CHAPTER 12 – ELECTRICITY

ELECTRIC FIELD
‘The region around charged objects is called electric field’

Concept of electricity was framed before the discovery of electron therefore

1.Positive charges is considered to be more potential
2.Flow of current is considered to be the flow of positive charges, and it is accepted
conventionally
Flow of charges
Positive charges considered to be higher potential
Negative charges Considered to be less potential
Charges flow from higher potential to lower potential
Flow of current in a cell --- Positive to negative (conventional)
Flow of electrons ----- Negative to Positive

Flow of electron’s in a conductor

1.Flow of charges in bare conductor is detected to be zero, though there is flow of free
electrons.

It is due to the fact that in a bare conductor, the electron’s are moving in different direction
( random).As a result , the flow of current in a bare conductor is zero. E.g., copper wire not
connected to the source of current will not show any flow of charges.

2.When a bare conductor is connected to battery(source of current), the potential difference is

created in the wire [+ve terminal is higher potential and -ve potential is lower potential]
,then the electrons star flowing unidirectionally from +ve to -ve terminals resulting in the
conductivity

Note:- Current flows through a conductor only when potential difference is created by
connecting a battery.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL -It is denoted by ‘ V ’ It is defined as the amount of work [ W ]
done in bringing unit positive charge [ Q ]from infinity to a appoint in an electric field.
𝑾
Mathematical expression V= W= work done Q = Charge
𝑸

(𝑾)𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝑱
SI unit is = V = (𝑸)𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 = = = V(volt)
𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 𝑪

A ∞
Q
q
WA
1Volt
If one joule of work is done to move a charge of one coulomb from one point to another then
𝟏𝑱
the electric potential is said to be one volt.1V = 𝟏𝑪

POTENTIAL DIEERENCE [V]

The potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the amount
of work done in bringing one unit positive charge from one point to another.

B A ∞
Q
q
WA
WB

WA = Potential at ‘A’ WB = Potential at ‘B’

𝑾𝑨 𝑾𝑩
Then VA = VB =
𝒒 𝒒

𝑾𝑩−𝑾𝑨
Then the potential difference (V) = VB -VA =
𝒒

(𝑾)𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝑱
SI unit of potential difference = V = [ = = = V(volt) ] is
(𝑸)𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 𝑪
also Volt (V)
Problem:-

How much work is done in moving a charge of 2 coulomb from a point 118 V to a point
128 V ?

Potential difference(V) = work done(W) / Charge (Q)

Work done(W) = Potential difference(V) X Charge(Q)
W = (128 – 118) X 2
W = 10 X 2 = 20J assignment page 202 eg 12.2
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ELECTRI CURRENT ( I )
The quantity of charges flowing through a conductor in one second is called electric
current
Mathematical Expression
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆(𝑸) 𝑸
Current( I ) = I=
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆(𝒕) 𝒕
𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
SI unit of current (I) = = Ampere (A) (Andre-Marie Ampere)
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
1Ampere
If one coulomb charges flowing in one second then the current flowing in a circuit is said
to be one ampere(A) i.e.,
𝟏𝑪
1A =
𝟏𝒔
Note: -
1 coulomb charge is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly 6 X 1018 electrons.
The charge on an electron = 1.6 X 10-19C
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Problem:-Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge
Soln:-
Charge on electron e = 1.6 X 10 -19C Total charge Q = 1C

1C
𝑸
No. of electrons n = 𝒆 = ----------------- = 6.25X10 18 electrons
1.6 X 10 -19C
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ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
A continuous conducting path consisting of some electrical components connected between
the two terminals of a battery is called electric circuit
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
A diagram which shows the arrangement of various components is an electric circuit with
the help of symbols in an electric circuit is called CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
VARIOUS COMPONENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS

1.Simple circuit consisting of 1.cell 2. Bulb 3. switch

battery
2. Circuit consisting of 1.Two cell battery 2. Bulb 3.key(closed) 4. Ammeter
3.circuit diagram

Note :-
1.Ammeter is a device used to measure flow of current in the circuit, It is usually
connected in series
2.Voltmeter is a device used to measure potential difference across the circuit, It is usually
connected in parallel
OHM’S LAW
It was given by George Simon ohm. The law states that
‘ at a constant temperature, the current (I) flowing through the conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (V) across the conductor ’

Mathematical Expression

V ∞ I ( at constant T ) ----1

𝑽
Therefore = R ---------------- 2 [ ohm]
𝑰

𝑽
[ Or] = I ------------ 3
𝑹

V = IR ------------- 4

[ R is a proportionality constant known as resistance]

SI unit of resistance is ohm ( or) Ω (omega)

CONCLUSION OF HOM’S LAW

1. V ∞ I that is current flowing through the conductors is directly proportional to the

potential difference across the conductor. Which means if ‘V’ is doubled ‘ I ’.If ‘ V ‘ is halved
then ‘ I ‘ also get half.
𝟏
2. I ∞ 𝑹 ( Where ‘ V ‘ is kept constant )

If ‘ I ‘ is inversely proportional to ‘ R ‘ . If resistance get doubled,‘ I ‘ get half. If ‘ I ‘ get

Doubled then ‘ R ‘ gets half.

𝑽
3. = R The ratio of potential difference and current is always constant
𝑰

VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW

Aim: -To verify ohms law experimentally
Apparatus required: -
1. Rheostat 2. Resistor 3. Four cell battery 4. Ammeter
5. Voltmeter 6. Key and connecting wires
Procedure: -
1.Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram
Ammeter -connected in series, Voltmeter- connected parallel
2.With the help of Rheostat adjust resistance such that small current is (I) is flowing
through the circuit by the reading on the ammeter I1
3.Note down reading on the voltmeter write its value as V1 in the table
3.Record at least five reading of ‘ I ‘ and ‘ V ‘ and tabulate
Observation :-

The value of ‘ V ’ and ‘ I ’ are directly proportion

Draw a graph - plotting ‘ I ‘ in x -axis, ‘ V ‘ in y –axis

S.No Ammeter Voltmeter R = V / I ohm

Reading (I) reading (V)
1 I1 V1 V1 / I1 = R
2 I2 V2 V2 / I2 = R
3 I3 V3 V3 / I3 = R
4 I4 V4 V4 / I4 = R
5 I5 V5 V5 / I5 = R
Graph 1

S.No Ammeter Voltmeter R = V / I ohm (Ω)

Reading (I) A reading (V)
current volt/pot.diff
1 0.1 0.4 0.4 / 0.1 = 4Ω
2 0.2 0.8 0.8 / 0.2 = 4 Ω
3 0.3 1.2 1.2 / 0.3 = 4 Ω
4 0.4 1.6 1.6 / 0.4 = 4 Ω
5 0.5 2.0 2.0 / 0.5 = 4 Ω

Conclusion:-

Straight line shows if Current( I ) increases , potential difference ( V ) also increases

linearly - this
Current(I) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 is ohms law
Pot.Diff(V) 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
--- graph 1
Plot a graph and verify ohms law – assignment graph 2

Current(I) 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 ----- Graph 2

Pot.diff (V) 0.85 1.70 3.4 5.1 6.8

RESISTANCE [R]
‘ The property of a material by virtue of which it apposes the flow of electrical current
through it is called RESISTANCE ’
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
1. Nature of the materials

Copper , nichrome , Tungsten different materials offer different resistance.

2. R ∞ (L) Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the resistor

i,e Length is doubled resistance also doubled vice-versa

3. R ∞ 𝒂 Resistance is inversely proportional to area of cross section(a) of a resistor

𝟏

i,e Thickness of the resistor increases resistance decreases vice-versa

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Problem:-
A simple electric circuit has 24 V battery and resistor of 60 Ω. What will be the current
flowing through the circuit?
Soln :-
V = 24 V R = 60 Ω I =?
Applying ohm;s law
Therefore
𝑽 𝑽
=R I=
𝑰 𝑹
𝟐𝟒
I= 𝟔𝟎
= 0.4 A

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 RESISTIVITY [ ρ ]
R ∞l --------------- 1
𝟏
R∞ ------------- 2
𝒂

From 1 and 2
𝒍
R ∞ ------3
𝒂

𝒍
R = ρ Where ‘ ρ ‘ [Rho] is proportionality constant called RESISTIVITY
𝒂
If we take 1m long piece of substance having 1m 2 area of cross section then the
resistance of the substance called resistivity.

If l = 1m a = 1m2 R=ρ

SI unit of resistivity
𝑹𝑿𝒂
ρ= [Mathematical expression]
𝒍

Ω X m2
ρ = ------------- = Ω m (ohm meter)
m
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON RESISIVITY
1.The material having very low resistivity are called conductors
Eg - Silver = 1.6 X 10 – 8 Ω m
Copper = 1.7 X 10 – 8 Ω m

Aluminium = 2.8 X 10 – 8 Ω m
2. The material having moderate resistivity are called resistors
Eg – Nichrome (alloy) 150 X 10 – 8 Ω m (Ni,Cr,Fe)
Carbon = 3.5 X 10 – 5 Ω m
Tungsten = 5.20 X 10 – 8 Ω m

3. The material having higher resistivity are called insulators

Eg - Glass = 10 10 – 10 14 Ω m
Rubber = 10 13 Ω m

Alloys :- Brass (Cu,Zn) Bronz(CU,Sn)

Calculate the resistance of 50m length of wire of cross- section area 0.01 square mm and
of resistivity 5 X 10 - 8 Ω m
Soln :-
Using the relation
𝑹𝑿𝒂
ρ=
𝒍
𝛒𝑿𝒍
R=
𝒂

[ L = 50 m , a = 0.01(mm)2 = 0.01 X 10 – 6 m 2 , ρ = 5 X 10 - 8 Ω m ]

5 X 10 - 8 Ω m X 50 m
R = ------------------------------------ = 250 Ω
0.01 X 10 – 6 m 2

COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE
1.combination of resistance in series connection
When two or more, resistances are joined end- to-end so that same current flows through
each of them , then they are said to be connected in series.

LAW COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE IN SERIES

When number of resistances are connected in series then the equivalent resistance is
equal to the sum of individual resistances
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….
Numerical :
If 3Ω and 5Ω are connected in series. Calculate the equivalent resistance
Applying the formula R = R1 + R2
R1 = 3Ω R2 = 5 R = R1 + R2 R= 8Ω
DERIVATION OF LAW OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE IN SERIES
Let R1 , R2 , R3 be the resistances connected in series.
‘ I ‘ be the current flowing through the circuit[ same current]

Let V1 , V2 , V3 be the potential difference across R1 ,R2 ,R3 respectively.

Applying ohms law
V1 = I R1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3 ----------------------------- 1
If ‘ V ‘ be the potential difference across the combination of resistance of the circuit then
V = V1 + V2 + V3 --------------------------- 2

If ‘ R ‘ is the equivalent resistance of the circuit then

V = IR Using equation 1 and 2
IR = V = V1 + V2 + V3
IR = I R1 + IR2 + IR3
IR = I ( R1 + R2 + R3 )

R = R1 + R2 + R3
‘ R ‘ is the equivalent resistance which is equal to sum of individual resistances
2. COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL
combination of resistance in parallel connection
When two or more resistances are connected between the common point such that same
potential difference is applied across each of them they are said to be connected in parallel.
[ A and B are common point ].

A B

LAW OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL CONNECTION

 Let R1 , R2 , R3 be the resistances connected in parallel between the common point AB
Then the equivalent resistance ( R ) is given by
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
Problem
If two resistances of 5Ω each connected in parallel, then calculate equivalent resistances.
Solution

R1 = 5Ω R2 = 5Ω
Equivalent resistance
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑹
= +
𝟓Ω 𝟓Ω

𝟏 𝟐
=
𝑹 𝟓Ω

𝟓Ω
R = = 2.5Ω
𝟐
DERIVATION OF LAW OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL
Let ‘ V ‘ be the potential difference across common point A and B then from ohm’s law
𝑽
a) Current passing through R1 is I1 = 𝐑𝟏

𝑽
b) Current passing through R2 is I2 = 𝐑𝟐
------ 1

𝑽
c) Current passing through R3 is I3 = 𝐑𝟑

If ‘ R ‘ is equivalent resistance then from ohm’s law

𝑽
The total current I = -------- 2
𝐑

I = I1 + I2 + I3
Then substituting the values of I1 , I2 , I3 from eqn 1 in eqn 3 we get
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= 𝐑𝟏
+ + -------- 3
𝐑 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑
 𝑽 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= V[ 𝐑𝟏
+ + ] ----- 4
𝐑 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐑𝟏
+ + ---------- 5
𝐑 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

‘ R ‘ is the equivalent resistance which is equal to sum of reciprocals of the individual

resistances.
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From the diagram calculate the equivalent resistance

Solution

R1 = AF + FE + ED = 1Ω + 1Ω +1Ω = 3Ω [upper part of the hexagon]

R2 = AB + BC + CD = 1Ω + 1Ω +1Ω = 3Ω [lower part of the hexagon]
[ upper and lower part are connected at the common point (AD)
1/Req = [ 1/R1 +1/ R2 ] = [ 1/3Ω + 1/ 3Ω ]
1/Req = 2 / 3Ω Req = 3Ω /2 = 1.5Ω

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1.Calculate the net resistance between A and B

2.Calculate the total resistance across the circuit

Put them all in parallel-

(1/R) = (1/(1/5)) + (1/(1/5)) + (1/(1/5)) + (1/(1/5)) + (1/(1/5))

1/R = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 25

R = 1/25 ohms

3.Calculate the equivalent resistance

Req = R1 +R2 + [ (R3 X R4) / R4 + R3]
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Heating effect of current

Generation of heat energy in a resistor when electricity flow through it is called heating
effect of current.
FORMULA FOR HEAT GENERATION

H = I2 R t
DERIVATION OF FORMULA
From the definition of potential difference between two points in an electric field to the
work done
[ V = W / Q]
W = Q X V ---- 1
[I = Q /t]
Q = I X t ---- 2

W=VIt ---- 3

Substituting [V = IR -(ohm’s law) ] in eqn (3)

W = I2 R t
Therefore work done appears in the form of heat in a resistor. So the heat produced is
given by
H = I2 R t [ Joules law of heating ]
SI unit of

Work done (W) = Joule

Heat energy (H) = Joule
ELECTRIC POWER [P]

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑱
Power = = = Watt [W]
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒔

If one joule of work done in one second, then the power is said to be one Watt
𝟏𝑱
= = 1W [Watt] [ general formula to calculate work done ]
𝟏𝒔

SI unit of power is Watt [W]

It is nothing but the electrical energy consumed by an appliance in one second
Eg 60W means the appliance consume 60J of energy in one second.
DERIVATION OF THE FORMULA
Electric work done W = VIt [ from V =W / Q , I = Q / t ]
Electric Power P = VIt / t
P = VI
SI Unit of power is Watt(W)
Different relation of P,V ,I, R, E and t

P = VI ---- (1)
USING OHMS LAW V = IR substituting in eqn (1) we get
P=I2R ----- (2)
Using ohms law I = V / R and substituting in eqn (1) we get
P = VI = V X V/ R

P = V2 / R ---- (3)
P = E / t ----- (4) E = P X t --- (5)
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ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND COMMERCIAL UNIT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
H = I2 R t

E = I2 R t
SI unit of electrical energy is Joules [J]
COMMERCIAL UNIT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS
 Electrical energy measured in UNIT
i,e., one unit =1kWh
kWh - kilo watt hour 1kilo watt = 1000W =1000J/s

The value of 1kWh = 1000 J/s X ( 60 X 60 ) s

= 3600000 J
= 3.6 X 10 6 Joules = 1 UNIT
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Problem

A current of 4A flows through a 12V car head- light bulb for 10minutes.How much energy
transfer occur during the time?

Sulution
Power (P) = V X I = 4 X 12 = 48 W
Time taken (t ) = 10 / 60 h = 1 / 6 h
Energy consumed ( E ) = P X t
= 48 W X 1/6 h = 8Wh = 8 X 10 – 3 kWh

[1kWh = 3.6 X 10 6 J ]
Energy transferred = [8 X 10 – 3 X 3.6 X 10 6 ] J

= 288000J = 28.8 kJ

1.From the diagram find out the what shall be the ammeter reading
2.Calculate the total resistance of the circuit

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Q.Electrical heater is used on a 220V .Supply and it takes current of 15A.
a).Calculate power
b). (i).Calculate the energy consumed when the heater is used for one hour in a day.

(ii).And also calculate the cost of using electrical heater for 30 days in a month, if the
cost of one unit is Rs.10.00/-
Solution
(a). Power = V X I = 220V X 15A
= 3300W = 3.3 kW

(b).(i). Energy consume = Power X time [ E = P X t ]

= 3.3 kW X 1h
= 3.3 kWh = 3.3 unit in one day
(ii). Cost of one unit = Rs.10.00
Cost of 3.3 unit = 3.3X Rs.10.00/-

= Rs.33.00/-
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