MATERIALS AND

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
by

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio, PAE, Fellow PSAE

Associate Professor and Chair
Department of Agricultural Engineering and Environmental
Management
College of Agriculture
Central Philippine University
Iloilo City, Philippines
Email: atbelonio@yahoo.com
 Introduction

„ The durability, service, and cost agricultural machines

depends largely on the kind and quality of materials used
in manufacturing the machine.
„ Machine fabricated from substandard materials are usually
easy to wear off and have short life span
„ Heavy materials usually affects power requirement and
performance
„ Engineers should have a knowledge of the physical
characteristics, selective and effective utilization of
materials and their processing techniques to avoid waste
and spoilage due to misuse of materials
Classifications
„ Metals
„ Ferrous - Iron and steel
„ Cast Iron, Carbon Steel, Alloy
Steel, etc
„ None- Ferrous
„ Aluminum, copper, magnesium,
etc
„ Non-Metal
„ Inorganic materials
„ glass, ceramics, plastic, etc
„ Organic Materials
„ wood, rubber, leather, canvass,
etc
 Manufacturing Metals

„ Metallic ore is mined beneath

the earth surface. Iron is
produced from iron ore while
copper is produced from copper
ore. Aluminum is produced from
an ore called bauxite. A blast
furnace is used to produce metal
by passing a hot gases to the
furnace that is mixed with iron
ore, limestone, and coke at
about 3000 C. Melted metal is
separated into a ladle for
cooling to form pig iron. Pigs
are then melted and poured into
mold to make iron, steel, and
cast iron.
Metal Characteristics
„ Hard
„ Easy to shape
„ High melting temperature
„ Low specific heat
„ Good electrical conductivity
„ Good thermal conductivities
„ Ability to be deformed without fracture
Classifications of Metal
„ Pure Metal – are single element that are not
combined with any other chemical element.
They are too soft, low and strength, or low in
some other desired property to be used in
any commercial applications.
„ Alloys – are mixture of two or more metal to
produce new metal. Example are stainless
steel, bronze, etc.
 Iron

„ It is a pure ferrite.
„ Pig iron – it is produced from
ore of hematite or magnetite
in the blast furnace by melting
with limestone and coke.
„ Cast Iron – with carbon
content of 1.7 to 6/7%. They
are low cost, good casting
property, high compressive
strength, high wearing
resistance, brittle and lower
tensile strength.
 Iron

Pure Iron Steel Cast Iron

(0.035% C) (0.035-1.7% C) (1.7-6.8% C)

Carbon Alloy Ordinary Special

Steel Steel Cast Iron Cast Iron

Mild Steel Hard Steel

(0.035-0.4% C) (0.4-1.7% C)
 Steel
„ It is a molten steel that is cast into an ingot and then
rolled, forged, hammered, pressed, or machine into
desired shape
„ Structural steel, steel bars and cylinder, and steel
plate are commonly used as machine elements and
frame
„ Soft Centered Steel – durable to shock because the
mild steel in the center layer is deformable and is
higher wear resistance than hard steel at the outer
side. They are usually used for moldboard and share
of a plow.
„ Low Carbon Steel – with carbon content not
exceeding 0.25%.
„ Medium Carbon Steel – contains 0.25 to
0.50% carbon. They are usually used in
making structural and machinery steel.
„ High Carbon Steel – carbon content is above
0.50%. They are usually used in the
manufacture of spring and tool steel.
„ Mild Steel (MS) – contains carbon of 0.15 to
0.25%. They are malleable and easy to cut
and weld.
„ Cold Rolled Steel (CRS) – are medium carbon
steel which are used for parts and
components of machine requiring greater
strength and hardness such as shafting and
connecting rods.
„ Stainless Steel (SS) – 1% Ni, 11-14% Cr,
0.6% Mn, 0.6% Si. They have high
resistance to corrosion and oxidation. They
are used for valves, nozzles, and dairy
machines.
Typical Properties of Iron and Steel

Material % Carbon Tensile % Brinell

(Approx) Strength elongation hardness
(kg/cm) in 5 cm Number
Iron 0.01 2800 40 50-90
(99.97%)
Soft Steel 0.10 3500 35 120
Structural 0.25 4200 30 150
Steel
Machinery 0.40 5600 25 180
Steel
Spring Steel 0.75 7000 12 240

Tool Steel 0.90 9100 8 260

Non-Ferrous
„ Includes all the
metals such as
copper,
aluminum,
magnesium, and
zinc in which iron
is not present in
large amount
Metal Shapes
„ Sheets, Strips, and Plates
„ Sheet - a piece of metal which has been rolled
into a sheet of 3/16 in. or less in thickness.
Commonly available sizes are 3’ wide x 6’ long and
4’ wide and 8’ long. The thickness is expressed in
terms of gauge number which is equivalent to
number of sheets in 1 in. thick pile pf metal sheet.
„ Strips – a long sheet of metal that is less than 12
in. wide
„ Plate – a metal with thickness over 3/16 in.
Commonly available size is 4’ wide x 8’ long.
Thickness are given in terms of mm or in inch.
Common Shapes of Metal Bars
and Sheets
„ Metal Bars – made of different shapes and
are usually available in standard length of 20
ft or 6 meters. They are purchased in terms
of quantity, shape, size, and kind of metal
used.
„ Structural Shapes – commonly used in the
construction of agricultural machines. They
are specified in terms of quantity wanted, the
kind of material and shape, size, and length
of each piece.
„ Tubular Products – includes all hollow metal
shapes such as pipes and tubes. They are
available in round, square, and rectangular in
shape. Specifications are given in terms of
shape, schedule number, size, and length.
Common Structural Shapes of Bars
Non-Metallic Materials

„ Wood
„ Plastics
„ Rubber
„ Ceramics
„ Fibers
„ Glass
 SHEARING

„ This is done by placing a piece of

metal usually in the form of
sheet, plate, strip, or rod between
two blades of knives.
„ The machine used for metal
shearing are called metal shears.
„ Bench shears are used for cutting
heavy sheet metal and metal
plates
„ Tin shear or snip is used for
cutting metal sheets using hand
 Sawing

„ It is the process of moving

a hard metal saw blade
with teeth along its edge
across a metal to be cut.
„ Hand Hacksaw – A
manually operated saw
used for cutting metal by
pushing and pulling the
blade on the metal being
cut.
„ Power Hacksaw – It is simply an
improvement of hand hack saw. It is
an extremely economical and efficient
way of cutting bigger sizes of metal
bars.
„ Blades of power hack saw are available
from 3 to ten teeth per inch.
„ For mild steel, aluminum, and copper, 4
to 6 teeth per inch blades are used. For
tubing and small section 10 to 14 teeth
per inch are used.
„ Stroke per minute ranged from 40 to
150 strokes per min. Soft metal uses
high speed while hard metal uses low
speed.
„ Bandsaw – It uses
an endless blade
which move past the
piece being cut in only
one direction.
„ Cutting hard metals requires blades with
small teeth while soft materials requires
larger blades.
„ The use of too coarse blade on hard metal
will cause the blade to become dull very
quickly. However, saw with very small teeth
requires longer time to cut metal.
„ The rule is that at least two teeth should be
used when cutting a piece of metal
 FLAME CUTTING

„ It is one of the fastest method

of cutting bars or steel plates
having a thickness of 1/16 to 6
inches.
„ In flame cutting the piece of
steel must be heated to its
kindling temperature of approx
1600 F
„ Acetylene gas, pure oxygen
and a cutting torch are usually
used for flame cutting.
Milling Processes

„ Facing - It is the process of

cutting or squaring of the end of a
piece of work.
„ Center Drilling – It is done with a
combination drill and countersink
„ Straight Turning – The work is
first placed on the centers, and
the cutting tool is set for cutting.
„ Drilling Reaming, and Counter Boring –
These are commonly performed with a
drill press or by a lathe. In here the work
piece is held in a lathe chuck while the
drill, reamer, countersink, or counter
boring tool is held in the tailstock.
„ Knurling – It is the process of making the
handle of hand tool rough in order to give
a better grip.
„ Boring – It is the cutting and enlarging
of a round hole to make a more exact
size and accurate with its axis.
„ Threading – It is the process of making
a threads on screw either right-hand,
left-hand, external, or internal threads.
Welding Processes
„ Soldering
„ Brazing
„ Oxyacetylene Welding
„ Arc Welding
„ Resistance Welding
„ MIG Welding
„ TIG Welding
Soldering
„ It is the common
method of joining
metal sheet
especially non-
ferrous metal.
„ Soldering is done at a
relatively low
temperature of 427
C compared with
other methods such
as brazing and arch
welding.
Brazing
„ It is the joining
technique of metal using
oxyacetylene welding
equipment by melting a
non-ferrous filler rod at a
temperature above 427
C but below the melting
point of metal being
joined.
„ Brazing is much stronger
joint compared with
soldering.
Oxyacetylene Welding
„ It is the common for of gas welding
process using oxygen and acetylene
gases to provide heat to melt and join
metal by means of fusion.
„ Regulator – It the
special valve to
properly mix the
oxygen and the
acetylene gas.
„ Hose – This caries the
gases from the cylinder
to torch. Read hose is
used for acetylene gas
while the green hose is
used for the oxygen
gas.
„ Blow pipe or torch
Resistance Welding
„ It uses the heat
generated by electric
current passing
through a small area
of the metal being
joined. The pressure
forces heated the
area together until
they have fused.
„ Spot welding is the
common form of
resistance welding.
Arc Welding
„ It is the process of
welding metal by
passing high current
into a flux-coated
welding rod. The flux
serves as shield to
prevent oxidation to
produce stronger weld.
„ The arc welding
electrodes melt and
provide filler metal to
the joint.
 MIG Welding
„ The metal inert gas (MIG)
welding – It uses continuous
roll-fed welding rod.
„ An inert gas is used to protect
the weld from oxidation. For
steel it sues carbon dioxide
while for aluminum and other
metals, a mixture of argon and
helium is used.
„ MIG welding is easier than arc
welding in terms of heat
setting, rate of wire feed, and
mixture of gases.
 TIG Welding

„ The tungsten inert gas

welding is widely used
for welding aluminum,
stainless steel and other
non-ferrous metals.
„ It is similar to
oxyacetylene welding in
that the filler rod is
separate from the torch
and is fed with the
opposite hand.
Thanks and God Bless!!!