Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Equivalent geometric imperfection definition in steel structures

sensitive to lateral torsional buckling due to bending moment
A. Agüero ⇑, F.J. Pallarés, L. Pallarés
Universitat Politècnica de València, c/Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The purpose of this paper is to present a proposal for the design of steel structures sensitive to lateral
Received 16 May 2014 torsional buckling due to bending moment in order to fill the gaps in the current Standard EN 1993-
Revised 4 December 2014 1-1, guidelines for obtaining the magnitude of the imperfection. The proposal generalizes the approach
Accepted 30 March 2015
provided in clause 5.3.2(11) of EN 1993-1-1 for steel structures sensitive to flexural buckling under
Available online 17 April 2015
compression.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Lateral buckling
Design
Steel
Geometric imperfection
Nonlinear
Eurocode 3
Bending
Torsion

1. Introduction – Buckling is considered at the section level as additional dis-

placements and forces that verify the compatibility and equilib-
The design of steel beam and columns takes into consideration rium equations, instead of stability checks at the member level
the effect of geometric imperfections, residual stresses, variation of reducing the strength of the members.
the yield strength, etc. In particular, the EN 1993-1-1 (EC-3) [1] – The buckling problem is understood as a global issue and is ana-
proposes two methods (see Fig. 1). lyzed by considering the interaction of all members of the struc-
Method (A) Indirectly, performing a linear analysis and using ture rather than only by the members under compression or
interaction formulae at the member level as proposed by various bending, which means that secondary internal forces will also
authors (Greiner and Lindner [2], or Boissonade et al. [3]). This appear in the stabilizing beams or tension members.
method includes geometric and material nonlinearity by means
of buckling curves, obtaining the reduction factor v and vLT These imperfections can be expressed as:
Clause 6.3 of the EC-3, by default in this article the clauses and (B.1) Directly in structures sensitive to flexural buckling due to
nomenclature refer to EC-3)) from the non-dimensional slender- compression, including equivalent geometric imperfections in the
ness 
k and kLT . structural analysis. This can be expressed in two ways:
The Work done by Marques et al. [4] extends the scope of the
standard presenting a design model for the stability verification (B.1.1) Based on initial global sway imperfections and local bow
of tapered beams subject to linear bending moment distributions imperfections defined in 5.3.2 EC-3, or
and to parabolic bending moment. (B.1.2) Based on a single imperfection, akin to the buckling mode
Method (B) Directly, including equivalent geometric imperfec- (gcr ) of the structure (5.3.2(11)).
tions in the nonlinear analysis.
This method has the following theoretical advantages compared In Method (B.1.2), for structures sensitive to flexural buckling
to method (A): due to compression, the EC-3 proposes the imperfection (ginit )
obtained by scaling the buckling mode, given by:
ginit ðxÞ ¼ ke02 EIjgN00RKj gcr ðxÞ
cr max
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 608625908; fax: +34 963879679. vk2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1c ault;k
E-mail address: anagra@mes.upv.es (A. Agüero). where e0 ¼ aðk  0:2Þ M

N
Rk
1v
M1
k2
, for 
k P 0:2; 
k¼ acr .
Rk

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2015.03.066
0141-0296/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
42 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55

Nomenclature

a is the imperfection factor (Tables 6.1 and 6.2 of EC-3) re- fF ext g is the vector of external forces
lated to each buckling curve G is the shear modulus for steel
aLT is the imperfection factor (Table 6.3 of EC-3) for lateral Iy; Iz are the second moment of area with respect to y, z axes
torsional buckling It is the torsional constant
acr is the minimum force amplifier for the axial force con- Iw is the warping constant
figuration in members to reach the elastic critical buck- KB is the generic element of the structure
ling load ½K L  is the linear stiffness matrix
ault;k is the minimum force amplifier for the axial force con- ½K G  is the geometric stiffness matrix taking into account
figuration in members to reach the characteristic resis- bending moment
tance N Rk of the most axially stressed cross section L is the total length of the structure
without taking buckling into account M Rk is the characteristic moment resistance of the critical
b is the correction factor for the lateral torsional buckling cross section(Mel;Rk in class 3, Mpl;Rk in class 2)
curves M0 is the reference bending moment (MyEd,0 according to
cM1 is the partial safety factor for the resistance of members [1]), related to one section of the structure
to instability assessed by member checks M pl;y;Rd ; M pl;z;Rd are the plastic moment resistance about
cM0 is the partial safety factor for the resistance of cross sec- y and z axes
tions whatever the class is My is the bending moment (MyEd according to [1])
v is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling curve NB is the number of elements
vLT is the reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling t is the thickness of the flange/web

k is the nondimensional slenderness T is the torsional moment

kLT is the nondimensional slenderness for lateral torsional Tt is the internal St. Venant torsional moment
buckling Tw is the internal warping torsional moment

kLT;0 is the plateau length of the lateral torsional buckling u is the displacement in direction x of the centroid
  curves Vy, Vz are the shear forces in y and z directions
ginit is the vector of imperfections v; w are the displacements in the principal directions y and z
gcr is the shape of the elastic critical buckling mode of the shear center
(EIg00cr;max Þ is the bending moment due to the buckling mode gcr Wz is the bending section modulus about z axis
at the critical cross section Wy is the bending section modulus about y axis
xðy; zÞ is the warping function Wx is the bimoment section modulus
hx is the torsional rotation x is the axis of the member
A is the cross sectional area ysc; zsc are the coordinates of the shear center
Bpl;Rd is the plastic bimoment resistance y, z are the coordinates of the check point
fdNL g is the vector of nonlinear displacements zj is the mono-symmetry constant
eM is the magnitude of the imperfection. E is the modulus
of elasticity for steel

Fig. 1. Summary of the methods to obtain the buckling resistance and the scope of this research.

Chladný [5–7] proposed the proper arrangements in clause (B.2) Directly in structures sensitive to lateral torsional buckling
5.3.2(11) to deal in structures sensitive to flexural buckling with due to bending moment, including equivalent geometric imperfec-
tapered columns and/or non-uniform distribution of the compres- tions in the structural analysis. According to clause 5.3.4(3) ‘‘taking
sion force along their length and/or arch geometry. account of lateral torsional buckling of a member in bending the
 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55 43

imperfections may be adopted as k  eo where eo is the equivalent
initial bow imperfection of the weak axis of the profile considered.
In general an additional torsional imperfection need not to be
allowed for’’.
The disadvantages of methods B.1.1 and B.2 are:
– A large number of combinations of local imperfections are pos-
sible, and the designer must find the worst (Clarke et al. [8])
from all the likely combinations. An example for a continuous
beam is shown in Fig. 2.1.
– The buckling resistance obtained is not consistent with the
buckling load resistance obtained using Method A) (clause
6.3) and therefore the numerical and experimental studies on
which this standard is based.
– The method is easily applied to building frames but it is more
difficult to generalize to other structural geometries.
Additional recommendations for arch imperfections are pro-
vided in clause D.3.5 (Annex D of EN 1993-2 steel bridges [9]).
The advantages of using the elastic buckling mode to define the
imperfection shape are:
– The nonlinear analysis with an imperfection given by the elastic
buckling mode is easy to perform see section 2 of the article.
– The method can be applied to any structural type or geometry
since a unique global and local imperfection can be obtained
from the buckling mode.
– In single members the imperfection is calibrated to ensure
that the buckling resistance is equal to the one computed by
method A).
Studies generalizing the imperfection given in clause 5.3.2(11)
to lateral-torsional buckling have been developed by Bijlaard
et al. [10] and Wieshollek et al. [11] considering the flanges as
members under compression sensitive to flexural buckling, while
Agüero and Pallarés [12] proposed a simplified method to obtain
the geometric equivalent imperfection scaling the buckling mode

Fig. 2.1. Imperfect structure according to EC-3.

Fig. 2.2. Imperfect structure according to the proposed method.

44 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55

Fig. 3. Possible imperfect structures for an arch according to the proposed method.

(Fig. 2.2) consistent with clause 5.3.2(11) of the EC-3, without con-
sidering the shear stresses due to Saint–Venant torsion.
1.1. Research significance
The main innovation of this research is (Fig. 1) a procedure to
assess the imperfection (Section 3) for structures sensitive to lat-
eral torsional buckling due to bending, consistent with the buck-
ling load obtained with EC-3. Such as the method proposed by
Chladný and štujberová [6], the approach described in this paper,
can be used for tapered beams and/or arch geometry (Fig. 3).
1.2. Basic assumptions
mode, obtained performing a linearized buckling analysis (LBA),
and is used to carry out an advanced analysis of the imperfect
structure. Thus, the method is based on:
1. A linear analysis (LA) of the structure to obtain the primary
internal forces.
2. A linear buckling analysis (LBA) to obtain the secondary internal
forces.
3. The orthogonal properties of the buckling modes to simplify the
analysis.
4. The use of the method provided in EC-3 (6.3) to assess the buck-
ling load of the structure that will be taken as a reference to
calibrate the magnitude of the imperfection consistent with
the EC-3.

In this work the following assumptions are made:
The first is that Clause 6.3.2 allows designers to use the vLT fac-
tor, originally deduced from compression-flexural buckling experi-
ments, for members under lateral-torsional buckling due to
bending. The approach proposed in this paper is valid if different
vLT factors were taken into account, which are better adjusted to
flexural–torsional buckling (Taras [13–15]).
The second assumption is that the basis of the proposal is the
same as in the method given in Clause 5.3.2(11), using the elastic
buckling mode as the shape of the imperfection and assuming
the results of the equivalent member method, which extracts an
equivalent member with the same buckling length but with pin-
ended boundary conditions, and computes its buckling strength
The analysis presented in this paper is limited to Class 2 and 3
sections in terms of EC-3 nomenclature. Class 1 and 4 are excluded
for simplicity.
On the other hand, the equilibrium of the structure can be
addressed using the finite element method and imposing the first
variation of the total potential is zero, i.e. the sum of the first varia-
tion of the potential of all the members is zero. According to the
energy approach, the global balance of a structure sensitive to
buckling due to bending can be written in weak form (Trahair
[17] and Chen and Atsuta [18]) adding the strain energy and the
potential of external forces as follows:
2
Z  2 !2 !2
2 2

on the basis of beam buckling curves. To calibrate the imperfection U1 ¼

1 4EA du þ E  Iy  d w þ E  Iz  d v
2 dx 2 2
L dx dx
ginit the lateral-torsional buckling resistance obtained with 6.3.2
 2 !2 3
has to be equal to the buckling resistance with the proposed 2
dhx d hx 5
method and the non dimensional slenderness  k is defined at the þG  It  þ E  Iw  2
dx ð1Þ
dx dx
critical section (for members under compression) (Chladný and
štujberová [5,6]) this proposal is also included in EN 1999-1- " ! !#
Z 2
1:2007 [16]. 1 L
d v T
U2 ¼ My  2  2
 h x  2  zj  h2x dx  fdNL g fF ext g
2 0 dx
2. Buckling study and analysis of the structure with a geometric ð2Þ
imperfection ginit RR  
1
zj ¼ zsc  2Iy A
z y2 þ z2 dA where zj is defined in Annex I [16].
The present methodology has the same basis as that proposed According to Chen and Atsuta [18], the sum of the first variation
in EC-3, defining the geometric imperfection from the buckling of the potential for all the members is:
 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55 45

X
NB 3
d gcr;v
dV KB ¼ ð½K L  þ M0 ½K G ÞfdNL g  fF ext g ¼ 0 ð3Þ Shear force in y direction : V y;g ¼ EIz 3
ð16Þ
KB¼1 dx
So the equilibrium equation can be written as: Due to an imperfection given by the first buckling mode, the stress
ð½K L  þ M 0 ½K G ÞfdNL g ¼ fF ext g ð4Þ resultants will be obtained by amplifying the previous equations,
depending on the load level (M), by the factor acr11, where
acr ¼ Mcr =M.
2.1. Buckling load and mode

The value of the critical buckling load M cr cancels the 2.2.2. General imperfection
determinant of the stiffness matrix of the structural system, Generally any imperfection fginit g can be expressed as a
n o
j ½K L  þ M cr ½K G  j¼ 0. The critical buckling coefficient can be defined combination of buckling modes gj , taking into consideration
as the ratio between the critical buckling load and the reference
the orthogonal properties of buckling modes Chen and Atsuta
load acr ¼ Mcr =M 0 ; the first buckling mode fgcr g is associated with n o
the first critical buckling load, so it can be written: ð½K L þ [18] (i.e., if i – j ! fgi gT ½K L  gj ¼ 0), therefore:
acr M0 ½K G Þfgcr g ¼ 0. Pn n o T
fg g ½K L fgj g
fginit g ¼ j¼1 bj gj where bj ¼ init T .
To perform the elastic buckling analysis accurately recommen- fgj g ½K L fgj g
dations given in Andrade et al. [19], Trahair [20] have to be taken The displacements associated to the imperfection are given by
P n o
into account. bj
fdg ¼ nj¼1 aj 1 gj . For larger critical loads (aj "Þ, the term aj11
2.2. Analysis of the imperfect structure becomes very small and related imperfections should not be con-
sidered in the analysis.
The equilibrium equation of the imperfect structure is given by:
ð½K L  þ M 0 ½K G ÞfdNL g ¼ fF ext g  M0 ½K G fginit g ð5Þ 3. Procedure to assess the imperfection fginit g for a general case

fginit g is the vector of imperfections.
2.2.1. Imperfection defined by the first buckling mode
To calculate the displacements in the imperfect structure one
has to solve: ð½K L  þ M 0 ½K G ÞfdNL g ¼ M 0 ½K G fginit g. If the imperfec-
tion is defined by the buckling mode fginit g ¼ fgcr g
the solution to the aforementioned equation is fdNL g
The expressions obtained in Section 2 are defined in shape but
not in magnitude. The scale factor eM by which the buckling mode
is multiplied to define the imperfection fginit g ¼ eM fgcr g ¼ eM fgg,
is obtained by imposing the restriction that the buckling resistance
of the structure, obtained according to EC-3 6.3 derived in Section 3.1,
is equal to the buckling resistance obtained applying the criterion of
collapse to the imperfect structure:

¼ qfgcr g ð6Þ – In Class 2 sections the plastic resistance is reached,

– In Class 3 sections the maximum von Mises stress reaches the
this yields to : ð½K L  þ M0 ½K G Þqfgcr g ¼ M0 ½K G fgcr g ð7Þ yield strength (6.2.1 EC-3).

and taking into account that : ð½K L  þ Mcr ½K G Þfgcr g ¼ 0

3.1. Buckling resistance of the structure
! ½K L fgcr g ¼ M cr ½K G fgcr g ð8Þ
Considering bending moments (ab Þ, the load level that makes
then  q  M cr ½K G fgcr g þ q  M 0 ½K G fgcr g ¼ M 0 ½K G fgcr g ð9Þ the structure collapse can be obtained following the next three
steps consistent with Chladný and štujberová [5] (generalized to
1 lateral buckling), Bijlaard et al. [10], and Wieschollek et al. [11]:
from which one can obtain q ¼ ð10Þ
acr  1
1. From a linear analysis, the minimum load level that makes one
1 section reach the characteristic resistance is obtained, without
and therefore fdNL g ¼ fg g ð11Þ
acr  1 cr taking buckling into account: ault ¼ minðW y ðxÞ  f y ðxÞ=M y ðxÞÞ,
Likewise, associated with the imperfection or buckling mode, the where f y is the yield strength and W y the bending section
stress resultants are: bending moments about axis zðMzg Þ, bimo- modulus about y-axis.
ment ðBg Þ, torque (T g Þ and shear (V y;g Þ in which g is associated to According to Chladný and štujberová [5] ault must be defined by
the buckling mode: ault ðxcr Þ ¼ W y ðxcr Þ  f y ðxcr Þ=My ðxcr Þ , where xcr is the critical sec-
2 tion carrying out the nonlinear analysis of the imperfect struc-
d gcr;v
bending moment about axis z : M zg ¼ EIz ð12Þ ture. Further details about the iterative procedure to find the
2
dx critical section under compression forces are described by
Baláž [21–24], Bijlaard et al. [10], Wieschollek et al. [11], there
2
d gcr;hx is also graphical interpretation of the imperfection amplitude
Bimoment : Bg ¼ EIw 2
ð13Þ
dx and the location of the critical section [22,24].
2. Then, the reduced slenderness of the structure is obtained from
3 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
dgcr;hx d gcr;hx the expression 
W f
kLT ¼ ault =acr ¼ acryMyy , and
Torque : T g ¼ T t;g þ T w;g ¼ GIt  EIw 3
ð14Þ
dx dx 3. Finally, the last step is to obtain the coefficient vLT associated
with the buckling curves EC-3 which will depend on the type
dgcr;hx of section and whether it is rolled or welded. Hence, the col-
Saint-Venant Torsional moment : T tg ¼ G  It ð15Þ
dx lapse load level of the structure will be ab ¼ ault  vLT =cM1 .
46 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55

3.2. Procedure to assess the magnitude eM for Class 3 sections On the other hand, in open thin-walled sections due to Saint–
Venant torsional moment, shear stress generated in the imperfect
The first step should be to choose the verification points in the structure can be obtained as:
structure (x, y, z). They should be the ones where the highest Von
n  eM T t;g  t
Mises stresses are expected. It is possible to use some engineering s¼  ð18Þ
ðw  1Þ It
criterion in the selection process to reduce computation time.
For class 3 sections the magnitude of eM is obtained restricting n value between [0, 1] depends on the verification point.
to the yield strength the largest von Mises stress in the structure For thin walled sections, it can be assumed that shear stresses
that takes place at one of the aforementioned verification points related to shear forces and warping torsion due to the imperfection
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
(x, y, z), this condition can be expressed by max r2 þ 3  s2 ¼ can be neglected.
f y =cM0 . To obtain the value of eM , it is possible to define a function To obtain Cðx; y; zÞ which defines the magnitude of the imper-
Cðx; y; zÞ that provides the magnitude of the imperfection to reach fection to reach the yield strength at point (x, y, z) the restriction
 
the yield strength at point (x, y, z). The value of eM will be given by r2 þ 3  s2 ¼ f y =cM0 2 must be imposed. Substituting r and s:
the minimum of Cðx; y; zÞ, hence eM ¼ min j Cðx; y; zÞ j¼   2  2
Cðxcr ; ycr ; zcr Þ. My  ab Cðx; y; zÞ M zg Bg n  Cðx; y; zÞ T t;g  t
þ þ þ3 
To determine von Mises stress in the imperfect structure, the Wy w1 Wz Wx ðw  1Þ It
 2
normal and shear stresses should be previously computed. The fy
internal forces are then obtained at the buckling load consistent ¼ ð19Þ
cM0
with the EC-3 primary bending moments (ab  My Þ and stress resul-
tants related to the imperfection that can be obtained scaling This equation can be written as : a  Cðx;y;zÞ2 þ b  Cðx;y; zÞ þ c ¼ 0
eM
fMzg ; Bg ; T t;g g by the factor w1 , where w ¼ aacr (see Fig. 4).
b
ð20Þ
On one hand, normal stresses generated in the imperfect
structure can be obtained as (Fig. 5): pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
  b  b  4a  c
M a e M zg Bg The solution to this equation is : Cðx; y; zÞ ¼
r¼ y bzþ M y þ xðy; zÞ 2a
Iy w  1 Iz Iw ð21Þ
  
My  ab eM M zg Bg
¼ þ þ ð17Þ !2
Wy w  1 Wz Wx cM0
cM0
Where a ¼ x21 þ 3x23 ; b ¼ 2 x1 x2 ;
f y ð w  1Þ f y ð w  1Þ
c ¼ x22  1 ð22Þ
 
M zg Big ab  My cM0 n  T t;g  t
Where x1 ¼ þ ; x2 ¼ ; x3 ¼
Wz Wx Wy fy It
ð23Þ
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
f
ðw  1 Þ c y
M0
x1  x2  x21 þ 3x23 1  x22
Simplifying : Cðx; y; zÞ ¼
x21 þ 3x23
ð24Þ

It is possible to express this equation in terms of the displacements

of the buckling mode. For a I-section, with the following dimen-
sions: width (b) and depth (H), the section modulus are W x ¼ 4I w
bH
and
!
2  Iz bE d2 g d2 g
Fig. 4. Buckling modes for different sections depending on whether warping V hx
constant can be neglected or not. Wz ¼ ; resulting : x1 ¼ 2 2 þ H 2 ð25Þ
b 4 dx dx

Fig. 5. Stresses in the imperfect structure.

 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55 47

0 1
For mono-symmetric I- section, with the following dimensions: top   !
BaLT kLT  kLT;0 1  kLT vLT =cM1
2 fy
width (Bs Þ; bottom width (Bb Þ, depth (H), distance from the shear eM ¼ min @  C
A
k2LT 1  bk2LT vLT d2 gV 2
center to the top flange (ds Þ and to the bottom flange (db Þ. E  Iz W z dx2
þ WIwx ddxg2hx
2 2

Resulting x1 ¼ B2s E ddxg2V þ ds ddxg2hx at the top flange and ð30Þ
2 
Bb E d gV d2 ghx
x1 ¼ 2 dx2  db dx2 at the bottom flange. For double symmetric I-section:
0 1
  !
s0 BaLT kLT  kLT;0 1  kLT vLT =cM1
3.2.1. If Shear stresses can be neglected 2 fy
eM ¼ min @  2 2 C
nT t
When s may be neglected, i.e., x3 ¼ It;t g ¼ 0, the function k2LT 1  bk2LT vLT d gV A
bE
2 2 þ H d g2hx
4 dx dx
Cðx; y; zÞ is simplified to:
ð31Þ
f
ðw  1Þ c y
Cðx; y; zÞ ¼ ð1  x2 Þ  M0
ð26Þ
x1
W y f y vLT Example 1. For the sake of clarity, an example for I-section beam
Using the relationships w ¼ k2cM1
v
; ab  My ¼ cM1 , It is possible to
LT LT with fork supports at both ends under uniform bending is
W y ðxcr Þf y ðxcr Þ
compute ault ¼ My ðxcr Þ
at ðxcr Þ as suggested by Chladný and štu- developed. Fig. 6 shows this example and the shape of lateral
jberová [5], imperfection in a side view and top view for three points (bottom
  flange, shear center and top flange) according to the present
  1
1
fy proposal and EC-3. The analytical expression of the geometrical
v c k2LT LT =cM1
v cM0
imperfection is:
Cðx; y; zÞ ¼ 1  LT M0 
cM1 x1
 
 
1k2LT LT =cM1
v fy ginit v ðxÞ
v c k2LT LT =cM1
v cM0 r ffi ¼ ginit
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi hx ðxÞ
¼ 1  LT M0  H2
þ L2 GIt
cM1 x1 4 2
p EIz
   
1 v c 1  k2LT vLT =cM1 cM1 f y k2 vLT
aLT ðkLT kLT;0 Þ 1LT
¼ 1  LT M0  ð27Þ cM1
px
k2LT cM1 vLT cM0 x1 fy 4  L 2
k2LT 1bk2LT LT
v
¼  rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi  sin ð32Þ
E  cM0 p  b
2
H2
2 L
considering cM1
cM0 ¼1 2 4
þ pL 2GI
EIz
t
þH
   !
1 1  vLT 1  bk2LT vLT 1  k2LT vLT =cM1 f y In Fig. 6 and Table 1 the imperfection obtained with the proposal
Cðx; y; zÞ ¼ 2  ð28Þ
kLT vLT 1  bk2LT vLT x1 can be compared to the EC-3 one.
Fig. 7 shows the normal, shear and von Mises stresses in the
and applying the buckling coefficient expression given in 6.3.2.3 (1) imperfect beam. It can be seen the critical section where the von

ð1vLT Þð1bk2LT vLT Þ Mises stress is maximum, coinciding in this example with the sec-
(rolled sections or equivalent welded sections): vLT ¼
  tion where the maximum bending moment (M y Þ takes place, since
aLT kLT  kLT;0 g. For the general case clause 6.3.2.2 kLT;0 ¼ 0:2 and it is constant.
b ¼ 1. The following expression is obtained:
0   ! 1
@aLT kLT  kLT;0 1  k2LT vLT =cM1 fy
eM ¼ min  A ð29Þ Table 1
k2LT 1  bk2LT vLT M zg
þ
Bg Comparison of the geometrical imperfection according to EC-3 and the present
Wz Wx
proposal.

Then, this equation might be expressed in terms of the displace- Comparison L/e0 Torsional imperfection
ments of the buckling mode and a parallelism with the expression EN 1993-1-1 Constant Neglected
presented in the EC-3 may be established. Proposal Depends on the slenderness Not neglected

Fig. 6. Lateral imperfection according to the present proposal and EC-3.

48 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55

Fig. 7. Example 1 Stresses in the imperfect structure.

Fig. 8. Example 2 Stresses in the imperfect structure.

Example 2. For a rectangular cross section beam with fork Table 2

supports at both ends under uniform bending. Definition of function Cðx; y; zÞ.
 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Section dimensions: width b, depth H. The analytical expression General case ðw1Þc
fy
ðx1 x2 Þ x21 þ3x23 ð1x22 Þ
Cðx; y; zÞ ¼ M0
of the geometrical imperfection is: x21 þ3x23
If x3 ¼ 0 ðw1Þc
fy

Cðx; y; zÞ ¼ ð1  x2 Þ  x1
M0
!
k2 vLT
  Cðx; y; zÞ ¼
aLT ðkLT kLT;0 Þ 1 LT
cM1 fy
p  ginit v ðxÞ f L aLT kLT  kLT;0 k2LT 1bk2LT LTv x1
qffiffiffi ¼ ginit hx ðxÞ ¼ pyffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi If x1 ¼ 0 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi f
ðw1Þ yp ffi
2  L GE cM0 E  G b  p k2LT Cðx; y; zÞ ¼ 1  x22
cM0 3
x3 !
k2 vLT
LT
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
k2LT vLT aLT ðkLT kLT;0 Þ 1 cM1 1þvLT fy
px Cðx; y; zÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffi
1 cM1 k2LT 1bk2LT LTv 1vLT x3 3
 sin ð33Þ
1  bkLT vLT
2 L

Fig. 8 shows the normal, shear and von Mises stresses in the section and steel grade f M y  ab ; acr ; eM ; M zg ; Bg ; T g ; typeofsection;
imperfect beam. steelgradeÞ ¼ 0.
Considering a linear interaction formula and neglecting torque
effects, a simplified expression can be used:
3.2.2. Proposal to be implemented in EC-3   
Table 2 summarizes the equations to obtain Cðx; y; zÞ. These M y  ab eM Mzg Bg
max þ þ ¼1 ð34Þ
equations have been implemented in a computer program to M y;pl w  1 M z;pl Bpl
obtain eM ¼ min ðCðx; y; zÞÞ.
The equation provided for the case x3 ¼ 0 can be applied in To obtain the value of eM , a function XðxÞ may be defined that gives
most practical cases. However it is suggested to implement in the magnitude of the imperfection that makes the section located in
the EC-3 the general case in order to solve any type of problem. the position (x) reach the plastic strength. The value of eM will be
given by the minimum of XðxÞ, hence eM ¼ min j XðxÞ j¼ Xðxcr Þ.
3.3. Procedure to assess the magnitude eM for class 2 sections  
M y  ab 1
XðxÞ ¼ 1  ðw  1Þ   ð35Þ
M y;pl M zg B
þ g
The first step should be to choose the verification sections at (x) M z;pl Bpl

location. They should be the ones where the structure could

This expression can be simplified to:
plastify. It is possible to use some engineering criterion in the
selection process to reduce computation time. For class 2 sections   k2LT vLT
aLT kLT  kLT;0 1 c 1
the magnitude eM is obtained imposing that the stress resultants XðxÞ ¼ M1
  ð36Þ
k2LT 1  bk2LT vLT E Iz d2 gv d2 ghx
reach the plastic resistance in the most adverse section Trahair M dx 2 þ BIw dx 2
z;pl pl
and Pi [25] xcr . This condition can be expressed as a nonlinear
function that depends in general on the stress resultants, type of and therefore implemented in the EC-3.
 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55 49

4. Simplified geometric nonlinear analysis of the imperfect According to clause 5.3.4(2), EC-3 considers a bow imperfection
structure (half wave) of the weak axis of the profile considered, without con-
sidering a torsional imperfection. Comparing the results of the
In Agüero and Pallarés [12] a simplified proposal for the analy- examples in Fig. 9, it can be observed that the torsional component
sis of slender structures is presented, where the non-linear dis- should not be neglected since the lateral imperfection at the top
placements fdNL g of the imperfect structure are obtained from flange and bottom flange are not the same. Furthermore, the shape
the linear displacements fdL g and properly scaling the buckling of the imperfection for a cantilever is a quarter of wave while it is a
n o
total wave for a beam with fork supports and opposite bending
modes gj :
moments at the ends.
X
n
aj n o eM In order to illustrate the process to obtain the equivalent imper-
fdNL g ¼ fdL g þ   gj þ fg g fection it is shown in Fig. 10 the normal, shear and von Mises stres-
j¼1
aj  1 ða1  1Þ 1
ses in the imperfect beam. The single span beam with fork supports
a1 þ eM under two different external moments at the ends can be solved,
 fdL g þ fg g ð37Þ
ða1  1Þ 1 and it can be observed that the critical section where the von
Mises stress is maximum and consistently where eM is defined,
Taking into consideration orthogonal properties of the buckling
T does not match with the section where the maximum bending
fgj g fF ext g
modes Chen and Atsuta [18] aj ¼ T . i.e., nonlinear effects moment (My) takes place.
fgj g ½K L fgj g
For the case shown in Fig. 10 numerical studies have been per-
due to bending moment (possible amplification of the bending
formed for a IPE 550 S355 obtaining the position of the critical sec-
and twisting) will be obtained for all j buckling modes whose criti-
tion xLcr ¼ 0:057/2 þ 0:17/ þ 0:28 depending on the bending
cal load is:
j aj  1 j6 10 (this recommendation is obtained from EC-3 moment distribution M y ¼ M þ Mx L
ð/  1Þ, where (/Þ is valid for
clause 5.2.1 (3)). [1.0, 1.0] and slenderness between [1.0, 1.6].

5. Examples 5.1.2. Shape of the imperfection in two span beams

Some examples are developed here applying the above proposal
and using the finite element method, in order to:
– Define the shape of the imperfection and compare it with that
proposed in EC-3, studying the influence of boundary condi-
tions, load type, and lateral bracing position.
– Quantify the magnitude of the imperfection compared with that
of EC-3.
In the following Figures the lateral imperfections of the bottom,
top and center points of the section are shown with respect to
the center of the perfect structure.
– Obtain the nonlinear displacements amplifying the linear
effects. See the work of Kaim [26].
5.1. Proposed imperfection
5.1.1. Shape of the imperfection in single span beams
The proposed methodology is applied for calculating the imper-
fections in single span beams varying boundary conditions and
external loads.
The proposed methodology is applied to calculate the imperfec-
tion in two span beams.
In Fig. 11 the shape of the imperfection for a continuous beam
and a beam with an overhang are compared. It can also be
observed the continuous beam in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2. In these cases,
according to EC-3 the bow imperfection can be combined in two
ways, as shown.
Following, the stresses on the imperfect structure are shown for
the most stressed point of the section. When the von Mises stress is
obtained, it is observed that critical sections are located in different
positions, where the von Mises stress reaches a maximum
(Figs. 12–15), not always coincident with the position where the
maximum bending moment takes place.
5.1.3. Influence of lateral braces
Six cases are solved to show the influence of lateral restraints on
a single span beam. Fig. 16 shows how a lateral support at the com-
pression flange is much more effective than at the tension flange
whose effect is negligible in the imperfection shape, since it is
obtained the same imperfection shape that was obtained without
this lateral support (see Fig. 6). It is also displayed in Fig. 16 a

Fig. 9. Shape of the imperfection using the proposal and comparison with EC-3.
50 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55

Fig. 10. Stresses in the imperfect structure.

Fig. 11. Imperfection shape in a two span beam.

Fig. 12. Stresses in the imperfect structure.

comparison with the imperfection given by the Eurocode, con-
sidering a fix support if the brace is at the shear center or compres-
sion flange, and neglecting the support if it is at the tension flange.
Again Fig. 17 shows the shear and compression stresses on the
imperfect structure and the position of the critical section where
the von Mises stress reaches a maximum.
5.2. Magnitude of the imperfection.
According to EC-3 (5.3.2) eSC ¼ k  eo ¼ 0:5  eo where k = 0.5 and
eo is defined in table 5.1 [1], for single span beams: eLSC ¼ eLTF ¼ 500.
Five numerical studies have been performed with a IPE 550
obtaining the ratio length to maximum imperfection at the shear
center (L/eSC) and top flange (L/eTF), fitting the results to four sum-
mands depending on the slenderness Le ¼ ro þ r1 k þ r2 k2 þ r3 k3 þ
r4 k4 (Tables 3 and 4).
In case that / ¼ 1 (see Fig. 10) the imperfection obtained tak-
ing into account or neglecting shear stresses have been compared
(from Table 4, results in brackets), and it can be concluded that if
kLT > 0:9 the shear stresses should not be neglected.
Fig. 18 displays all the shear, normal and von Mises stresses and
critical sections for the case / ¼ 1.
 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55 51

Fig. 13. Stresses in the imperfect structure.

Fig. 14. Stresses in the imperfect structure.

Fig. 15. Stresses in the imperfect structure.

5.3. Amplification of the linear effects that can be obtained interchanging the lateral imperfection of the
top flange with the one of the bottom flange.
In the present section a few examples are shown to account for
the possible amplification of bending, torque and bimoment due to 5.3.2. Comparison of nonlinear exact displacements with
bending moment. Kaim [26]. approximated displacements
The amplification of bimoments due to bending moments is Given a IPE-550-section beam (length, L = 20 m) with the sup-
currently considered in a simplified way in Annex A – Alternative ports shown in Fig. 20 the system is analyzed when the critical load
assessment for lateral-torsional buckling [27]. level is 1.4 (a1 ¼ 1:4Þ, subjected to four load cases shown in Fig. 20.
The linear out of plane displacements are obtained and compared
with the exact nonlinear, and the approximate nonlinear using
5.3.1. Computing the buckling modes two buckling modes fdNL g ¼ fdL g þ ða1a1
1
fg1 g þ ða2a1
2
fg2 g, and four
Þ Þ
To obtain the nonlinear displacements in a simplified way the
buckling modes fdNL g ¼ fdL g þ ða1a1
1
fg1 g þ ða2a1
2
fg2 g þ ða3a1
3
fg3 gþ
buckling modes associated with critical loads (j aj  1 j6 10Þ must Þ Þ Þ
a4
be calculated. Fig. 19 shows six modes associated with positive ða4 1Þ
g
f 4 g.
buckling loads for the two span beam displayed. The corresponding Analyzing Figs. 20 and 21 it is possible to make an analogy sim-
negative buckling loads give rise to the associated buckling modes plifying the behavior with members subjected to axial forces; in
52 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55

Fig. 16. Lateral brace influence on the imperfection shape.

Fig. 17. stresses in the imperfect structure.

Table 3
Ratio length to maximum imperfection at the shear center (L/eSC).

L/eSC r0 r1 r2 r3 r4
Fig. 10 / = 1 1500 670 95 0 0
/=0 37 1100 770 150 0
/ = 1 220 ð220Þ 2900 ð3000Þ 2200 ð2300Þ 590 ð680Þ 57 ð71Þ
Fig. 12 18 4500 4400 1600 210
Fig. 15 320 840 910 330 41

the case of the top flange the member can be considered mainly Table 4
Ratio length to maximum imperfection at the top flange (L/eTF).
under compression so the displacements should be amplified as
can be seen, and in the bottom flange the member can be consid- L/eTF r0 r1 r2 r3 r4
ered mainly under tension so the displacements should be Fig. 10 / = 1 700 230 27 0 0
reduced. The displacements with four buckling modes can be con- /=0 28 560 310 52 0
sidered exact. / = 1 69 620 210 19 0
Fig. 12 25 1800 1500 460 52
In the examples shown in Figs. 22 and 23, with 2 buckling
Fig. 15 56 670 350 52 0
modes the approximation matches exact results. It can be observed
the influence of lateral support position and bending moment
 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55 53

Fig. 18. Stresses in the imperfect beam.

Fig. 19. Nonlinear effects related to the buckling modes.

Fig. 20. Comparison of displacements: linear, nonlinear exact and approximated.

54 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55

Fig. 21. Beam versus column.

Fig. 22. Influence of the position of lateral bracing on the displacements.

Fig. 23. Influence of bending moment distribution about the major axis on the nonlinear displacements.

distribution on the amplification of the linear displacements, the
section used is a IPE550, length L = 8 m and critical load level
a1 ¼ 1:4.
6. Conclusions
In order to improve the current standard EC-3, a generalization
of clause 5.3.2(11) is proposed for structures sensitive to lateral
torsional buckling due to bending moment, scaling the
buckling mode. A procedure has been presented from a
theoretical point of view and applied to some practical cases, but
it is general for any type of structure. Using this proposal it is
possible to:
– Define the imperfection consistent with the buckling load
obtained with EC-3. In section 3.2.2 the expressions suggested
for class 3 sections are summarized, the expressions for class
2 sections are given in Section 3.2.
 A. Agüero et al. / Engineering Structures 96 (2015) 41–55
– Incorporate this proposal into a simplified method for the
design of steel structures performing the analysis of the imper-
fect structure consistent with the EC-3 and extending the scope
of this standard.
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