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Gemstone Optics: The Basics

 PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF GEMSTONES

Home » Learning Center » Gemology » Physical and Optical Properties of Gemstones » Gemstone Optics: The Basics

by Joel E. Arem, Ph.D., FGA     

A gemstone’s optical properties are very sensitive to minute changes in

composition and strain within their crystal structure. Therefore, accurately
measuring them is very useful for identifying and distinguishing one gem
species or variety from another. This article will cover the basic terminology
and concepts of gemstone optics. Pursue Your Passion for
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BY JOEL E. AREM, PH.D., FGA 9 MINUTE READ
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Light travels in the form of waves, like ripples on a pond. This forms the basis of crystal and gemstone
optics.

The distance between successive crests or troughs of such a wave is known as the wavelength, and the
amplitude of the wave is the height of the wave above the median (middle position between crest and
 Forum
trough).
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To put this in familiar terms, different wavelengths are different colors, and the amplitude is the light’s
intensity. Light vibrates at right angles to its direction of motion, and the vibration takes place in all Crabtree Emeralds
directions perpendicular to the light path. 22 hours ago

Refractive Index
Price of a 50ct Ruby?
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When light passes from one medium, such as air, into another, such as water, it actually slows down. In Can some telle the quality n more or the price
of this Gemstones
addition, the light path bends. The deviation always refers to a line perpendicular to the interface
2 days ago
between the two media, known as the normal to the interface. The light always bends toward the normal
in the medium in which the light travels slower. As a member my membership alou me to take
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The index of refraction or refractive index equals the ratio between the velocity of light in the two 2 days ago
media. The rst medium, usually air, sets the unity light velocity (1). The refractive index then becomes
1/v, where v is the velocity of light in the denser medium. My name is Luis R Robles.
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Refractive index, usually abbreviated n, is also frequently described in terms of the angle to the normal
made by the incoming light beam, or incident ray, and that made by the refracted beam (traveling within
the denser medium). In these terms, the refractive index equals the sine of the angle of incidence divided
by the sine of the angle of refraction.

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Light traveling from a given medium into a less dense medium — for example, from a crystal into air — may
strike the interface at such an angle that, at the interface, the light totally re ects back into the denser
medium. The incidence angle at which this takes place is known as the critical angle.

This angle has great signi cance for gem cutting. If a faceter cuts a gemstone at angles matched
incorrectly to its refractive index, light entering the stone may “leak out” the bottom. This causes a loss of
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brilliance. However, if the angles are correct at the bottom of the stone, light is totally re ected internally
and returns to the eye of the viewer. This creates a most pleasing brilliance. In fact, gem cutters facet
stones precisely to create this wonderful return of light. GET INSTANT ACCESS

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The crystallographic symmetries of gemstones determine their optical properties. For example, isometric
crystals have crystal structures highly symmetrical in all directions. As a result of this symmetry, light
traveling in any direction within an isometric crystal travels at the same speed. Within the material, no
single direction measurably slows down light. (This is also true of amorphous materials, such as glass,
which have no crystal structure). Such materials are called isotropic and are characterized by a single
refractive index, abbreviated as N. 

Anisotropic Crystals
In all other non-isometric crystals, light separates into two components — two polarized rays known as
the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray. All non-isometric crystals cause this splitting of incident light
and are called anisotropic.

Polarized Light and Gemstone Optics

Each polarized ray vibrates in a single plane rather than in all directions perpendicular to the direction of
travel of the light.

Named after its inventor, William Nicol, a Nicol prism can demonstrate the presence of polarized light. It
contains specially cut pieces of calcite oriented to allow only light polarized in a single plane to pass
through. If you line up two Nicol prisms and turn their polarization directions at right angles to each other,
no light may pass through at all.

Similarly, gemologists can use a comparable device, such as a polariscope or polarizing microscope, to test
for the polarization directions of light that has traveled through a crystal specimen or gemstone. Typically,
mineralogists use polarizing microscopes to examine tiny mineral grains, not gemstones. Gemologists
prefer to work with larger polarizing devices, usually 1-3 inch diameter discs of polaroid plastic, mounted
in a polariscope.

Uniaxial Crystals
Anisotropic crystals in the tetragonal and hexagonal system have a unique crystal axis, which is either
longer or shorter than the other two axes in the crystal. Light traveling in a direction parallel to this axis
vibrates in the plane of the other two axes. Since the other two axes are equivalent, this vibration is
uniform and resembles the light vibration in an isotropic crystal.

If a pair of Nicol prisms is placed in line with light traveling in this special direction in tetragonal or
hexagonal crystals, and if the prisms are rotated so that the polarization directions are crossed
(perpendicular), no light will be seen emerging from the crystal. As a result of the presence of this unique
optical direction in tetragonal and hexagonal crystals, gemstones crystallizing in these crystal systems are
called uniaxial.

Biaxial Crystals
Anisotropic crystals in all other systems contain two directions in which light vibrates uniformly
perpendicular to the direction of travel. Consequently, crystals in the orthorhombic, monoclinic, and
triclinic systems are called biaxial. The complete description of the behavior of light in such crystals is
very complex.

Birefringence in Uniaxial Crystals

In uniaxial crystals, the ray that travels along the optic axis and vibrates equally in a plane at right angles
to this direction is the ordinary ray. The other ray, which vibrates in a plane that includes the unique
crystal axis direction, is the extraordinary ray. The refractive indices for these rays (directions) —
designated as o (ordinary) and e (extraordinary) — are the basic optical parameters for a uniaxial
gemstone.

If the o ray has a velocity in the crystal greater than the e ray, the crystal is termed positive (+). If the e ray
has a greater velocity, the crystal is termed negative (-).

The birefringence in a uniaxial crystal equals the difference between the refractive indices for o and e.

Birefringence in Biaxial Crystals

Biaxial crystals have three different crystallographic axes. They also have two unique directions within
the crystal that resemble the unique optic axis in a uniaxial crystal. The Greek letters α (alpha), β (beta),
and γ (gamma) designate the refractive indices of a biaxial crystal.

Alpha, the lowest index, refers to a direction in the crystal known as X with the fastest light speed within
the crystal. Beta, the intermediate index, corresponds to the Y crystallographic direction and represents
an intermediate ray velocity. Gamma, the highest refractive index, corresponds to the Z crystallographic
direction and has the slowest ray velocity.

The birefringence in a biaxial crystal equals the difference between the alpha and gamma index.

Mineralogists nd the acute angle between the two optic axes within the crystal, designated 2V, a useful
parameter. It turns out that if the beta index is exactly halfway between alpha and gamma, the 2V angle is
exactly 90°.

Finally, if the value of beta is closer to gamma than alpha, the crystal is termed optically negative. If the
value of beta is closer to that of alpha, the crystal is termed optically positive.

Both refractive indices and birefringence are useful parameters in characterizing and identifying crystals.
Both change with composition and the presence of impurities, and they may even vary within a single
crystal.

Dispersion and Gemstone Optics

Always remember that the refractive index is basically a measure of relative light velocity. Every
wavelength of light travels through a given medium (other than air) at a different velocity. Consequently,
every wavelength has its own refractive index. The difference in refractive index with variation in
wavelength is known as dispersion.

Dispersion makes gemstones sparkle with colors. In diamonds, for example, the difference in refractive
index between red and blue light is quite large. This accounts for their sparkle. As light travels through a
cut gemstone, the various wavelengths (colors) diverge. When the light nally emerges from the stone,
the various color portions of the spectrum have completely separated.

Scientists report dispersion as a dimensionless number, meaning it has no unit of measure. However,
some degree of choice exists in selecting the wavelengths used as reference points. Typically, gemologists
take a gemstone’s dispersion as the difference in refractive index between the Fraunhofer B and G lines.
Fraunhofer lines are spectral lines observed in the spectrum of the sun, at 6870 and 4308 Å, respectively.

Solar spectrum with Fraunhofer lines as it appears visually. Image is public domain.

An ångstrom (Å) equals one ten-billionth of a meter, and scientists use it to measure light wavelengths.
They also use the nanometer (nm), one billionth of a meter, or 10 Å.

Hartmann Dispersion Net

In some cases, no dispersion information exists for a gemstone in the gemological literature. However, the
mineralogical literature may have data for the refractive index measured at certain different wavelengths
(not including the B and G wavelengths). In such cases, gemologists can calculate the dispersion using a
special type of graph paper known as a Hartmann Dispersion Net. On this logarithmic-type paper, one can
plot refractive indices at speci c wavelengths covering the entire useful range. Gemologists can
extrapolate such linear plots to the positions of the B and G lines.

Gemstone Optics and Opaque or Translucent

Materials
In some cases, as with opaque or translucent materials, a refractometer alone can’t measure refractive
indices accurately. Instead, the instrument gives only a vague line representing a mean index for the
material. Nevertheless, this number still indicates what gemologists may expect to nd in a routine
examination.

Using a Single Wavelength to Measure

Refractive Indices
A refractometer effectively measures all indices of refraction (all light wavelengths) simultaneously.
Gemologists could make more accurate measurements by selecting only a single wavelength. Universally,
they choose the spectral (yellow) line known as D, which characterizes the emission spectrum of sodium.

Pleochroism and Gemstone Optics

A crystal may absorb light differently as it passes through in different directions. Sometimes, the
differences are only in degree of absorption or intensity. In other cases, however, the absorption in
different directions of different wavelength portions of the transmitted light results in colors. This
phenomenon is termed pleochroism.

In the case of uniaxial materials, since they have only two distinct optical directions, gemologists call the
phenomenon dichroism. Other non-isotropic materials have three distinct optical directions, so they may
show trichroism. 

Pleochroic colors sometimes appear very distinctly and strongly. This can make them useful for gem
identi cation.

Anomalous Colors in Isotropic Gemstones

Since isotropic gemstones don’t affect the velocity or properties of light passing through them differently
according to its direction of travel, these materials never display pleochroism. Occasionally, however, an
isotropic material may display anomalous colors in polarized light. In general, these effects are attributed
to crystal strain, although abundant evidence indicates that the ordered arrangement of atoms on speci c
crystallographic sites is a likelier cause.

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 About the author

Joel E. Arem, Ph.D., FGA

Dr. Joel E. Arem has more than 60 years of experience in the
world of gems and minerals. After obtaining his Ph.D. in
Mineralogy from Harvard University, he has published
numerous books that are still among the most widely used
references and guidebooks on crystals, gems and minerals in
the world.

Co-founder and President of numerous organizations, Dr.

Arem has enjoyed a lifelong career in mineralogy and
gemology. He has been a Smithsonian scientist and Curator, a
consultant to many well-known companies and institutions,
and a proli c author and speaker. Although his main activities
have been as a gem cutter and dealer, his focus has always
been education.

All articles by this author

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