THE RESEARCH

PROCESS
DR. KILUNGU
 Acquiring the research posture
• Conducting good research requires first retraining your brain to think like a
researcher. This requires visualizing the abstract from actual observations, mentally
“connecting the dots” to identify hidden concepts and patterns, and synthesizing
those patterns into generalizable theories that apply to other contexts beyond the
domain where the initial observations were conducted. Research involves constant
moving back and forth from an empirical plane where observations are conducted
to a theoretical plane where these observations are abstracted into generalizable laws
and theories. This is a skill that takes many years to develop, is not something that is
taught in undergraduate or graduate programs or acquired in industry training, and
is by far the biggest deficit in most Ph.D. students
• Some of the mental abstractions needed to think like a researcher include unit of
analysis, constructs, hypotheses, operationalization, theories, models, induction and
deduction, and so forth
• Unit of Analysis. One of the first decisions in any social science research is the
unit of analysis of a scientific study. The unit of analysis refers to the person,
collective, or object that is the target of the investigation. Typical unit of analysis
include individuals, groups, organizations, countries, technologies, objects, and such.
For instance, if we are interested in studying people’s shopping behavior, their
learning outcomes, or their attitudes to new technologies, then the unit of analysis is
the individual. If we want to study characteristics of street gangs or teamwork in
organizations, then the unit of analysis is the group
• Understanding the unit of analysis is important because it shapes what type
of data you should collect for your study and who you collect it from. If
your unit of analysis is a web page, you should be collecting data about web
pages from actual web pages, and not surveying people about how they use
web pages. If your unit of analysis is the organization, then you should be
measuring organizational-level variables such as organizational size, revenues,
hierarchy, or absorptive capacity.
• Concepts. Most scientific research tend to be of the explanatory type in that
they search for potential explanations of observed natural or social
phenomena. Explanations require development of concepts or generalizable
properties or characteristics associated with objects, events, or people. While
objects such as a person, a firm, or a car are not concepts, their specific
characteristics or behavior such as a person’s attitude toward immigrants, a
firm’s capacity for innovation, and a car’s weight can be viewed as concepts.
Examples: force, weight, attitude, motivation, work life balance etc
• A construct - is an abstract concept that is specifically chosen (or “created”) to
explain a given phenomenon e.g personality, weight.
• A construct may be a simple concept, such as a person’s weight, or a combination
of a set of related concepts such as a person’s communication skill, which may
consist of several underlying concepts such as the person’s vocabulary, syntax, and
spelling.
• The former instance (weight) is a unidimensional construct, while the latter
(personality) is a multi-dimensional construct (i.e., one which consists of multiple
underlying concepts).
• Variable - in scientific research, a variable is a measurable representation of
an abstract (and unmeasurable) construct
• As abstract entities, constructs are not directly measurable, and hence, we
look for proxy measures called variables. For instance, a person’s intelligence
is often measured as his or her IQ (intelligence quotient) score, which is an
index generated from an analytical and pattern-matching test administered to
people. In this case, intelligence is a construct, and IQ score is a variable
intended to measure the intelligence construct.
• Depending on their intended use, variables may be classified as independent,
dependent, moderating, mediating, or control variables. Variables that explain other
variables are called independent variables, those that are explained by other variables
are dependent variables, those that are explained by independent variables while also
explaining dependent variables are mediating variables (or intervening variables), and
those that influence the relationship between independent and dependent variables
are called moderating variables. As an example, if we state that higher intelligence
causes improved learning among students, then intelligence is an independent
variable and learning is a dependent variable. There may be other extraneous
variables that are not pertinent to explaining a given dependent variable, but may
have some impact on the dependent variable. These variables must be controlled for
in a scientific study, and are therefore called control variables.
 Proposition
• Proposition - A proposition is a tentative and conjectural relationship
between constructs that is stated in a declarative form (e.g., an increase in
student intelligence causes an increase in their academic achievement). This
declarative statement must be empirically testable (at least indirectly), and can
be judged as true or false, based on empirical observations. Propositions are
generally derived based on logic (deduction) or empirical observations
(induction).
 Hypothesis
• Like constructs, propositions are also stated at the theoretical plane, and cannot be
tested directly. Instead, they are tested indirectly by examining the corresponding
relationship between measurable variables of those constructs.
• The empirical formulation of propositions, stated as relationships between
variables, is called hypotheses.
• Hypotheses are designed to be empirically testable, and may be rejected if not
supported by empirical observations. Of course, the goal of hypothesis testing is to
infer about the validity of the corresponding propositions.
• Hypotheses can be null or research, directional or non-directional
• Theory - A theory is a set of systematically interrelated constructs and propositions
that are advanced to explain and predict a certain phenomenon or behavior within
certain boundary conditions and assumptions. Essentially, a theory is a systematic
aggregation of theoretical propositions. While propositions connect two or three
constructs at most, theories represent a system of multiple constructs and
propositions. Hence, theories can be substantially more complex and abstract and
of a larger scope than propositions or hypotheses.
• Theories provide explanations of social or natural phenomenon
 Model
• A term often used in conjunction with theory is a model.
• A model is a representation of a system that is constructed to study a part or
all of the system.
• Models differ from theories in that a theory’s role is in explanation, while a
model’s role is in representation. Examples of models include mathematical
models, network models, and path models.
• Models may be descriptive, predictive, or normative.
• Descriptive models are frequently used for complex systems, in order to visualize
numerous variables and relationships in such systems.
• Predictive models (e.g., a regression model) allow forecast of future events, such as
weather patterns (based on parameters such as wind speeds, wind direction,
temperature, and humidity) or outcomes of a basketball game (based on current
forms of the competing teams, how they match up face to face, and so forth).
• Normative models are used primarily to guide us on what actions should be taken to
follow commonly accepted practices. Models may also be static, or representing the
state of a system at any given point in time, or dynamic, representing a system’s
evolution over time.
• Figure: Research Process
Research Literature Theory
Questions Review

Operationali Research Sampling

zation Methods Strategy

Research Proposal

Pilot Testing

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Research Report
• The first phase of research is exploration. This phase includes exploring and
selecting research questions for the study, examining the published literature on the
area of interest to understand the current state of knowledge in that area, and
identifying theories that may help answer the research questions of interest.
• The next major phase in the research process is research design. This is a blueprint
for fulfilling the research objectives and answering the research questions. This
phase includes selecting a research method, operationalizing constructs of interest,
and devising an appropriate sampling strategy. Operationalization is the process of
designing precise measures for abstract theoretical constructs
• At this stage, it is often a good idea to write a research proposal detailing all
of the decisions made in the preceding stages of the research process and
the rationale behind each decision.
• This multi-part proposal should address what research questions you wish to
study and why, the prior state of knowledge in this area, theories you wish to
employ along with hypotheses to be tested, how to measure constructs, what
research method to be employed and why, and desired sampling strategy.
• The third major phase, after having decided who to study (subjects), what to
measure (concepts), and how to collect data (research method), the
researcher is the research execution phase.
• Having decided who to study (subjects), what to measure (concepts), and
how to collect data (research method), the researcher is now ready to
proceed to the research execution phase.
• The final stage of research involves preparing the final research report documenting
the entire research process in the form of a research paper, dissertation, or research
project.
• This report should outline in complete detail all the choices made during the
research process (e.g., theory used, constructs selected, measures used, research
methods, sampling, etc.) and why, as well as the outcome of each phase of the
research process.
• The research process must be described in sufficient detail so as to allow other
researchers to replicate your study, test the findings, or assess whether the inferences
derived are scientifically acceptable.
 Step 1: Selecting a topic for a research study

• A well-defined research topic gives focus, sets boundaries, and provides direction.
• It:
• 1. Defines and identifies the focus of the research.
• 2. Defines the nature of the research endeavour- whether the aim is to discover, explore,
explain, describe, or compare.
• 3. Defines the areas of interest- whether the interest is why, when, where, what, or how.
• 4. Indicates if a relationship is foreseen between concepts being explored- whether looking
for impacts, decreases, causes, correlations, etc.
• At the outset of your research, make sure you have identified a worthwhile
problem which has not been previously answered.
• Since research is always about some problem/s, identification and selection
of this problem is most crucial in designing a research proposal.
• According to Tuckman (1994), a problem statement must have the following
characteristics:
a. It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables.
b. It should be clearly and unambiguously stated.
c. c. It should be stated in question form (or, alternatively, in the form of an
implicit question such as, the purpose of this study was to determine
whether…).
d. d. It should be testable by empirical methods; that is, it should be possible
to collect data to answer the question(s) asked.
e. e. It should not represent a moral or ethical position
f. f. the problem that you have identified is of some theoretical or practical
significance
 Step 2: Defining the research problem
(Statement of Problem)
• A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads
to a need for the study.
• The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem
identification).
• The question that he/she should ask him/herself is: Are there questions about this problem to
which answers have not been found up to the present?
• The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on
the part of the researcher with the aim of possibly concluding solutions to the stated problem.
• The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies the general
analysis approach. It is important in a proposal that the problem stand out—that the reader can
easily recognize it.
 Step 3: Determining Objectives of study
• The objectives of the study could either be the main objective (aim/purpose) or specific
objectives.
• The objectives describe what the study intends to achieve
• Use of appropriate verbs to describe the objectives:
• To find out
• To establish
• To determine
• To investigate
• To assess
• To evaluate etc
 Step 4: Research questions / Hypotheses
• Once you have identified and stated a problem, the next step is to create a
hypothesis.
• Putting it in a simple way, a hypothesis is a wise or educated guess.
• It is an assumed answer to the question posed in a research problem statement.
• However, it is only an ‘assumed’ answer or an expectation that is tested in the study
later on.
• You must bear in mind that a hypothesis differs from an observation, which
represents outcomes actually found.
• Hypothesis are derived from theories, models or previous studies
• Hypotheses are linked to the objectives and research questions
• Hypotheses could be stated in null, alternate or directional/non-directional
manner
 Step 4: Reviewing of literature
• Literature review is an important part of any research.
• It provides an underpinning for the research by enlightening the researcher
about the process.
• Any research, no matter at what scale, requires reading about what other
people have done in the area of your interest, how they have done it, and
what are the gaps in the research in that area.
• .
• Any new production of knowledge is necessarily based on previous and existing
knowledge.
• You need information to support or refute your arguments and write about your
findings.
• You need to provide evidence that you are aware of the current trends and issues in
your area of interest and are cognisant of the current state of knowledge on the
subject.
• Ideally this reading should form the basis for choosing your research methodology
• After some preliminary reading, the research topic is finalized. Reading
continues and spills over into the stage of data collection and analysis.
• Some reading is naturally required at the stage of interpretation of the
qualitative or quantitative data to embed your research in its milieu.
• Moreover, every new article/book you read will have a cumulative effect on
the existing body of knowledge in your mind, pushing to you reinterpret or
rethink some of your previous assumptions or ideas.
Step 5: Selecting an appropriate research design

• Research design is a comprehensive plan for data collection in an empirical

research project.
• It is a “blueprint” for empirical research aimed at answering specific research
questions or testing specific hypotheses, and must specify at least three
processes:
(1) the data collection process,
(2) the instrument development process, and
(3) the sampling process.
Given the above multitude of research designs,
which design should researchers choose for
their research?
• Generally speaking, researchers tend to select those research designs that
they are most comfortable with and feel most competent to handle, but
ideally, the choice should depend on the nature of the research phenomenon
being studied
• Regardless of the specific research design chosen, the researcher should
strive to collect quantitative and qualitative data using a combination of
techniques such as questionnaires, interviews, observations, documents, or
secondary data
 Step 6: Choosing a sampling design
• Sampling is the statistical process of selecting a subset (called a “sample”) of a population
of interest for purposes of making observations and statistical inferences about that
population.
• Research is generally about inferring patterns of behaviors or characteristics within specific
populations.
• We cannot study entire populations because of feasibility and cost constraints, and hence,
we must select a representative sample from the population of interest for observation and
analysis.
• It is extremely important to choose a sample that is truly representative of the population so
that the inferences derived from the sample can be generalized back to the population of
interest
• Sampling designs could be probabilistic or non-probabilistic
• The choice of sampling design depends on the nature of study, population
characteristics, level of detail required etc
 Step 7: Preparation of Data collection
tools/instruments
• Research involves measurement of some constructs/variables.
• The classic definition of measurement was offered more than 45 years ago by an
experimental psychologist, S. S. Stevens (1951), as the “assignment of numerals to
objects or events according to rules.” With all due respect to Professor Stevens, this
definition can be broadened such that measurement is the assignment of values to
outcomes. Numbers (such as 34.89 and $54,980) are values, but so are outcomes,
such as hair color (red or black) and social class (low or high).
• In fact, any variable, by its very definition, can take on more than one value and can
be measured. It is these values that you will want to examine as part of the
measurement process
• Measurement is facilitated by use of some measurement tools/instruments
e.g. ruler, stopwatch, a questionnaire, thermometer, interview guide etc.
• In some instances, there are readily available instruments at the disposal of
the researcher while in other instances there is none
• Developing measurement instruments e.g. questionnaires is an important
step in research process
• The instrument developed must meet quality aspects of validity and
reliability
 Step 8: Data collection/Field work
• Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design, constructed a
research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you
will draw inferences and conclusions for your study.
• Many methods could be used to gather the required information.
• As a part of the research design, you decided upon the procedure you wanted to
adopt to collect your data. In this phase you actually collect the data. For example,
depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a
questionnaire, conduct nominal/focus group discussions or make observations.
Collecting data through any one of the methods may involve some ethical issues.
 Step 9: Data analysis
• The way you analyse the information you collected largely depends upon two
things: the type of information (descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or
attitudinal); and the way you want to communicate your findings to your
readers. There are different ways of analysing quantitative and qualitative
data and similarly various methods of displaying analysed data.
• In addition to the qualitative–quantitative distinction, it is important for data
analysis that you consider whether the data is to be analysed manually or by a
computer.
 Step 10: Research report writing
• There are two broad categories of reports: quantitative and qualitative.
• As mentioned earlier, the distinction is more academic than real as in most studies you need to
combine quantitative and qualitative skills.
• Nevertheless, there are some solely qualitative and some solely quantitative studies.
• Writing the report is the last and, for many, the most difficult step of the research process.
• This report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what
conclusions you have drawn from your findings.
• If you are clear about the whole process, you will also be clear about the way you want to write
your report. Your report should be written in an academic style and be divided into different
chapters and/or sections based upon the main themes of your study. TUM has a format for
academic report writing for each School/Institute