ECE 213: POWER SYSTEM I

Fundamentals of power systems

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 PHASORS
 The voltage waveform at the buses of a power system
can be assumed to be purely sinusoidal and of constant
frequency.
 The symbols V and I are used to represent the RMS
voltage and current phasors respectively.
 Small v and i represent the instantaneous values of
voltage and current.
 The RMS phasors may be represented in exponential,
polar or rectangular form:
V  Ve j  V   V cos   jV sin 
 Current in a purely resistive circuit is in phase with the
voltage.
 In an inductive circuit it lags the voltage and leads in a
capacitive circuit.
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 Power in a single phase circuit
 Power is the rate of change of energy with time.
 The power being absorbed by a load is the product of
the instantaneous values of voltage across the load
and the current flowing through the load.
If v = Vmaxcost and i = Imaxcos(t - θ) then
Instantaneous power p = vi = VmaxImaxcost cos(t - θ)
 The angle θ is the angle of lead/lag and is positive
when the current lags the voltage and negative when
the current leads.
 p is positive when current is flowing in the direction
of the voltage drop and it becomes negative when v
and i are opposite in sign.
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Power in a single phase circuit

p  vi  Vmax cos  t I max cos   t   

Vmax I max
 cos  1  cos 2 t   sin sin 2 t 
2

 VI cos  1  cos 2 t   VI sin sin 2 t ............. (1)

1st term 2nd term

Vmax I max
where V  and I 
2 2

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 Power in a single phase circuit
• The first term in (1) represents the real or active
power measured in watts (W) and it has two
components;
i. the average power absorbed
ii. a double frequency term.
• The second term is the instantaneous reactive power
component (Q) measured in volt-amperes reactive
(VAr)
• Inductive loads consume reactive power while
capacitive loads produce it
• Q has no effect on real power dissipation but it does
affect power transfer from source to load.

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 Power in a single phase circuit

P 2  Q2
I 
V
In a circuit with impedance Z = R + jX
R  Z cos and X  Z sin

V  I.Z

P  I R  I . Z cos  V I cos
2 2

Q  I X  I . Z sin  V I sin
2 2

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 Complex power
 Let voltage across and the current into an electrical
load be V = |V| and I = |I|, respectively.
 Then the complex power

S  VI  V   I    V I     
 

 V I cos      j V I sin    
where  -  = θ is the angle between the voltage and
the current phasors. Thus,

S  V I cos  j V I sin  P  jQ

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 Complex power
S = VI is the apparent power measured in VA
P = real or active power in W
Q = reactive power in VAr
cos θ is the power factor and should be as close to
unity as possible

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 Load and generator conventions
i) Load convention
I +
 Current flows into the positive terminal
 For P positive, real power is absorbed V
and Q positive reactive power absorbed -
 P(Q) negative real (reactive) power Fig 3a: Load
delivered convention
ii) Generator convention
 Current flows out of the positive I +
terminal
V
 For P positive, real power is delivered
and Q positive reactive power delivered -
 P(Q) negative real (reactive) power Fig 3b: Generator
convention
absorbed

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 The power triangle
 This is simply the diagrammatic or phasor
representation of the three components of power i.e.
real, reactive and apparent power.
 It is a right angled triangle as shown in Fig. 4 where
θ is the angle of lead/lag.
S (kVA)
Q (kVAr) S  P 2  Q2
θ
and cos  is the power factor.
P (kW)
Fig 4: Power triangle

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 The power triangle Example
 A capacitor is usually referred to as a
positive VAr generator.
 It is therefore normally connected in parallel
with an inductive load to supply the required
reactive power (correct the power factor).
Example
A single phase source delivers 1OO kW to a load
operating at a p f. of 0.8 lagging.
1. Determine the size of capacitor required to
improve the pf to 0.95 lagging.
2. Draw the power triangle for the source and load.
Assume that the source voltage is constant and
neglect the line impedance between source and
load.

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 Three Phase Balanced System
 The source is said to be balanced if the phase voltages
Ean, Ebn and Ecn are equal in magnitude and a phase
difference of 120 exists between any two phases.
Consider: Ecn
Ean = V0 120 

Ebn = V+240 = V-120 

120
Ean

Ecn = V+120 = V-240
120

This phasor sequence is the positive

Ebn
or abc sequence shown in Fig. 2
Fig. 2: abc phasor sequence

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 Three Phase Balanced System
Ean = V0
Ebn = V+120 = V-240 Ebn

Ecn = V+240 = V-120 120

This phasor sequence is the negative Ean

120
120
or acb (cba) sequence shown in Fig. 3 and 4

Ean Ecn
Fig. 3: acb phasor sequence
120
Ecn
120
120

Ebn
Fig. 4: cba phasor sequence
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 Balanced line-to-line voltages
The voltages Eab, Ebc, and Eca are the line to line or
simply line voltages.
Eab = Ean + Enb = Ean - Ebn
Let Ean = 100V Ecn
Ebn = 10-120 V 120

Ecn = 10120 V 
Ean
120
120 

Eab = 100 - 10-120 = √3.10 30 V

  

Similarly Ebn
Ebc = Ebn - Ecn = √3.10 -90 V Fig. 2: abc phasor sequence
Eca = Ecn - Ean = √3.10 150 V

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 Three Phase Balanced System
The line voltages are also balanced because they are
equal in magnitude and the phasors are 120 displaced
from each other as seen in Fig. 5a.
NB: In a balanced three phase Y-connected system with
positive sequence sources, the line voltage is √3 times
the phase voltage and leads it by 30.
Eab
Eab = √3. Ean 30  Ecn

Eca 30
Ebc = √3. Ebn 30  30 

Eca = √3. Ecn 30 30 

Ebc
Fig. 5a: Balanced system line
and phase voltage phasors

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 b

Eab
Ebn
a Ebc
Ean
Ecn
Eca

c
Fig. 5b: Balanced system line
and phase voltage phasors
 Eab + Ebc + Eca = 0
 In a balanced system Ean+ Ebn+ Ecn= 0 as shown in Fig. 5b

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 Balanced line currents
 For as long as the source voltages, load and line
impedances are balanced, the line currents will also
be balanced and they sum up to zero.
Ia+ Ib+ Ic = In = 0
 For all other cases the currents will not be balanced
and a current In will flow in the neutral.
 The line current is equal to the phase current for star
connected system.

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 Balanced -loads
Ia
c
a Ic A
C
ICA Z
+ +
N N E IAB
Ecn - - an
IBC
Z Z

-
N Ebn
+
B
Ib
b

Fig. 6: Y-connected source supplying a balanced -connected load

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 Balanced -loads
 The phase currents of Fig. 6 are given by
IAB = Eab/Z IBC = Ebc/Z ICA = Eca/Z
 Assume abc sequence and let
Eab  3.10 30V and Z   5 30 

3.10 30 
I AB  
 3.464  0 A
5 30
3.10 - 90 
I BC  
 3.464  - 120 A
5 30
3.10150 
I CA  
 3.464 120 A
5 30
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  The line currents are given by
 
I a  I AB - I CA  3.4640 - 3.464120

 3 3.464 - 30 A 

I b  I BC - I AB  3 3.464 - 150 A 
I c  I CA - I BC  3  3.464  90  A


 It can be observed that both the -load currents and the

line currents are balanced.
 The sum of the line currents for a -connected load is
always zero even if the system is unbalanced.

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 Note: Ic

I a  3 I AB - 30 A
ICA

I b  3 I BC  - 30 A 120
IAB
30
 120
I c  3 I CA - 30 A IBC
Ia

Ib
Fig. 7a: Balanced system line
Ib
and phase current phasors
IAB IBC

Ic
ICA
Ia

Fig. 7b: Balanced system line For a -connected load, the phase
and phase current phasors and line voltages are equal.
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 -Y Conversion for balanced loads
A IA

A
IA C IC
C IC ICA Z
IAB
ZY ZY
Z Z

IBC
ZY
IB IB
B B
Fig. 8a: -connected load Fig. 8b: Y -connected load

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 -Y Conversion for balanced loads
3 E AB - 30
In  , I A  3 I AB - 30 
Z

E AN E AB - 30
In Y, I A  
ZY 3 ZY
 If IA is the same for both cases
3 E AB - 30 E AB - 30
IA  
Z 3 ZY
Z
  3 ZY  Z   3 Z Y
3

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 -Y Conversion for balanced loads
Transformation of balanced -connected load to Y
Z
ZY 
3
A
Transformation from Y to 
Z   3 ZY
Z

Z Z

Z Z

C B
Z
Fig. 9: Balanced load -Y conversion
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 -Y Conversion for a General case
In general, transformation from  to Y
Z B ZC Z A ZC
Z1  , Z2  ,
Z A  Z B  ZC Z A  Z B  ZC
Z AZB A
and Z 3 
Z A  Z B  ZC
Transformation from Y to  Z1

ZA 
 Z1 Z 2  Z 2 Z 3  Z 3 Z1  ZB ZC
Z1

ZB 
 Z1 Z 2  Z 2 Z 3  Z 3 Z1 
Z3 Z2
Z2
 Z1 Z 2  Z 2 Z 3  Z 3 Z1 
C B
ZC  ZA
Z3 Fig. 9: General -Y conversion
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 Power in a balanced 3- circuit
 A three phase circuit can have constant
instantaneous power.
 For a balanced system, the voltages in the 3 phases
are out of phase with each other by 120.
 For an a-b-c sequence system
va=√2Vrms cos t
vb=√2Vrms cos(t- 120)
vc=√2Vrms cos(t -240)= √2Vrms cos(t+ 120)
va+ vb+ vc= 0
V = Vrms

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 a a´
+ ia
va R va
-

- - vc
vb R
R
+v + ib vb ic
c b
c c´
b´

Fig. 10: Voltages and current flow in a Y connected load

-  va  vb  vc 
i n  -  ia  i b  i c   0
R

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 The power consumed by the resistance in each phase
is given by
va2 2V 2 cos 2  t
pa  
R R
3V 2
Show that p3  pa  pb  pc 
R
which is constant irrespective of time.
 The three components of power in a balanced 3-
system are
P3= 3Vph IL cosθ= √3VLL IL cosθ
Q3= 3Vph IL sinθ= √3VLL IL sinθ
S3= 3Vph IL= √3VLL IL= P3+ jQ3
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Advantages of three phase over single phase system
 To transmit the same power a fixed distance at a given
voltage a 3- system requires only ¾ the weight of cupper,
hence reduced cost.
 Better voltage regulation and reduced line losses- the
neutral does not carry any current unlike in the 1- system.
 The 3- system has no double frequency sinusoid hence
there is no double frequency shaft torque which causes
vibration (reason why machines with rating higher than 5
kVA are normally 3-)
 3- power has a constant magnitude, 1- power pulsates
from 0 – peak at twice the supply frequency
 3- system can set up rotating magnetic field in stationary
wdgs, unlike 1- supply
 For the same rating, 3- machines are smaller, simpler in
construction and have better operating characteristics.
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 The one-line diagram
 One-line diagram shows the inter-connections of
basic power system components.
 These include generators, transformers, CBs, VTs &
CTs, rotating loads, transmission lines etc.
 Some of the standard symbols used to represent these
components are given below.
- Rotating machine- general
- Synchronous machine
- Two winding power transformer
- Three winding power transformer

- Auto transformer
- Fuse
- Line, cable or busbar
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 The one-line diagram
- Current transformer
- 3- 3- wire delta connection
- 3- star neutral ungrounded
- 3- star neutral solidly grounded
- Isolator
- Circuit Breaker

In a balanced 3- system, calculations are done for

one phase and the results extended to the other phases
while taking proper care of the phase angles.

The per phase positive sequence equivalent circuits

are therefore drawn for this purpose.
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