CHAPTER (1)

DENSITY MEASURMENT

- Density
• Definition: Density is how much mass is packed into given volume

𝒎
ρ=
𝒗
• Units: (g/cm3, Ib/ft3, kg/m3)

• Pressure effect:
a. For liquids: pressure effect is negligible, “density is a function of temperature ρ = f(T)”
b. For gases: The pressure effect is important “density is a function of pressure and temperature ρ= f(P&T)”.

- Specific Gravity (𝜸)

𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝒔
=
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝑹

For liquid, R is water @ 4oc and for gases, R is Air @ 0oC and 1 atm

- Why measuring density is important?

1. It assists in determine the concentration and composition. Calorific: The amount of
2. t is required for calculating the calorific value in the case of fuels. energy produced by the
3. To convert volumetric flow into mass flow. complete combustion of a fuel.

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)
Laboratory Measurement

- Pycnometer:
• Definition: Pycnometer is a glass beaker of defined volume with a capillary end.
• The capillary allows for:
1. Releases a spare liquid after closing a top-filled pycnometer.
2. Obtaining a given volume of liquid with a high accuracy.
Thermometer could be attached in order to determine fluid temperatures.

• Density determination of liquids by pycnometer: (steps of measuring the liquid density):

1. Weight the pycnometer without the sample (m1)
2. Fill it with water and weight again (m2)
3. Find the mass of the water mw = m2-m1
𝒎
4. Find the volume of the pycnometer, Vw = 𝒘
𝝆𝒘
5. Repeat same procedure but with liquid with unknown density to determine its mass mu
Vw = Vu
𝒎𝒘 𝒎𝒖
=
𝝆𝒘 𝝆𝒖
𝒎
𝝆𝒖 = 𝝆𝒘 𝒖
𝒎 𝒘

• Density determination of solid matter by pycnometer (steps of measuring the solid density):
1. Measure the weight of pycnometer with inserted object (m0+ms).
2. Add water and determine the weight m’H2O (m0+ms+ mH2O).
3. The volume of added water can be obtained as
𝒎′
V’H2O = 𝑯𝟐𝑶
𝝆𝑯𝟐𝑶

4. The volume of added solid object is the deference between the

- VH2O: volume of water that fills the empty
volume of water that fills the empty pycnometer VH2O and pycnometer.
volume V’H2O - V’H2O: The volume of added water to the
solid in the pycnometer.
𝒎𝑯𝟐𝑶−𝒎′𝑯𝟐𝑶
Vs = VH2O – V’H2O =
𝝆𝑯𝟐𝑶
5. The density of the solid is:
𝒎𝒔
𝝆𝒔 =
𝑽𝒔

• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
1. Sampled method. 1. Breakable glassware.
2. Inexpensive instrument. 2. Long and difficult thermosetting.
WHY? 3. Density must be calculated.
3. Accurate if used correctly.
4. Can be used for density and specific gravity. 4. Operator depending reading therefor
limited accuracy.
5. Large sample volume required.

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)

- Industrial Density Measurements:

Industrial Density Measurements

Displacement Oscillating
Hydrostatic Radiation Ultrasonic Vibrating weight-Based Gas
and float Type Hydrometer coriolls
Densitometer Densitometer Densitometer Densitometer Densitometer Densitometer
Densitometer Densitometer

- Archimedes’ Principle:
1. “A body that is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a
force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced”.
2. Densitometers will be distinguished by the ways this force is detected and
Fluid force
how that force-detecting mechanism is sealed from the process.
3. The buoyancy force is caused by the pressure exerted by the fluid in which
an object is immersed.
4. The buoyancy force always points upwards because the pressure of a fluid
increases with depth.
5. The buoyancy force calculated by finding the weight of the displaced fluid:
buoyancy force
FB = F2 – F1 = ρgA ( h1 - h2 )

What about partially submerged body?

The buoyant force on the ship is equal to the weight of the water
displaced by the ship

FB = WfI = mfI g = ρfI VfI g

- WfI: fluid weight displaced by the
Example1: submerged body.
- mfI: fluid mass of the displaced fluid
Calculate the buoyant force on 10,000 metric tons (1.00×107kg) of by the submerged body.
solid steel completely submerged in water and compare this with - ρfI: fluid density for the displaced
the steel’s weight. Given: ρsteel=7800 kg.m-3. fluid by the submerged body.
- Vf : fluid volume for the displaced
𝒎 1 ×107 𝑘𝑔 fluid by the submerged body.
Vsteel = = = 1282 m3
𝝆 7800 𝑘𝑔.𝑚3

∵ completely submerged ∴ Vwater = Vsteel = 1282 m3

mwater= ρV = 1000 kg.m-3 × 1282 m3 = 1.282× 106 kg

F = mg = 1.282 × 106 kg × 9.81 m.s2 = 12.6 × 106

To calculate the buoyant force for completely submerged (weight of the displaced fluid) I need to:
1. Found the Volume of the solid steel if the mass or the of the displaced fluid is not given.
2. If the body is completely submerged (Vwater = Vsteel )
3. Found the mass of the fluid
4. Find the weight of the fluid or the buoyant force.

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)

- Torque Tube displacer

According to Archimedes’ law, the apparent weight of the

displacer when immersed in a liquid, is its nominal weight in air
minus the weight of the displaced liquid.

The weight of the displacer acting on the torque arm, will cause
an angular displacement of the free end of the flexible torque
tube and this movement will be used to measure the density.

• Working principle:
1. The displacer is always fully submerged and the change in buoyant force is a result of process density
variations.
2. The process fluid enters the chamber around the center portion through a piezometer ring, which eliminates
the velocity effects of the fluid.
3. Displacers for density measurement are sized in accordance with the amount of buoyant force required for a
particular measurement range:

𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Displacer volume = (𝑮𝟐 −𝑮𝟏 )𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Where ( G2-G1 ) is the range for measurement desired

4. Transmitters in displacer instruments can be pneumatic, analog or “smart” electronic

• Advantages
1. Available either as transmitters or local controllers.
2. If precision is needed, temperature compensation should be installed.
3. Work well with clean liquids.

• Disadvantages
1. viscous or slurry-type materials would stick to the displacer, which would change its volume. (Why viscous
materials is unacceptable ?)
because for accurate measurements, both the displacer volume and weight must remain constant.

2. Should not be placed directly into the process pipeline, but be located in a bypass (why we are locating it in
a bypass?)
Because the sample flow to the Torque Tube displace can be kept low and constant. Max 2 ft/min

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)

- Chain-Balanced Densitometer
• Working principle
1. The fixed volume and weight plummet totally suspended in the liquid.
2. The force exerted by the chains on the plummet is a function of
plummet position; hence, the measured force is proportional to the
density of the liquid.
3. At balance, the plummet operates without friction and is not affected
by surface contamination.
4. The plummet contains a metallic transformer core that transmits
changes in the position to be measured by a pickup coil.

5. The voltage differential, a function of plummet displacement, is calibrated as a measure of variations in

specific gravity.
6. A resistance thermometer bridge is used for the compensation of temperature effects on density.

• Advantages
1. The features of the transmitter are similar to indicator. The only exception is that the chamber can be
furnished in corrosion-resistant metallic or plastic-lined materials
2. The transmitters can be calibrated to keep the measurement error within ±1% at the desired control point,
but at the extreme ends of the span, the inaccuracy will increase to about ±3%.
3. The speed of response is a function of sample flow rate, and averages to be around 30 s.

• Disadvantages
1. Should only be used for applications where the process stream has less than 50 cP(0.05 Pa⋅s) viscosity.
2. Higher viscosities or higher flow rates will introduce velocity and friction effects that will reduce the
measurement accuracy.

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)

- Electromagnetic Suspension Densitometer:

• The function of some parts:

1. Suspension solenoid:
a. Prevent float from sinking.
b. Generates the required electromagnetic force to hold float
in place.

2. Electronic circuit:
a. maintain float in place.
b. Adjust the amount of current required for solenoid to
maintain float in place.

3. Float
a. Totally immersed in the process fluid
b. Electromagnetically suspended
c. Slightly denser than the maximum density of the fluid to be
measured so that it always tends to sink.

4. Search coils:
a. Fed by high frequency supply
b. Detect the position of the gold-plated ferrous alloy float

• Advantages
1. Furnished with a temperature compensation unit using platinum resistance wire elements.
2. The wetted parts are made of epoxy, stainless steel, and gold-plated for corrosion resistance
3. High accuracy (why?) because the instrument detects only the difference between float and fluid densities.
4. The highest precision can be obtained when the liquid density to be measured is close to the density of the
float.

• Disadvantages
1. The plummet floats inside the lower portion of the epoxy probe housing, touching nothing but the process
liquid. Therefore, it is insensitive to the effects of liquid surface tension.
2. Higher flows or viscosities will cause measurement errors(why?), because they will result in vertical forces
on the float.
3. Deposits on the float will also result in measurement errors. For this reason, this instrument is not
recommended for slurry service.
4. Pressure and temperature limitations are 200 PSIG (138 kPa) and 350°F (177°C), respectively.

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)

- Angular Position Densitometer

ω = f (buoyant force) is transmitted to the control devices.

Sample flow: constant rate of under 30 gal/h (114 l/h).

• Advantages
1. process pressure variations will have no effect on their
volume (Why?) Because the displacers are made of solid
materials.
2. The influence of process temperature variations is minor (Why?) because the floats are made of materials
with low coefficients of expansion
3. Detection accuracy is ±0.0005 to 0.001 SG and is unaffected by the span used.

• Disadvantages
1. It is desirable to maintain the sample flow rate constant and to remove any particles that are 20 μmin size or
larger.
2. This density detector is limited to clean, non-viscous services, although viscosities up to 500 cP (0.5 Pa⋅s) can
be tolerated.
3. Temperature compensation can be obtained through the installation of additional sensing and computing
elements.

- Important notes:

1. The various displacement type density sensors covered in this section are reliable and reasonably accurate
instruments.
2. When only local indication is desired and glass or plastic materials can be used, the chain-balanced unit is the
logical choice.
3. Where a density transmitter is required and temperature compensation is not essential, the torque tube type
conventional displacer is the most economical selection. It is compatible with most corrosive fluids, and its
pressure and temperature rating are high enough for most applications.

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)

- Hydrometers
• Working principle

1. Hydrometer also is based on the concept of Archimedes’.

2. Volume of fixed mass is converted to a linear distance by a sealed bulb-shaped glass tube containing a long
stem measurement scale.
3. Bulb is simply immersed in the liquid and when its float freely, the density is
read from the scale.
4. The scale is graduated in density units or specific gravity.

FB = W

ρf V’f = mh g

ρf V’f = mh = ρhVh

ρf A hf = ρh A hh
𝒉𝒉
ρf = ρh
𝒉𝒇

where ρf is the fluid density, ρh is the Hydrometer density,

hh is the length of Hydrometer and hf is the Hight of fluid

Example1:

A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity of liquids. A particular hydrometer is 40 cm in length.
When placed in pure water, 30 cm of the hydrometer is submerged, and it reads 1.000. When placed in alcohol,
38 cm of the hydrometer is submerged beneath the alcohol.

a. What is the density of the hydrometer?

b. What is the density of the alcohol?
c. What is the reading of the hydrometer when it’s in the alcohol?
𝒉𝒉
ρf = ρh
𝒉𝒇

a. If the fluid is water: b. If the fluid is alcohol: c. If the fluid is alcohol (specific gravity):
kg 40 cm kg 40 cm kg 𝜌𝑓 789.5
1000 = ρh → ρh = 750 ρf = 750 → ρf = 789.5 γ= = = 0.79
m3 30 cm m3 38 cm m3 𝜌𝑤 1000

• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
1. Low cost and easy to use 1. Small span
2. Good resolution for small range 2. Breakable glassware
3. Direct indicating. 3. Low precision.
4. Compatible with most corrosive fluids. 4. Not suitable for viscous or non clean fluids.

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)

- Hydrometers (inline)
• Working principle
1. The overflow outlet keeps the level constant.
2. Flow rate should be less than 60 L/hr to reduce the effect of velocity.
3. Can be remotely readout by servo impedance or optically by a photocell
sensing the stem position.
4. Another design could be capacitance type. The hydrometer will made from
SS and the density will be proportionally linked with capacitance.

- Hydrostatic Densitometers
• Important notes:
1. Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure made by the fluid on point P which is located
under the surface at level h.

2. Hydrostatic pressure calculated as

P= ρgh

3. If “h” kept constant, pressure will be a function of the density only.

• Working principles:
1. Two bubbler pipes of different lengths are inserted to different
depths so that the pressure difference read out by an inclined
manometer reflects the hydrostatic head of the process liquid
column having a height of H.
2.
P = h ( G2 – G1 )

Where P is the difference in pressure (in or m of water) and G1& G2 are

the minimum and the maximum s.g.

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)

- Radiation Densitometer
• Working principles:

1. Cs 137 (Cesium) isotope commonly used as source of ɤ ray.

2. It have a 30 year half life.
3. Process fluid will absorb the ɤ rays and the detector will determine
the unabsorbed ray which related to the density.
4. The shutter aims to prevent the radiation during installation & power
failures.
5. 11.5 mg of cesium generating 1 curie.
6. 5 to 2000 mCi is required for normal application.
7. The intensity of the radiation field is a function of the size (activity) of the source, the distance from the
source, and the material that the radiation has to pass through.
8. The higher the density of a material, the more radiation it is likely to absorb.
9. For Cs;

Intensity, D =600 mCi/d2

d is the distance to source (inch)

Material Water Aluminum Steel copper

Half-value thickness, H 99 mm 38 mm 15.2 mm 11.9 mm

10. An increase in process fluid density will result in more of the radiation being absorbed by the fluid. This
resulting attenuation is a function of density only, as the distance between the source and detector is fixed.
11. The radiation is attenuated in accordance with the following:

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝜇 𝜌 𝑑

where I is radiation striking the detector, Io is un-attenuated radiation

from the source, μ is the mass attenuation coefficient (absorption
coefficient) (cm2/g), ρ is the density of the process material (g/cm3),
and d is the thickness of the sample chamber (cm)

12. Mounting: depends on pipe diameter.

• Advantages
1. No direct contact with the process fluid.
2. Microprocessor-based can compensate source decay & temperature.

• Disadvantages
1. Air entrainment.
2. Pipe wall deposits
3. Source decay
4. Stratification
5. Minimum spans
6. High cost

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)
7. Frequent calibration

- Sonic & Ultrasonic Densitometer

• Working principles:
1. Used for sludge & slurry.
2. Ultrasonic pulse attenuation increased as the solid amount increased.
3. It cannot penetrate air bubbles or heavy solids (concentration >20%)
but it can pass through biological sludge's.
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏
ρ=z
𝟐𝒅

Where z is the liquid acoustic impedance, t2-t1 is the time between the
echoes, and d is the depth of reflectometer.

• Advantages
1. Can measure the density for thick slurries or sludge's.
2. It can be calibrated on-site.
3. Able to average its fluctuating and noisy signals.
4. The sonic can detect the interface between two different type of hydrocarbons.
5. Cheaper than radiation.

• Disadvantages
1. The sound velocity meter limited for clear liquids.
2. Undissolved gases & bubbles cause error.

Oscillating Coriolis Densitometer

• Working principles:
1. The process fluid stream splits in two tubes.
2. The tube oscillated by coil-and-magnet driver.
𝒌
ρ =
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝑽 𝒇𝟐

where k is the spring constant, V the volume & f is the

frequency of oscillation.

3. Coriolis also able to determine flowrate & concentration. It is suitable for liquids, slurries & compressed gases.

Asma Zakarya
CHAPTER (1)

- Vibrating Densitometer
• Working principles:
1. The natural frequency of oscillation varies with the mass of
the oscillating body hence the frequency is a function of
the density.
2. The shape of the oscillating elements in the densitometers
distinguishes their designs, and they are grouped on that
basis.
3. The oscillating Coriolis element is covered earlier, and the
other types include the vibrating U tube; the vibrating
cylinder and straight tube; the vibrating twin-tube; and the
vibrating fork.

4. The fundamental equation for density using vibrating sensors is:

ρ = AP2 – B
𝒌 𝑴
A= &B=
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝑽 𝑽

where P is the period of resonant oscillation, k is the spring constant, V is the

fluid volume & M is the vibrating element mass.

5. If the volume and the spring constant are influenced by the temperature, an extended equation is necessary
which is able to compensate for temperature influences:

ρ = A fa (T) P2 - fb (T) B

where 𝑓𝑎 (T) &𝑓𝑏 (𝑇) are functions of T and can be determined by calibration with standard materials at
different temperatures.

6. U-tube: This design is mainly used in high precision online density

measurements, as required for the determination of concentration
in the brewing, soft drink, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries.

Asma Zakarya