made it impossible
for these nomadic band to establish a formal government. Thus, informally, among themselves, they
recognized as leaders the best hunters, the eldest (because of their knowledge of tradition), or
the strongest who did not only serve to provide the group with subsistence and economic training but
those who had a complete grasp of the tradition also served as adjudicators in case of conflicts within the
groups and perhaps with outsiders.

Since the bands were composed of kinsmen, cases brought to the attention of leaders were those which
basically concern their day-to-day activities. Moreover, since the laws of these groups were unwritten, and
since one criterion used in the recognition of a leader was his knowledge of tradition and recollection of
cases in the past, solutions were then arrived by using past cases as the bases for deciding cases.
Clarifying relationships between economic and activities and modes of government.

Since there is a correlation between economic activities and political organization, primary problems among
band societies are also centered around territories, the distribution of resources and relations between
bands. Each band has its customary range or sovereign area, to which it is linked by practical economic
considerations, by history and sentiment, and usually by mythological and religious associations. Violations
of the well-defined rules governing the use of territory and its accompanying resources as well as the
relations of the group to neighboring units become the basic concern of the leader.

4.3. Economy

The economy is the institution that provides for the production and distribution of goods and services,
which people in every society need. Sometimes they can provide these things for themselves, and
sometimes they rely on others to provide them. When people rely on others for goods or services, they
must have something to exchange, such as currency (in industrialized societies) or other goods or services
(in non-industrialized societies). The customs surrounding exchange and distribution of good and services
shape societies in fundamental ways.

Macrosociology vs. microsociology. Sociologists use two approaches when studying society.
In macrosociology, sociologists analyze large-scale social forces, such as institutions. They identify and
analyze the structure of societies. The second approach sociologists use is microsociology, the study of
social interaction. These sociologists focus on face-to-face interaction, how people act around others. This
method is focused more on individuals than groups.

Economic Systems. The two dominant economic systems in the world are capitalism and socialism. Most
societies have varying blends of the two systems. Common hybrids of capitalism and socialism are welfare
capitalism and state capitalism.

Capitalism. It is a system under which resources and means of production are privately owned, citizens are
encouraged to seek profit for themselves, and success or failure of an enterprise is determined by free-
market competition.

Welfare capitalism is a system that features a market-based economy coupled with an extensive social
welfare system that includes free health care and education for all citizens.

State capitalism is a system under which resources and means of production are privately owned but
closely monitored and regulated by the government.

Socialism vs. Capitalism. No one economic system has succeeded in satisfying all the needs of its citizens.
Several economic studies over the past few generations have shown that, in general, citizens in societies
with capitalist economies enjoy a higher standard of living than those in socialist societies.

Marx’s Economic Theory. Philosopher and historian Karl Marx believed that the economy was the basic
institution of society and that all other institutions, such as family and education, served to fuel the
economy. As societies became more industrialized, he theorized, they also became more capitalistic. Marx
disliked the fact that capitalism created a two-tiered system consisting of factory owners and
factory workers, in which the groups were constantly in conflict with each other. Factory owners wanted to
pay their workers as little as possible to maximize profits. Factory workers, on the other hand, wanted to
make as much money as possible. The advantage was always with the owners, who could choose to fire
workers who wanted too much and hire workers who would work for less.

Marx was a conflict theorist, believing that in any capitalist society there was always conflict between the
owners of the means of production and the workers. He believed that the only way to resolve the conflict
was for workers to unite, mount a revolution, and overthrow their oppressors. Marx believed that once the
dust settled after the revolution, all societies would be communist, meaning that all the means of
production would be owned by everyone and all profits would be shared equally by everyone. His ideas
inspired the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Economic Trends. The ways the world and the U.S. economies work are changing rapidly. There are several
important trends:

1. Globalization: The expansion of economic activity across many borders characterizes the global
economy. Poorer, developing nations now produce the raw materials for the world’s multinational
corporations. These multinational companies control most of the world’s economy.
2. Demand for educated professionals: The postindustrial economy is driven by trained professionals
such as lawyers, communications professionals, doctors, and teachers.
3. Self-employment: New, affordable communications technology has allowed more people to go
into business for themselves.
4. Diversity in the workplace: Once the bastion of white males, professional offices are heavily
populated by women and minorities in today’s society.

4.4. Education

Education plays a large part in the socialization of children into a society. Most of the child’s day through
these years is devoted to activities involving school such as attending classes, doing homework, and
participating in extracurricular activities. The school format is designed to teach children to be productive
members of society. Schools bear most of the responsibility of preparing young people for the working
environment. Children learn from punctuality, time management, and to respect the authority of their
teacher whish prepares them to respect their boss. The curriculum also plays an important role. A class in
civics teaches a child to be a good citizen, and a class in home economics teaches a child how to operate a
household. Most socialization, however, occurs beyond the curriculum. Extra curricular activities such as
student government, being a part of a school news paper, or being in a business club provide anticipatory
socialization for adult jobs.

Education and deviance have a close relation ship. The education system serves different purposes in regard
to deviance. Foremost, education is a deterrent for deviance. Child learns very early about crime and
punishment. They learn in the curriculum but they also learn it in a particular way. They are punished from
cheating, fighting, and other deviant behaviors. Therefore, education system plays a vital role in social
control by producing compliant citizens that understand what deviance is and how to avoid it. Although
education is used as a tool to deter deviance, it can unknowingly perpetuate it as well. If a child is labeled as
stupid, a teacher expects less out of that child. The mainstream peer population avoids any peer that is
deviant. Thus, these students feel that their only identity is their so-called deviant behavior. It seems to the
child that they will never be able to escape this label, so they continue with the behavior that is considered
deviant.

Social stratification and education are tightly linked. Schools may promote social inequality by limiting the
opportunities of women, minorities, and those in the lower classes. This can be caused by purposeful
discrimination, but more often it is because the social institution of education has sexism and racism built
into it.

Study after study has shown that students from upper classes consistently do better in school and continue
their education, whereas lower classes students do not have the same success.

Schools perpetuate gender and race stratification as well. Boys tend to receive more encouragement to take
more math and science as well as more advanced courses that girls do. in the professional world, women
are shut out of occupations involving higher math and science skills. Minorities also have less opportunity
to do well in school. Minorities are more likely to grow up in poverty and live in unhealthy environments.
Minorities are concentrated in the inner city where the worst, most impoverished schools are located.
Therefore, even they wish to attend school, they still have less access to good teachers and a good learning
environment. And perhaps the most detrimental issue that minorities face is that they are often stigmatized
as inferior. This causes them to be treated differently and it causes them to have low expectations for
themselves, which leads to poor performance.

Education is a vital part of society. It serves the beneficial purpose of educating the children and getting
them ready to be productive adults in today’s society. But the social institution of education is not without
its problems. Continual efforts to modify and improve the system need to be made to reap the highest
benefits that education has to offer to children and the society as a whole.

4.5. Marriage and Family

To provide a safe lifestyle and environment for the perpetuation of the human race, the institution of
marriage was created by various societies based upon an agreement by a man and a woman to become
husband and wife.

Within this system of dealing with responsibilities and safeguards of property rights and family lines, the
family unit of husband, wife and children born to them, establish, preserve and maintain morals. They also
cultivate, improve and perpetuate our civilization, legal, social and ethical codes and maintain the concept
that marriage is a powerful commitment between a man and a woman to become husband and wife. That
commitment has peripheral legal and personal responsibility factors.

While the actual dynamics of marriage functions have changed throughout the centuries, as have perceived
public needs, opinions and practices, the concept of a man and a woman as husband and wife bonding
together in love, forming a family unit, with the potential of having children born of the marriage, has not
changed.