Power Harvesting Via Smart Materials

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Power Harvesting via Smart Materials
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SPIE PRESS BOOK • NEW
Power Harvesting via Smart Materials
Author(s): Ashok K. Batra; Almuatasim Alomari
Book Description
This monograph covers the fundamentals, fabrication, testing, and modeling of ambient energy harvesters based on
three main streams of energy-harvesting mechanisms: piezoelectrics, ferroelectrics, and pyroelectrics. It addresses
their commercial and biomedical applications, as well as the latest research results. Graduate students, scientists,
engineers, researchers, and those new to the field will find this book a handy and crucial reference because it
provides a comprehensive perspective on the basic concepts and recent developments in this rapidly expanding field.
Book Details
Date Published: 28 July 2017

Pages: 306
ISBN: 9781510608498
Volume: PM277
Downloaded From: https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/ebooks on 8/25/2017 Terms of Use: https://spiedigitallibrary.spie.org/ss/TermsOfUse.aspx
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Batra, A. K., author. | Alomari, Almuatasim, 1985- author.

Title: Power harvesting via smart materials / Ashok K. Batra and Almuatasim
Alomari.
Description: Bellingham, Washington : SPIE Press, [2017] | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016055518 (print) | LCCN 2017003686 (ebook) | ISBN
9781510608498 (softcover) | ISBN 1510608494 (softcover) | ISBN 9781510608504
(pdf) | ISBN 9781510608511 (epub) | ISBN 9781510608528 (mobi)
Subjects: LCSH: Energy harvesting. | Smart materials. | Piezoelectric materials.
Classification: LCC TK2897.B38 2017 (print) | LCC TK2897 (ebook) |
DDC 621.042–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016055518
Published by
SPIE
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Copyright © 2017 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in

any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher.
The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the authors. Every effort has
been made to publish reliable and accurate information herein, but the publisher is not
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reliance thereon.
Printed in the United States of America.

First Printing.
For updates to this book, visit http://spie.org and type “PM277” in the search field.

Contents
Foreword I xi
Foreword II xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations xix
1 Ambient Energy Sources: Mechanical, Light, and Thermal 1

1.1 Toward a New World Based on Green Energy 1
1.2 Vibration-to-Electricity Conversion 3
1.2.1 Electrostatic energy harvesting 4
1.2.2 Electromagnetic energy harvesting 4
1.2.3 Piezoelectric energy harvesting 5
1.2.4 Magnetostrictive energy harvesting 6
1.2.5 Photovoltaic energy harvesting 6
1.2.6 Radio-frequency energy harvesting 7
1.3 Thermal-to-Electricity Conversion 8
1.3.1 Seebeck-effect thermoelectric generator 9
1.3.2 Peltier-effect thermoelectric cooling 10
1.3.3 Thermoelectric materials 10
1.4 Commercial Energy-Harvesting Devices 11
References 14
2 Fundamentals of Ferroelectric Materials 17
2.1 Classification of Dielectric Materials 17
2.2 Important Dielectric Parameters 21
2.2.1 Electric dipole moment 21
2.2.2 Polar and nonpolar dielectric materials 21
2.2.3 Electric polarization 22
2.2.4 Electric displacement, dielectric constant, and electric
susceptibility 22
2.2.5 Spontaneous polarization 23
2.3 Electrostrictive Effect 23
2.4 Piezoelectric Phenomena 24

vi Contents
2.5 Pyroelectric Phenomenon 26

2.5.1 Pyroelectric current generation 28
2.6 Ferroelectric Phenomena 29
2.6.1 Ferroelectric domains 31
2.6.2 Ferroelectric hysteresis 31
2.6.3 Poling 32
2.6.4 Paraelectric effect 33
2.7 Conclusion 33
References 34
3 Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting 35
3.1 Historical Introduction of Piezoelectricity 36
3.2 Mechanism for Piezoelectricity 41
3.3 Theory of Dielectricity 43
3.3.1 Static fields 43
3.3.2 Time-dependent fields 44
3.4 Fundamentals of Electric Energy Harvesting 45
3.5 Piezoelectric Coefficients 46
3.5.1 Piezoelectric charge coefficient (dij) 46
3.5.2 Piezoelectric voltage coefficient (gij) 46
3.5.3 Dielectric constant (εij) 46
3.5.4 Coupling coefficient (kij) 46
3.6 Electromechanical Properties of Piezoelectric Materials 47
3.6.1 Piezoelectric constitutive equations 47
3.6.2 Piezoelectric polymers 48
3.6.3 Piezoelectric ceramic: properties of PZT 52
3.6.4 Properties of single-crystal PMN-PT 52
3.7 Piezoelectric Effect for Energy Harvesting 53
3.7.1 General theory of mechanical energy conversion 53
3.7.2 Piezoelectric generators 54
3.8 Operating Principle of a Piezoelectric Generator System 54
3.8.1 Mechanical energy source 55
3.8.2 Mechanical transformers 55
3.8.3 Piezoelectric materials 55
3.8.4 Power-transfer electronics 56
3.8.5 Intelligent energy and storage management 56
3.9 Cantilevered Energy Harvesters and Types of Cantilever Beam 57
3.9.1 Unimorph cantilever 57
3.9.2 Bimorph cantilever 58
3.9.3 Multimorph cantilever 58
3.10 Modeling Cantilever Beams 59
3.11 Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting: A Recent Survey 60
3.12 Conclusion 63
References 63

Contents vii
4 Parametric Identification and Measurement Techniques

for Piezoelectric Energy Harvesters 79
4.1 General Electrical Parameters 79
4.2 Determining Piezoelectric Sensor Coefficients 79
4.2.1 Mechanical model and equivalent electrical circuit 79
4.2.2 Linear piezoelectric model 82
4.3 Electromechanical Coupling Coefficients 83
4.4 Elastic Compliance 84
4.5 Piezoelectric Charge Constants 85
4.6 Piezoelectric Voltage Constants 85
4.7 Mechanical Quality Factor 85
4.8 Methods for Measuring the Physical Properties of Ferroelectric
Materials 85
4.8.1 Determining the dielectric properties of ferroelectrics 86
4.8.1.1 Dielectric constants and dielectric spectrum
measurements at a low frequency 86
4.8.1.2 Polarization (hysteresis loop) measurements 87
4.8.2 Determination of piezoelectric coefficients 88
4.8.2.1 Berlincourt method for measuring d̄ 33 and d̄ 31 88
4.8.2.2 Impedance analysis for measuring s̄E33 , s̄D
33 ,
and k̄ 33 90
4.8.3 Pyroelectric coefficient measurements 91
4.8.3.1 Pyroelectric current method 91
4.8.3.2 Pyroelectric charge-integration method 92
4.9 Parametric Identification and Determination for Piezoelectric
Energy Harvesters 92
4.9.1 Natural frequency identification 94
4.9.2 Damping factor identification 94
4.9.3 Quality-factor identification 95
4.9.4 Efficiency of energy conversion 95
4.10 Conclusion 96
References 96
5 Theoretical Background of Mechanical Energy Conversion 97
5.1 Euler–Bernoulli Beam 98
5.2 Piezoelectric Cantilevered Beam Using the Euler–Bernoulli Theory 102
5.2.1 Clamped–free piezoelectric cantilever beam 102
5.2.2 Clamped–clamped piezoelectric cantilever beam 108
5.2.3 Clamped–free piezoelectric cantilever beam with tip mass 117
5.3 Lumped Parameter Model 119
5.3.1 Single degree of freedom 120
5.3.2 Two degrees of freedom 122
5.3.3 Three degrees of freedom 123

viii Contents
5.3.4Lumped parameter model for MEMS applications 131

5.3.5SDOF for a PMN-PT single crystal in d31 133
5.3.6Further piezoelectric applications of the Euler–Bernoulli
beam theory 135
5.3.6.1 Nonpiezoelectric layer longer than the
piezoelectric layer 135
5.3.6.2 Piezoelectric layer and nonpiezoelectric layer
of equal length 136
5.3.6.3 Nonpiezoelectric layer shorter than the
piezoelectric layer 136
5.3.7 Modeling the PZT sensor using the pin-force method,
enhanced pin-force method, and Euler–Bernoulli theory 137
5.4 Further Applications of the 2DOF Model 138
5.5 Tapered Unimorph Beams 142
5.6 Trapezoidal Cantilever Beam 143
5.7 Multiple Piezoelectric Elements 144
5.7.1 Mathematical evaluation of a multiple-cantilever structure 144
5.7.2 Four cantilever-type legs and piezoelectric ceramics 148
5.8 Piezoelectric Energy Harvester with a Dynamic Magnifier 151
References 160
6 Techniques for Enhancing Piezoelectric Energy-Harvesting Efficiency 165
6.1 Techniques to Tune the Resonant Frequency 165
6.2 Mechanical Tuning Techniques 166
6.2.1 Changing dimensions 166
6.2.2 Shifting the center of gravity of the proof mass 167
6.2.3 Varying the stiffness of the spring 169
6.2.4 Applying strain to the structure 169
6.3 Electrical Tuning Techniques 171
6.4 Bandwidth Widening Strategies 173
6.5 Conclusion 174
References 175
7 Piezoelectric Power-Harvesting Devices 177
7.1 Flexible Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting from Jaw Movements 177
7.2 Piezoelectric Shoe-Mounted Harvesters 178
7.3 Piezo-Wind Generators 179
7.4 Rotary Knee-Joint Harvester 179
7.5 Piezoelectric Prosthetic-Leg Energy Harvesters 180
7.6 Piezoelectric Pacemaker 180
7.7 Piezoelectric Railways 180
7.8 Piezoelectric Roads and Highways 180
7.9 Flexible Wearable Harvester 181
7.10 Rotating Energy Harvesters 181

Contents ix
7.11 Water-Flow-Based Energy Harvester 182

7.12 Summary and Outlook 182
References 182
8 Ferroelectric Energy Harvesting 185
8.1 Energy Transfer in Pyroelectrics 186
8.1.1 Ferroelectric effect 187
8.1.2 Paraelectric effect 188
8.1.3 Phase transitions 188
8.1.4 Pyroelectric performance 189
8.2 Thermodynamic Cycles for Pyroelectric Energy Conversion 189
8.2.1 Heat and work fundamentals 190
8.2.2 Pyroelectric energy-harvesting efficiency 194
8.2.3 Carnot cycle 194
8.2.4 Ericsson cycle 196
8.2.5 Lenoir cycle 197
8.2.6 Pyroelectric energy conversion based on the Clingman cycle 198
8.2.7 Pyroelectric energy conversion based on the Olsen cycle 199
8.3 Recent Progress in Pyroelectric Energy Conversion and Harvesting 201
8.3.1 Pyroelectric energy harvesting based on the direct
pyroelectric effect 201
8.3.2 Pyroelectric energy-harvesting figures of merit 202
8.3.3 Pyroelectric energy conversion based on thermodynamic
cycles 220
8.4 Conclusion 225
References 225
9 Processing Important Piezoelectric Materials 233
9.1 Single Crystals 234
9.1.1 Growth of crystals from solution 234
9.1.2 Crystal growth from melt 236
9.1.3 High-temperature-flux method 237
9.1.4 Vertical-gradient-freeze method with no flux 238
9.2 Preparation of Ceramics 241
9.3 Thin-Film-Deposition Techniques 241
9.3.1 Non-solution-deposition techniques 242
9.3.1.1 Sputtering 242
9.3.1.2 Laser ablation 242
9.3.1.3 Chemical vapor deposition 243
9.3.2 Solution-deposition techniques 244
9.3.2.1 Sol-gel 244
9.3.2.2 Metal–organic deposition 246
9.3.2.2.1 Precursor synthesis 246
9.3.2.2.2 Solvent 247

x Contents
9.3.2.2.3 Spin coating and pyrolysis 248

9.3.2.2.4 PZT films from MOD 249
9.4 Thick-Film Fabrication 250
9.4.1 Thick-film-transfer technology (screen printing) 250
9.5 Fabrication of Polymer–Ceramic Composites 251
References 253
10 Future Directions and Outlook 257
10.1 The Future of Power Harvesting: Drivers and Challenges 257
References 259
Appendix: MATLAB Codes 261
A.1 Euler–Bernoulli Clamped–Free Beam Modeling 261
A.2 Euler–Bernoulli Clamped–Free Unimorph Beam Modeling
for Performance Parameters 263
A.3 Clamped–Clamped Beam Modeling for Performance Parameters 265
A.4 Clamped–Clamped Piezoelectric Cantilever Beam Modeling 267
A.5 Modeling the Performance Parameters of a PMN-PT Single
Crystal with a Tip Mass Cantilever Beam 269
A.6 Modeling 2DOF Piezoelectric Vibrational Energy-Harvesting
Parameters 272
A.7 Modeling 3DOF Piezoelectric Vibration Energy Harvesting 273
A.8 Modeling a 2DOF Cantilevered Beam System with Two Piezo
Elements 274
A.9 Modeling a Thick Film Bonded to the Clamped End of an
Aluminum Cantilever Beam 275
Index 279

Foreword I
The invention of electricity and the lightbulb has played a ground-breaking
role in the development of modern technology and society. Piezoelectric
materials, one of the so-called “smart materials,” produce an electric charge
upon the application of stress; this fascinating characteristic allows them to be
exploited to generate electric energy via the use of ambient mechanical
vibrations in machinery and biological systems. Sensors are being increasingly
used in a range of applications: structural health monitoring (SHM), security
networks, medicine, and aeronautics to civil engineering, military, and animal
tracking. The recent development of lower-power electronic devices, such as
wireless sensor nodes, active RFIDs, and nano-transducers, has led to an
increase in the demand for piezoelectric energy-harvesting applications to
power these sensors. Energy harvesting is of interest to all of us because it
reduces the task of replacing conventional batteries in self-powered devices
located in remote and difficult-to-access locations.
This monograph contains the most comprehensive and up-to-date review
of ambient electric energy harvesting via piezoelectric, ferroelectric, and
pyroelectric materials. It brings to both novice and advanced readers all of the
topics required to understand piezoelectric energy-harvesting techniques. The
text presents the complete lifecycle of a material from the basics of smart
materials, theory of operation of harvesters, and structure of piezoelectric
materials to the processing and technological applications in a systematic
manner with emphasis on the most recent advances. It also contains
instructive case studies and examples of experimental validation of novel
energy-harvesting techniques. This monograph should prove to be of
immeasurable benefit for graduate students, engineers, and scientists as a
comprehensive guide to the current state-of-the-art science and technology of
the analysis and development of piezoelectric energy harvesting.
C. R. Bowen
Professor of Materials
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Bath
xi

Foreword II
I congratulate the authors for having written this timely and excellent
monograph. Energy harvesting remains a topic of intense interest in academic
and industrial settings because it provides a route to achieve an autonomous
power supply for low-duty-cycle electronics. Dr. A. K. Batra is a prolific
scholar, author, and accomplished researcher who has authored a monograph
on pyroelectric materials in the past. He has contributed significantly to the
advancement of knowledge in this area of inquiry and other related fields. We
are fortunate to have an individual with his diverse expertise on the faculty of
Alabama A&M University, and we are highly appreciative of the fact that he
has been able to devote extra time and effort for the preparation of this
monograph. I am sure it will prove to be interesting, thought-provoking, and
helpful in spurring further progress in this fascinating and challenging field.
I have no doubt that this book will be a success and encourage them in the
future.
Chance M. Glenn, Sr.
Professor and Dean
College of Engineering, Technology, and Physical Sciences
Alabama A&M University
xiii

Preface
This monograph on ambient energy harvesting consists of ten chapters,
organized as follows:
• Chapter 1 explains green energy technologies and their applications.
The sources of ambient energies accessible with available commercial
devices are discussed.
• Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of dielectrics, the nature of a unique
class of smart materials (i.e., ferroelectrics, piezoelectrics, and pyro-
electrics), and its classification on the basis of crystal classes. A list of
important materials is given, as well as their applications. Piezoelectric/
pyroelectric/ferroelectric phenomena are described in the context of
their energy-harvesting applications.
• Chapter 3 involves the mathematical modeling of constitutive equa-
tions, mechanisms of piezoelectric energy conversion, and the operating
principle of a piezoelectric energy-harvesting system. It also focuses on
the dielectric, piezoelectric, mechanical, and pyroelectric properties of
candidate piezoelectric and pyroelectric materials: from single crystals
(such as PMN-PT) to ceramic PZT and polymers (such as PVDF).
Recent important literature on piezoelectric energy harvesting is also
reviewed.
• Chapter 4 discusses the parametric identification and measurement
techniques for piezoelectric energy harvesters, including the efficiency
and the physical properties of piezoelectric, ferroelectric, and pyroelec-
tric materials.
• Chapter 5 demonstrates the principles of a piezoelectric cantilever beam
for vibrational energy harvesting. Various configurations of cantilever-
based energy harvesters are described, as well as the respective modeling
used to predict their performance. Various important cantilever
structures with multiple piezoelectric elements are reviewed.
• Chapter 6 describes various strategies and techniques that have been
developed to enhance piezoelectric energy-harvesting efficiency, namely,
the frequency tuning and bandwidth widening of harvesters.
xv

xvi Preface
• Chapter 7 briefly describes some of the important devices for

piezoelectric power harvesting that have potential applications in the
real world.
• Chapter 8 focuses on the fundamentals and principles of energy
harvesting via the linear and nonlinear properties of pyroelectrics/
ferroelectrics. An overview of various materials and techniques
investigated for energy harvesting, including mathematical modeling,
is also presented. A survey of recent work on ferroelectric/pyroelectric
energy harvesting is reviewed and presented.
• Chapter 9 describes the methodology of the growth and fabrication of
important piezoelectric and ferroelectric materials in various forms,
such as bulk single crystals, polycrystalline ceramics, thin films, thick
films, and composites. Based on the applicability and requirements of
the materials, techniques such as a low-temperature solution and melt
crystal growth, sputtering, laser ablation, chemical-vapor-deposition
techniques, solution-deposition techniques (such as sol-gel, metallo-
organic, and spin-coating pyrolysis), and screen printing are illustrated
with diagrams and processes via flowcharts.
• Chapter 10 projects a future outlook for piezoelectric energy harvesting.
• The Appendix lists the MATLAB code for a few examples in Chapter 5.
For all technical contacts, suggestions, corrections, or exchanges of
information, the reader is advised to contact the authors via email:
ashobatra@gmail.com and Lovephy85@gmail.com.
Ashok K. Batra
A. A. Alomari
May 2017

Acknowledgments
Ashok K. Batra
First and foremost, this monograph would not be possible without the
inspiration of my dear father, who advised me to write this demanding
scientific resource. I express my gratitude to him and my late mother for
instilling important traits in me, such as perseverance, hard work, and
humility. I am forever indebted to my lovely wife, Nutan, my lifeline, for her
constant prayers and her perseverance in staying by my side through thick and
thin with total love, dedication, and encouragement. I am eternally grateful to
my close-knit family, including my adorable younger brother, Vijay, and my
uncle, Mr. V. K. Batra, who has supported me wholeheartedly throughout my
career and in authoring this monograph. It is virtually impossible to fully
express my gratitude to my admirable uncle and aunt, and cousin brothers—
Dr. S. K. Grover and Mrs. Manjula Grover, Dr. Kunal Grover, and
Dr. Keshav Grover—for their unwavering help in all aspects of my life. I am
grateful to Prof. R. B. Lal and Prof. S. C. Mathur for sharing their valuable
insights and guidance. A special thanks to Dr. Amar Bhalla for our many
stimulating discussions on pyroelectric materials and for his wide knowledge
of materials science.
I feel privileged to have worked with eminent teachers, including
Prof. S. C. Mathur, the late Prof. A. Mansingh, and Prof. N. K. Bansal.
I have benefited from their scientific knowledge and philosophies. I would
especially like to thank Dr. Chance Glenn, Sr., Dean of the College of
Engineering, Technology, and Physical Sciences at AAMU, for his support
and, in particular, our fruitful discussions on energy harvesting. I am
grateful to Dr. M. D. Aggarwal for his total support, suggestions, and
encouragements. I would like to express my appreciation to the university
administration, and the faculty and staff of the Physics department for
their general support and the friendly atmosphere that they create. Special
thanks to Drs. Matthew Edwards, Anup Sharma, Kamala Bhat, Arjun Tan,
and B. R. Reddy for their encouragement. I would also like to give a special
thanks to Mrs. Sheral Carter for her excellent cooperation and assistance in
graphic design.
xvii

xviii Acknowledgments
Additionally, I would like to acknowledge contributions from my

research students, especially Dr. Padmaja Guggilla, Dr. James R. Currie,
Dr. Jason M. Stephens, Dr. Ryan Moxon, Dr. Ashwith Chilvery,
Dr. A. Alomari, Dr. Rahul Reddy, Bir Bohara, and Mychal Thomas.
Support for this work through the National Science Foundation grant-RISE/
HRD #1546965 is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, I would like to whole-
heartedly thank researchers whose work has been cited or reproduced,
including Prof. Steve Beeby and Dr. Dibin Zhu.
A. A. Alomari
I would like to thank everyone who has helped me throughout the journey of
writing my first book; to all those who provided support, advice, read, wrote,
offered comments, allowed me to use their remarks and assisted in the editing,
proofreading and design. First and foremost, I would like to extend my
deepest thankful to my advisor, Prof. Ashok Batra, for his valuable guidance,
encouragement, and contribution in writing this book.
I also would like to express my sincere gratitude to my parents, brothers,
and sisters who provided endless motivation and collaboration during my
journey. I owe special thanks and appreciation as well to my wife for her
patience and support over the years. I hope that one day she can read this
book and understand why I spent so much time in front of my computer.
Thanks to all of my friends for sharing my happiness when I started this
project and followed with encouragement when it seemed too difficult to be
completed. I would have probably given up without their support and
example of what to do when you really want something.
Both authors wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions of the peer
reviewers who helped improve the quality, coherence, and presentation of
the chapters. Special thanks to Mr. Scott McNeill for meticulously editing the
monograph.

Glossary of Symbols and
Abbreviations
1/C Stiffness (LPM)

A Capacitor plate area
A Electrode surface area
ABX3 Perovskite structure
AC Alternating current
AFM Atomic force microscopy
Ag Silver
Ag-NP Silver nanoparticles
Al Aluminum
AlPO4 Aluminum phosphate (berlinite)
Br Frequency parameter of the rth mode
BaTiO3 Barium titanate
C Capacitance
c0 Volume specific heat
c1 Primary oscillator damping coefficient
c2 Secondary oscillator damping coefficient
c3 Third oscillator damping coefficient
ca Viscous air damping coefficient
Cr Modal amplitude constant
cs Equivalent coefficient of strain rate damping
csI Equivalent damping term due to structural viscoelasticity
Ca Calcium
CNT Carbon nanotubes
Cp Terminal parallel capacitance
Cu Copper
Ce-NFC Portland cement-nanocarbon fiber reinforced
D1, D2, D3, D4 Diodes
D3 Electrical displacement
d31 Piezoelectric coefficient
Di Electric displacement in the i direction
xix

xx Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations
dpk Piezoelectric constant tensor

DSat Saturation electric displacement
DC Direct current
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
dT/dt Rate of change of temperature
DTGPS Deuterated triglycine phosphate-sulfate
DTGS Deuterated triglycine sulfate
DUT Device under test
E Electric field
E3 Electrical field of generator
Eb Breakdown voltage
Ek Electric field in the k direction
EH Energy harvester
EHDM Energy harvester with a dynamic magnifier
EI Bending stiffness
FD Detectivity figure of merit
FI Current responsivity figure of merit
f oc
r Frequency at open circuit
f sc
r Frequency at short circuit
FV Voltage responsivity figure of merit
FEA Finite element analysis
FOM Figure of merit
FRF Frequency response function
GaPO4 Gallium orthophosphate
hs Thickness of substructure
hp Thickness of PVDF
hpc Distance from the center of the PVDF layer to the neutral
axis
I Equivalent area moment of inertia
I Imaginary number
Ip Pyroelectric current
IR Infrared
k Spring constant
k1 Primary oscillator stiffness
k2 Secondary oscillator stiffness
k3 Third oscillator stiffness
kij Electromechanical coupling coefficient
Km Effective bending rigidity of the magnifier beam
Ku Effective bending rigidity of the entire unimorph beam
KNbO3ICP Potassium niobate
KS Knock sensor
L Effective mass (LPM)
L Length of the beam

Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations xxi
LCR Inductance, capacitance and resistance meter

LiNbO3 Lithium niobate
LiTaO3 Lithium tantalate
m Effective mass or mass per unit length of the beam
M Internal moment of the cantilever
m1 Primary oscillator mass
m2 Secondary oscillator mass
m3 Third oscillator mass
mt Tip mass
MAP Manifold absolute pressure sensor
MEK Methyl-ethyl-ketone
MEMS Microelectromechanical systems
MWCNT Multiwall carbon nanotube
Nu Constant of the electro-mechanical conversion
Na2WO3 Sodium tungstate
NP Nanoparticles
NPL Non-piezoelectric layer
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
p Pyroelectric coefficient
P Output power
Ps Spontaneous polarization
P(VDF-TrFE) Poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene)
Pb[ZrxTi1–x]O3 Lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
PbTiO3 Lead titanate (PT)
PCB Piezoelectric cantilevered beam
PEH Piezoelectric energy harvesting
PL Piezoelectric layer
PLT Lead lanthanum titanate
PLZT Lead lanthanum zirconate titanate
PMN-PT Lead magnesium niobate – lead titanate
PT Lead titanate
PUC Piezoelectric unimorph cantilever
PV Photovoltaic
PVA Poly-vinyl alcohol
PVDF Polyvinylidene fluoride
PVEH Piezoelectric vibration energy harvester
PVF Polyvinyl fluoride
PZT Lead zirconate titanate
Q Quality factor
Q Surface charge
R Damping coefficient (LPM) or electrical resistance of piezo-
patch
Rl Load resistance

xxii Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations
RF Radio frequency
RMS Root mean square
S1 Axial strain
sEpq Elastic compliance tensor at constant electric field
Sp Mechanical strain in the p direction
SHM Structural health monitoring
Si Silicon
t Thickness or plate separation
T1 Axial stress
T1 Initial temperature
Tq Mechanical stress in the q direction
TCurie Curie temperature
tD Short discharge period
tan d Loss tangent
TGS Triglycine sulfate
uo Harmonic base displacement
UV Ultraviolet
V Voltage
Vac Amplitude of the peak-to-peak AC small-signal voltage
vout Amplitude of output voltage
w Width of the beam
w Width of the piezoelectric energy harvester
W Incident power
w(x,t) Transverse deflection of the beam relative to a natural axis
wb Base motion
wb(x,t) Base displacement
wrel(x,t) Transverse displacement relative to the clamped end of the
beam
WSN Wireless sensors network
Yo Amplitude of the base translation
YI Bending stiffness of the composite cross section
Yp Young’s modulus for PVDF
Ys Young’s modulus for substructure
ZnO Zinc oxide
ZnO-NP Zinc oxide nanoparticles
∀ Area enclosed by the D-E diagram of the hysteresis loop
a1 Piezo-insert force factor
a1 – a4 Coefficients determined from the boundaries conditions
d Logarithmic decrement
drs Kronecker delta
DTCurie Temperature difference between two-phased transitions
ε Dielectric constant
ε0 Real part of the dielectric permittivity

Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations xxiii
ε 00 Imaginary part of the dielectric permittivity

εT33 Permittivity at constant stress
εTik Dielectric constant tensor under constant stress
εo Permittivity of free space
z Damping ratio
hr Amplitude of the modal coordinate of a clamped-clamped
beam
hr(t) Modal coordinate of the clamped–clamped beam for the rth
mode
u Temperature or electromechanical coupling coefficient
lu Wave number
rp Mass density of the PVDF
rs Mass density of the substrate
s Constant elastic stress
tc Time constant of the circuit
fr(x) Mass normalized eigenfunction
fr(x) Normal mode of the system
v Driving frequency
vr Damped angular frequency
Ω Ohm

Chapter 1
Ambient Energy Sources:
Mechanical, Light, and Thermal
1.1 Toward a New World Based on Green Energy
In the recent past, the growing presence of renewable-energy research in
academic journals and industrial companies has led to an increase in its
contribution: 19% to global energy consumption and 22% to U.S. electricity
generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. National renewable-energy
markets are expected to continue growing strongly in the coming decade
and beyond for many reasons. First of all, clean energy comes from unlimited
and natural resources, e.g., the movement of wind and water, and the heat and
light of the Sun. Secondly, it reduces global warming and pollution, and
improves environmental quality. Furthermore, it creates jobs and enhances
economies.
Although ambient mechanical and thermal energy are classified as the
largest forms of renewable energy among those available, they are also
considered to provide desired power for low-power electronic devices by using
piezoelectric and pyroelectric materials. Ambient mechanical and thermal
energy are produced naturally and non-naturally; for example, ambient
mechanical energy is produced naturally from different sources, such as
hydroelectricity, ocean or river waves, and wind. It is also produced non-
naturally due to the forced motion of objects, such as human and machine
motion. Conversely, thermal energy is generated naturally from sun rays or
geothermal waves, and non-naturally from artificial light and microwaves.1,2
Converting mechanical vibrations to a usable form of energy has been the
topic of many recent investigations. The ultimate goal is to convert ambient or
aeroelastic vibrations to operate low-power electronic devices, such as
micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), structural health monitoring
(SHM) sensors, and wireless sensor nodes (WSNs), or replacing small
batteries that have a finite life span or would require difficult and expensive
maintenance.3,4 Even though the total market for energy-harvesting devices,
including everything from wristwatches to wireless sensors, will increase over
1
2 Chapter 1
$4 billion in 2021, ninety percent of WSNs cannot be enabled without energy-

harvesting technology.5 Figure 1.1 shows the percentage of the WSN market,
as published by Frost and Sullivan in 2006.6
The transduction mechanisms used to transform mechanical vibrations to
electric power include electromagnetic (EM), electrostatic, and piezoelectric
mechanisms. They can harvest energy over a wide range of frequencies.
Piezoelectric conversion has attracted significant interest due to its ease of
application. Figure 1.2 shows the basic method to convert ambient energy
harvesting into a useable form of energy. The power consumption and energy
autonomy of some low-power electronic devices is presented in Table 1.1,
Market size of WSNs
Military Consumer Aerospace Industrial
Figure 1.1 The percentage distribution of the WSN market.
Ambient energy sources

(wind, waterfall, human motion)
Generator or energy harvester

(piezoelectric, pyroelectric, photovoltaic, thermoelectric)
Temporary storage device

(ultra-capacitor, rechargeable batteries)
Electronic devices
(low-power devices, WSNs, MEMS)
Figure 1.2 Energy-harvesting process as an alternative for low-power electronic devices.

Ambient Energy Sources: Mechanical, Light, and Thermal 3
Table 1.1 Selected battery-operated systems.7

Device type Power consumption Energy autonomy
Smartphone 1W 5h
MP3 player 50 mW 15 h
Hearing aid 1 mW 5 days
Wireless sensor node (WSN) 100 mW Lifetime
Cardiac pacemaker 50 mW 7 years
Quartz watch 5 mW 5 years
Table 1.2 Ambient- and harvested-power

characteristics of various energy sources.7
Source Harvested Power
Ambient light
Indoor 10 mW/cm2
Outdoor 10 mW/cm2
Vibration/motion
Human 4 mW/cm2
Industrial 100 mW/cm2
Thermal energy
Human 25 mW/cm2
Industrial 1–10 mW/cm2
Radio frequency
GSM 0.1 mW/cm2
Wifi 1 mW/cm2
whereas a comparison of harvested power per cm2 for different energy sources
is listed in Table 1.2.7,8
1.2 Vibration-to-Electricity Conversion

Energy from vibration and movement provides energy harvesters (EHs) with
enough mechanical energy to be converted into electrical energy. The
following qualities are advantages of mechanical energy: available almost
anywhere and anytime (e.g., human motion or air/water flow), higher
electrical energy values than light or thermal energy sources, and available
over a wide frequency spectrum range.9 The frequency of the mechanical
excitation depends on the source: less than 10 Hz for human movements and
typically over 30 Hz for machinery vibrations. Table 1.3 includes many
vibration sources measured in terms of the frequency and acceleration
magnitude of the fundamental vibration mode.10 There are three main
mechanisms of mechanical–electrical energy-conversion systems: electrostatic,
electromagnetic, and piezoelectric (there is also magnetostrictive transduction,
which is commonly used with magnetically polarized materials).
4 Chapter 1
Table 1.3 Ambient- and harvested-power characteristics of

various energy sources.10
Vibration source A (m/s2) fpeak (Hz)
Car-engine compartment 12 200

Base of three-axis machine tool 10 70
Blender casing 6.4 121
Clothes dryer 3.5 121
Person nervously tapping their heel 3 1
Car instrument panel 3 13
Door frame just after door closes 3 125
Small microwave oven 2.5 121
HVAC vents in office building 0.2–1.5 60
Windows next to a busy road 0.7 100
CD on notebook computer 0.6 75
Second-story floor of busy office 0.2 100
1.2.1 Electrostatic energy harvesting

Electrostatic devices are structures with variable capacitors that produce
surface charges from a relative mechanical-vibration motion between two plates,
which changes the capacitance between the maximum and minimum value.
Surface charges will then move from the capacitor to a storage device or to the
load as the capacitance decreases. In this case, the mechanical vibration motion
between two plates is converted to electrical energy in the device. Electrostatic
EHs are generally classified according to the three types shown in Fig. 1.3: in-
plane overlap, which varies the overlap area between electrodes; in-plane gap
closing, which varies the gap between electrodes; and out-of-plane gap closing,
which varies the gap between two large electrode plates.11
1.2.2 Electromagnetic energy harvesting

Harvesting electromagnetic energy from an ambient system can also provide
the desired electrical energy for micro-power devices. Electromagnetic EHs
are essentially built from permanent magnets to produce a strong magnetic
field, and coils are used as a conductor. As an example, when a permanent
Mass
Fixed
Movable electrode
Direction of Motion
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.3 Electrostatic energy-harvesting process: (a) in-plane overlap, (b) in-plane gap
closing, and (c) out-of-plane gap closing.11
magnet moves relative to the fixed coil, it produces an electromotive force or a

magnetic field in the coil. The changes in the magnetic field with respect to
time produces a magnetic flux, which leads to the establishment of a net
current in the wire and an output voltage in the voltmeter, as shown in
Fig. 1.4.12–14
1.2.3 Piezoelectric energy harvesting

Many materials (natural and synthetic) exhibit piezoelectricity. Crystals that
acquire a charge when compressed, twisted, or distorted are said to be
piezoelectric. This phenomenon provides a convenient transducer effect
between mechanical and electrical oscillations. The generation of an electric
potential in certain nonconducting and noncentrosymmetric materials under
mechanical stress, e.g., pressure or vibration, can work in either d33 mode or
d31 mode, as shown in Fig. 1.5.11,15
In d31 mode, a piezoelectric material is polarized in the direction
perpendicular to the lateral force, as shown in Fig. 1.5(a). In d33 mode, the
material is polarized in the direction parallel to the applied force, as shown in
Fig. 1.5(b). A piezoelectric cantilever beam in d31 mode is commonly used
because it produces high lateral stress under external pressure or force.
Piezoelectric materials can be divided into four different categories: poly-
crystalline ceramics, single crystals, polymers, and composites. In single-
crystal materials, positive and negative ions are organized in a periodic
Fixed base
Spring South pole
Coil North pole
V
Direction of Motion
Figure 1.4 Electromagnetic energy-harvesting process where a moving magnet vibrates

with respect to a fixed coil.11
V
R Electrode
Piezoelectric
Force R Force material
+ +
+ + + + + + + + - V + + + - - - Substrate
-
- - - - - - - -
(a) (b)
Figure 1.5 Two types of piezoelectric energy harvesters: (a) d31 and (b) d33.
6 Chapter 1
fashion throughout the entire material, except for the occasional crystalline
defects. One of the most widely used (in sensors and actuators) piezoelectric
single crystals is a solid solution of lead magnesium niobate–lead titanate
(PMN-PT). In contrast, ceramics, such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT), are
polycrystalline materials, and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is a polymer
material. In conclusion, piezoelectric energy harvesters offer many advan-
tages, including high reliability, high energy-conversion efficiency, high
output voltage with low current level, and high output impedance.
1.2.4 Magnetostrictive energy harvesting

Magnetostrictive materials have specific properties that show a coupling
relationship between strain and stress mechanical quantities, and magnetic and
induction field strength. Magnetostrictive materials have a constitutive
relationship that directly couples mechanical and/or thermal variables to
magnetic variables, and they are used to build actuators or sensors.16
Magnetostrictive materials include several common kinds, such as iron and
nickel, and they have different advantages, including ultra-high coupling
coefficients, high flexibility, being suited to high frequency vibration, and no
depolarization problem.16 Magnetostrictive harvesters are divided into two
main categories: direct force or force-driven, and inertial or velocity-driven, as
shown in Fig. 1.6. The figure includes two conceptual implementations of the
mechanical part. Figure 1.6(a) shows where active material is used between the
source of the vibrations and a reference frame.11 The magnetostrictive rod is
bound to a rigid frame and undergoes a time-variable, uniform vertical force
(z axis). A z-axis-directed compressive stress then appears, and the material
generates a time-variable magnetization. Figure 1.6(b) is suitable when a
vibrating frame is available.12 Here, one end of a magnetostrictive cantilever
beam is rigidly connected to the vibrating frame; the other end is attached to a
heavier mass. Because of the induced oscillations over the mass, the material
undergoes a longitudinal stress that leads to time-variable magnetization. Both
methods share some common needs: a coil wrapped around the magnetostric-
tive material and a magnetic circuit to convey and close the magnetic flux lines.
In brief, vibration energy harvesting is considered one of the most
promising real solutions to provide electrical energy for many low-power
electronic devices. Vibration EH devices (from macroscale- to microscale-size)
harvest wasted energy from mechanical vibrations and provide the advantage
of a robust, reliable, and inexpensive technique. Improvements to the
efficiency of vibration EH technologies can lead to efficient nonlinear
dynamics, improved material properties, and enhanced conversion efficiency.
1.2.5 Photovoltaic energy harvesting

Ambient light can be also used when harvesting energy to produce electricity
using photovoltaic (PV) cells, which transform incident photons into electrical
Force
Iron
Permanent magnetic
+
Active material
Load resistance
- Isolated base
(a)
Mass
Iron
Permanent magnetic
Active material
Load resistance
Elastic material
- +
(b)
Figure 1.6 Main types of magnetostrictive energy harvesters: (a) force driven and
(b) velocity driven.
energy. PV energy harvesting has different advantages compared to other

ambient EH methods, such as its status as a self-powered system, outdoor
efficiencies that range from 5% to 30% (depending on the material used), an
indoor power density of ~10–100 mW/cm2, and relatively low-cost PV cells.7,18
Because PV technology is well developed and many reviews have been
published (e.g., Ref. 19), it will not be discussed here. In brief, Fig. 1.7 shows
types of PV solar cells and their material components, and Fig. 1.8 shows the
operating mechanism of a PV solar-cell system.
1.2.6 Radio-frequency energy harvesting

Another source of ambient energy is radio-frequency (RF) energy or radio
waves that come from radio transmitters around the world, including mobile
telephones, handheld radios, mobile base stations, television/radio broadcast
stations, and public telecommunication services (e.g., GSM, WLAN
frequencies).7 The ambient RF energy has a low power density, ranging
from 0.2 nW/cm2 to 1 mW/cm2, compared to other ambient energy sources.21
8 Chapter 1
Figure 1.7 Basic classification of photovoltaics.20
Figure 1.8 Simple operating mechanism of a PV solar cell.
RF energy-harvesting technologies are primarily suitable when charging a

battery and a supercapacitor-free wireless sensing node is placed in areas that
are difficult to access (e.g., bridges, buildings, chemical plants, and aircraft)
with permanent operation.22 Ambient RF energy-harvesting systems can be
easily included with different kinds of antennas along with other harvesting
tools, such as solar cells.23,24 The simple form of converting RF energy into
electricity is shown in Fig. 1.9.
1.3 Thermal-to-Electricity Conversion

Thermal-energy harvesting is defined as a process by which the heat energy is
collected from an external thermal source and converted to electrical energy
by a thermoelectric generator for use in low-power electronic devices.
Thermal energy harvesting relies on a basic principle in thermodynamics
Figure 1.9 Simplified schematic of RF energy-harvesting technology.
called the thermoelectric or Seebeck effect, discovered by Thomas Johann

Seebeck in 1821. It states that the gradient temperature between two junctions
of dissimilar metals generates an electric potential. In contrast, the application
of an electric current through two junctions of dissimilar metals generates a
temperature difference between junction points, a property called the Peltier
effect. However, the produced energy that comes from thermal energy is
generally low, but it has many applications, especially in industry and
military, e.g., microelectromechanical systems and infrared detectors.
A simple version of a thermoelectric system that converts thermal energy
into electrical energy is shown in Fig. 1.10. There are two major
implementations that use the thermoelectric effect: a Seebeck-effect thermo-
electric generator and Peltier-effect thermoelectric cooling.
1.3.1 Seebeck-effect thermoelectric generator

A thermoelectric generator (TEG) is a solid device that converts heat
(temperature difference) into electrical energy; spacecraft represent one
example of an application of this property. Unlike solar PV cells, which use
large surfaces to generate power, TEG modules are designed for very high
power densities, on the order of 50 times greater than a solar PV. A simple
TEG includes two metal-semiconductor junctions, where one side is hot and
the other is cold. The hot side of the metal has a higher concentration of
Hot Cold
Figure 1.10 Schematic of a simple thermoelectric generator.

10 Chapter 1
electrons and higher energy. The electrons start moving towards a cold side
that has lower energy, the gradient in concentration drives diffusion of
electrons and holes from hot to cold (p-n in Fig. 1.11), and a current is
generated as a result of this motion.25
1.3.2 Peltier-effect thermoelectric cooling

Thermoelectric cooling (TEC) converts electrical energy or power into heat
flux between the junctions of two types of materials. A device using TEC has
several names, such as Peltier heat pump, solid state refrigerator, and
thermoelectric cooler. The Peltier device is a heat pump, i.e., when direct
current runs through it, heat is moved from one side to the other. Therefore, it
can be used for either heating or cooling (refrigeration), although in practice
the latter is more common. Practically, the net amount of heat absorbed at the
cold end due to the Peltier effect is decreased by two sources: conducted heat
and Joule heat.26 As shown in Fig. 1.11(b), when current is passed through
two different semiconductor materials, connected electrically in series, one
surface becomes cold, and the opposing surface is hotter. The efficiency of this
process depends on the Peltier coefficient and the thermal conductivity of the
materials. The main advantages of TEC are as follows: infrequent
maintenance is required, no toxic gases (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons), very
small physical sizes or low cooling capacities are possible, and unusual shapes
can be accommodated. However, the semiconductor materials can be brittle
and require a large amount of power; therefore, thermoelectric modules
exhibit a relatively low efficiency. Thermoelectricity still requires fans and
conventionally finned heat exchangers to dissipate heat to air.
1.3.3 Thermoelectric materials

Thermoelectric materials produce electrical power directly from heat by
conversion of temperature gradient into electric voltage. Good thermoelectric
materials have high electrical conductivity, low thermal conductivity, and a
p p
Hot Cold Hot Cold
n n
(a) (b)
Figure 1.11 A thermoelectric circuit composed of (a) a Seebeck thermoelectric generator
and (b) Peltier thermoelectric cooling.
high Seebeck-coefficient value; the efficiency of thermoelectric materials is

given by their figure of merit. Various thermoelectric materials have been
synthesized and developed in recent years. Thermoelectric materials are little
known, very expensive, and commercially available. The most common
thermoelectric materials are bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) and lead telluride
(PbTe). The crystal structure of PbTe is shown in Fig. 1.12.
1.4 Commercial Energy-Harvesting Devices

Typically, each energy harvester is designed to harvest a single form of
ambient energy, but a few companies have reported new chips that can
harvest energy from multiple sources, such as RF, thermal, and solar energy.
The most common commercial EH devices that are available in markets are
listed in Table 1.4. In general, EH devices are designed based on different
criteria, such as the frequency of operation, the power generated, and the
power transferred to the management circuit.27 There are a limited number of
companies that specialize in manufacturing energy harvesters from one or a
small number of energy sources, such as Linear Technology’s (Milpitas, CA,
USA) LTC3107, which is designed to collect power only through the use of
thermoelectric devices. Powercast’s (Pittsburgh, PA, USA) PCC110 also has a
high peak-conversion efficiency of 75%, as well as a good sensitivity of
17 dBm, because it is optimized to harvest only from RF energy sources
within the broadband range of 100 MHz to 6 GHz. Powercast offers
transmitter (WPT series) and receiver (WPR series) devices that can
respectively beam and harvest RF energy. The maximal transmitted power
is limited to 1 W for compliance with RF safety standards. The receiver has a
conversion efficiency of up to 70%. Voltage outputs from 1.2 V to 6 V are
available.21,28 However, other devices (bq25505, SPV1050, and MAX17710)
Figure 1.12 Crystal structure of a thermoelectric material, lead telluride (PbTe).

12
Table 1.4 Commercial EH devices and their characteristics.21,27
Output Current or
Device Name Company Output Voltage Output Power Type of EH Energy Source
WPT þ WPR series Powercast 1.2–6.0 160 mA @ 905.8 MHz; 23 mA @ 2.4 GHz EM RF
MAX17710 Maxim 1.8, 2.3, or 3.3 625 nA EM, optical, thermal RF, solar, and thermal
Integrated
PCC210 Powercast 5.5 50 mA EM RF
LTC3107 Linear Technology 4.3 80 nA (energy harvesting); Thermal Solar and thermal
6 mA (no energy harvesting)
bq25505 Texas Instruments 5.0 325 nA Thermal Solar and thermal
SPV1050 STMicroelectronics 3.6 70 mA Thermal Solar and thermal
STM 330/331/332U/333U EnOcean 3–5 22 mA to 5 mA @ 1000 lx Optical or thermal Solar
Solio® Solar Charger Solio 4–12 165 mA @ 1000 W/m2 Optical or thermal Solar
HZ-2 HiZ Technology 3.3 300 mW @ Du ¼ (100ºC – 20ºC) load matched Thermal Thermal
TGM-127-1.0-1.3 Kryotherm 2.6 485 mW @ Du ¼ (100ºC – 20ºC) load matched Thermal Thermal
CZ1-1.0-127-1.27HT Tellurex 3.5 500 mW @ Du ¼ (100ºC – 20ºC) load matched Thermal Thermal
PMG7-50/60 Perpetuum 3.3 0.1–0.4 mW @ 25 mg; Piezoelectric Mechanical
2–5 mW @ 100 mg
FS energy harvesters FerroSolutions 3.3 0.4 mW@ 20 mg; Piezoelectric Mechanical
9.3 mW @ 100 mg
APA400M-MD Cedrat N/A 40 mW @ 35 mm, Piezoelectric Mechanical
110 Hz
Volture MIDE N/A 43 mW @ 240 mg, Piezoelectric Mechanical
120 Hz
MFC Smart Material 120–390 mJ @ 1 G, 10 Hz Piezoelectric Mechanical
Chapter 1
can harvest power from multiple energy sources, including solar, RF, and
thermal energy, to produce more power. For the purpose of design and
development, a universal energy-harvesting evaluation kit—the EnerChip
energy processor (CBC-EVAL-12)—was developed by Cymbet Corporation
(Elk River, MN, USA).29 This kit can harvest multiple ambient energy
sources, such as RF/EM, solar, thermal, and mechanical energy, while having
two internal 50-Ah solid state batteries in parallel as an energy-storage device.
The STM 33x series (EnOcean) is an autonomous system that accepts
signals from output voltage sensors. STM 33x is optimized to realize wireless
and maintenance-free temperature sensors, or room operating panels,
including a set-point dial and occupancy button. It requires only a minimal
number of external components and provides an integrated and calibrated
temperature sensor. The solar cell is divided into two sections: 70% of the area
is used to charge a 0.1-F supercapacitor (main energy storage), and the
remaining 30% area is used to enable a fast start when the supercapacitor is
depleted.
The Solio® Universal Hybrid Solar Charger has been designed to charge
iPods® or cell phones at outdoor irradiances. An internal rechargeable battery
(3.6 V and 1600 mAh) is provided for extra energy storage. It can also be
charged from a wall adapter. Some kind of power management is also
implemented to provide voltage outputs between 4 V and 12 V; with an
outdoor irradiance of 1000 W/m2, the current generated is 165 mA.
The PMG7 (Perpetuum) is designed essentially from a magnet and coil
arrangement that converts the kinetic energy of vibration into a low-power
electrical signal (Faraday’s law). It is designed to resonate at the main
frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz). A 3.3-V regulated output is provided, but
otherwise there is no energy storage. The FS energy harvester (Ferro
Solutions) also relies on Faraday’s law. Its natural frequency is 21 Hz. A 3.3-V
regulated output (by default) is provided; a supercapacitor is used to store
energy, but no data about its value is available. An APA400M-MD (Cedrat)
is a piezoelectric harvester based on a proof mass configuration. Its natural
frequency is 110 Hz. This harvester includes an AC–DC rectification stage
and a fly-back DC–DC converter.
Volture (MIDE) uses the piezoelectric principle. Natural frequencies from
50 Hz to 150 Hz are available. Kinetron provides only energy transducers that
transfer mechanical energy to an AC voltage. ECO 100 (EnOcean) harvests
energy from linear motion to power its own transceiver, but it cannot power
the Ember transceiver. The harvester provides a burst of power each time it is
externally actuated. Model 101 (Etesian Technologies) powers an internal
wind meter with the same wind source.
Manufacturers of commercial thermal transducers based on the thermo-
electric (Seebeck) effect include Thermo Life, Micropelt, TECA Corp.,
Peltron GmbH, TE Technology Inc., HiZ Technology, Kryotherm, and
14 Chapter 1
Tellurex. Devices from the last three manufacturers can accept continuous
operation of the Ember transceiver if there is a temperature difference of 80ºC.
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Index
A electric polarization, 22, 86
acoustic impedance, 46 electric susceptibility, 23
electrical impedances, 78
B electrical tuning methods, 171
bandwidth widening strategies, 173 electromagnetic (EM)
BaTiO3, 47 mechanism, 2
electromagnetic energy
C harvesting, 4
cantilevered energy harvester, 57 electromechanical coupling
Carnot cycle, 191, 194 coefficients, 46, 83
chemical vapor deposition electron-beam poling, 33
(CVD), 243 electrostatic energy harvesting, 4
clamped–clamped piezoelectric electrostatic mechanism, 2
cantilever beam, 108 electrostrictive effect, 23
clamped–free piezoelectric energy harvester (EH), 3
cantilever beam, 102 energy harvester with a dynamic
clamped–free piezoelectric magnifier (EHDM), 151
cantilever beam with tip mass, 117 energy harvesting, 201
Clingman cycle, 198 energy transfer, 186
composites, 55 Ericsson cycle (EC), 196
corona poling, 33 Euler–Bernoulli beam model
cross-shaped piezoelectric (EBM), 96
generator, 148
Czochralski (CZ) method, 236 F
ferroelectric domains, 31
D ferroelectric effect, 187
damping factor, 94–95 ferroelectric materials, 29
dielectric constant, 23 ferroelectrics, 15, 19
direct piezoelectric effect, 24 figure of merit (FOM), 202
flexible energy harvesters, 181
E
efficiency of energy conversion, 95 H
elastic compliance, 84 harvester, 53
electric dipole moment, 21 heat, 190
279

280 Index
engine, 191 N
high-temperature-flux method, 237 nonpolar dielectric materials, 21
hysteresis poling, 33
O
I Olsen cycle, 223
intelligent energy management, 56 frequency, 224
Internet of Things (IoT), 258 Olsen pyroelectric energy
converter, 199
K
knee-joint harvester, 179 P
KNNT, 38 paraelectricity, 33
Peltier device, 10
L Peltier-effect thermoelectric
Laplace transformation, 124 cooling, 10
laser ablation, 242 photovoltaic (PV) cell, 6
lead magnesium niobate–lead photovoltaic energy harvesting, 6
titanate (PMN-PT), 6, 36–37, piezo-wind energy generator, 179
52, 55, 231 piezoelectric bimorph cantilever, 58
lead zirconatetitanate (PZT), 6, 36, piezoelectric cantilevered beam
47, 52, 55, 213, 231 (PCB), 60
Lenoir cycle, 197 piezoelectric charge constant, 85
linear temperature variations, 201 piezoelectric coefficients, 88
lithium tantalate (LT), 208, 231 piezoelectric effect, 24
lumped parameter model (LPM), piezoelectric energy harvester
96, 119 (PEH), 5, 78, 94, 163, 255
piezoelectric fiber composite
M (PFC), 175
macrofiber composite (MFC), 62 piezoelectric generator, 54
magnetostrictive energy harvesting, 6 piezoelectric materials, 5
mechanical quality factor, 46, 85 piezoelectric mechanism, 2
metal–organic CVD (MOCVD), 244 piezoelectric pacemaker, 180
metal–organic deposition piezoelectric power-generation
(MOD), 246 devices, 175
micro-electric generator, 221 piezoelectric railway, 180
micro-electro-mechanical systems piezoelectric roads and
(MEMS), 1, 131, 255 highways, 180
micro-generator, 174 piezoelectric strain constant, 46
monomer, 55 piezoelectric unimorph cantilever
multimorph cantilever, 58 (PUC), 57
multiple piezoelectric piezoelectric voltage constant,
elements, 144 46, 85

Index 281
piezoelectricity, 41 S
piezoelectrics, 15 s modulus, 172, 177
polar dielectric materials, 22 scavenging, 45
poling, 32 screen printing, 250
polymer–ceramic composites, 251 Seebeck coefficient, 11
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 6, Seebeck-effect thermoelectric
36, 47, 221 generator, 9
polyvinylidene fluoride, 48 shoe-mounted harvester, 178
polyvinylidine fluoride- single degree of freedom
difluoridetrifluoro-ethane (SDOF), 120
(P(VDF-TrFE)), 231 smart material, 18
power harvesting, 45, 255 sol-gel technology, 244
power-harvesting system, 258 spin coating, 248, 251
primary pyroelectric coefficient, 27 spontaneous polarization, 23, 88
prosthetic-leg energy harvester, 180 sputtering, 242
pyroelectric coefficients, 91 stiffness, 169
pyroelectric converter structural health monitoring
prototypical, 225 (SHM), 1
pyroelectric current, 91
pyroelectric effect, 18 T
pyroelectric electric generator, 215 tapered unimorph beam, 142
pyroelectric energy conversion, 220 thermal-energy harvesting, 8
pyroelectric energy-harvesting thermoelectric cooling (TEC), 10
efficiency, 194 thermoelectric generator (TEG), 9
pyroelectric nanogenerator thermoelectric materials, 10
(PENG), 205 thermomechanical heat engine, 207
pyroelectric nanogenerator, 204 three degrees of freedom
pyroelectricity, 26 (3DOF), 123
pyroelectrics, 15 triglycine sulfate (TGS), 231
pyrolysis, 248 two degrees of freedom
(2DOF), 122
Q
quality factor, 95 W
quartz, 41 water flow, 182
wireless sensor network
R (WSN), 182
radio-frequency (RF) energy, 7
remanant polarization, 88 Y
renewable energy, 1 Young, 166, 171
resonance (natural) frequency, 94
resonant frequency, 163 Z
rotating energy harvester, 181 ZnO, 37

Ashok K. Batra holds a Masters of Technology and Ph.D.
from the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. With more
than 24 years of experience in the diverse areas of solid state
physics/materials and their applications, he is presently a
Professor of Physics. His research experience and interests
encompass ferroelectric, pyroelectric, and piezoelectric
materials and their applications; the design, fabrication,
and characterization of pyroelectric, piezoelectric, photo-
thermal, and photovoltaic devices; nonlinear optical organic crystals; organic
semiconductors; crystal growth from solution and melt; microgravity material
research; nanocomposites; pyroelectric IR sensors; and chemical sensors. He
is currently engaged in research related to the development of ambient energy
harvesting and storage devices, nanoparticle-based chemical sensors, organic
force sensors and organic photovoltaic solar cells. He has obtained various
research grants as the principal or co-investigator from the U. S. Army/
SMDC, NSF, DHS and NASA. The NASA grant was related to the
International Microgravity Laboratory-1 experiment flown aboard the Space
Shuttle Discovery. A recipient of a NASA Group Achievement award and the
Alabama A&M University School of Arts and Sciences Researcher of the
Year award, he has published over 180 publications, including a book, book
chapters, proceedings, review articles, and NASA TMs. Professor Batra is a
member of SPIE, MRS, AES, and AAS.
Almuatasim Alomari was born in Irbid, Jordan in 1985. He

received a B.Sc. in Physics from the Yarmouk University,
Jordan in 2007 and a M.Sc. in Applied Physics from the
Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan in
2011. He received his Ph.D. in Physics/Material Science from
Alabama A&M University, USA in 2016. His research
interests include dielectrics, piezoelectric materials, piezo-
electric composites, and smart systems. He currently has over
16 peer-reviewed publications, including a review article and a book chapter.
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Power Harvesting via Smart Materials

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Ashok Batra Almuatasim Alomari

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1 Ambient Energy Sources: Mechanical, Light, and Thermal 1

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2.5 Pyroelectric Phenomenon 26

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4 Parametric Identification and Measurement Techniques

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5.3.4Lumped parameter model for MEMS applications 131

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7.11 Water-Flow-Based Energy Harvester 182

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9.3.2.2.3 Spin coating and pyrolysis 248

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• Chapter 7 briefly describes some of the important devices for

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Additionally, I would like to acknowledge contributions from my

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1/C Stiffness (LPM)

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dpk Piezoelectric constant tensor

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LCR Inductance, capacitance and resistance meter

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ε 00 Imaginary part of the dielectric permittivity

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$4 billion in 2021, ninety percent of WSNs cannot be enabled without energy-

Market size of WSNs

Military Consumer Aerospace Industrial

Figure 1.1 The percentage distribution of the WSN market.

Ambient energy sources

Generator or energy harvester

Temporary storage device

Figure 1.2 Energy-harvesting process as an alternative for low-power electronic devices.

Table 1.1 Selected battery-operated systems.7

Table 1.2 Ambient- and harvested-power

1.2 Vibration-to-Electricity Conversion

Table 1.3 Ambient- and harvested-power characteristics of

Car-engine compartment 12 200

1.2.1 Electrostatic energy harvesting

1.2.2 Electromagnetic energy harvesting

(a) (b) (c)

magnet moves relative to the fixed coil, it produces an electromotive force or a

1.2.3 Piezoelectric energy harvesting

Figure 1.4 Electromagnetic energy-harvesting process where a moving magnet vibrates

1.2.4 Magnetostrictive energy harvesting

1.2.5 Photovoltaic energy harvesting