Elementary

7 Statistics
Quarter 1 - Learner’s Packet
 LEARNER’S PACKET in Elementary Statistics
Quarter 1 / Week 1
MELC/s:
Topic: KEY TERMS, DEFINITIONS, USE AND IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS

Illustrative Examples:
Key Terms in Statistics
1. Analysis is the manipulation of the data gathered using descriptive and inferential statistics.
2. Cumulative frequency is used in getting the value for the median, quartiles, deciles, and percentiles.
3. Data point to statistical facts, principles, opinions and various items of different sources.
4. Statistical data concerned with quantitative or any kind of numerical data such as figures on sales, ages, tax returns,
population, births, deaths, and many more.
5. Data Collection is the process and methods of gathering information by interview, questionnaire, experiments,
observations, and documentary analysis.
6. Data Presentation takes the form of tables and graphs.
7. Frequency Distribution is the tabulation of data by grouping them with class interval.
8. Graphical presentation points to the construction of bar graphs frequency polygons, pie charts and pictographs,
among others.
9. Grouped Data are properly organized and classified data such as the use of frequency distribution table.
10. Interpretation makes clear results of the analysis using statistical methods to see whether significant differences
or relationships exist between variables.
11. Parameter is a characteristic of a population. It refers to the numerical characteristic of the population like the
population mean, population standard deviation, population variance, and many more. It is usually unknown and
estimated only by a corresponding static computed from the sample data.
12. Population – defined as the totality of objects, individuals, or reactions, which have common observable
characteristics.
13. Sample refers to the element of objects or individuals selected from the population.
14. Sampling – it refers to the method of getting a small but representative cross-section of the population. It is a
finite number of objects chosen from population.
15. Random Sampling involves the selection of samples such that each sample of a given size has precisely the
probability of being selected.
16. Descriptive statistics includes frequency distribution, measures of central tendency, measures of central location,
measures of dispersion or variation, graphs, skewness, and kurtosis. Likewise, it refers to some techniques which are
concerned with presentation and collection of data or information.
17. Inferential statistics is the technique by which decision and conclusion are to be made from the population
observed using only the representative samples. This statistics includes both parametric and nonparametric tests
which are more both with generalizing information or making inference about the population through representative
samples.
Importance of STATISTICS
1. It is important for researchers and also consumers of research to understand statistics so that they can be
informed, evaluate the credibility and usefulness of information, and make appropriate decisions.

2. Statistics is very important in education as it helps in collecting, presenting analysis and interpreting data. It also
helps in drawing general conclusion. Statistics is very useful in doing research work.

3. In economics research, statistical methods are used to collect and analyze the data and test hypotheses. The
relationship between supply and demand is studied by statistical methods; imports and exports, inflation rates, and
per capita income are problems which require a good knowledge of statistics.

4. Math classes and statistics are an important part of any psychology program. Psychologists need to be able to
utilize statistical methods to conduct research, analyze data, interpret results, and report their findings.

5. Statistical knowledge helps you use the proper methods to collect the data, employ the correct analyses, and
effectively present the results. Statistics is a crucial process behind how we make discoveries in science, make
decisions based on data, and make predictions.

6. Importance of Statistics in Business. Statistics play an important role in business. A successful businessman must
be very quick and accurate in decision making. He knows that what his customers wants, he should therefore, know
what to produce and sell and in what quantities.

7. The field of statistics deals with the collection, presentation, analysis and use of data to make decisions, solve
problems, and design products and processes.

8. Agriculture plays a crucial role in the economy of developing countries, and provides the main source of food,
income, and employment to their rural populations.

9. These are new ways of looking at player statistics to get a more complete understanding of a player's actual effect
on the most important aspect of sports: Wins and losses.
 LEARNER’S PACKET in Elementary Statistics
Quarter 1 / Week 2
MELC/s:
Topic: SIGMA NOTATIONS

Illustrative Examples:
SIGMA NOTATIONS
One important symbol that we will encounter is the Greek letter 𝛴 (sigma), which refers to total or to take
the sum. If 𝑥 is the variable, which represents a set of measurements, then 𝛴 means to get the sum of all the
measurements from the first to last.

GENERAL FORM OF SUMMATION NOTATION

1. Summation of n Variables
𝒏

∑ 𝒙𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
(read as the “summation of 𝒙, where 𝒊 is from 𝟏 to 𝒏”)

Let x be the representation as the score of the student in his six previous tests in statistics such that 𝑥1 be
the first score, 𝑥2 the score … 𝑥6 the sixth score. If we want to add the scores, then we write:
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝟓 (the dots represents the others scores between 𝒙𝟐 and 𝒙𝟓 .

This expression can also be written as:

𝟔

∑ 𝒙𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
Which means that all the scores 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 , and 𝑥6 are to be added. Adding all the given n
scores, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , then we write:
𝒏

∑ 𝒙𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

If we want to get the sum of the last three scores in statistics test then we have,
𝟔

∑ 𝒙𝒊 = 𝑥4 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥6
𝒊=𝟒

Thus, the sum of n number of observations is represented as,

∑ 𝒙𝒊 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝟔 Sum of n number.
𝒊=𝟏
Example 1: Given 𝑥1 = 10, 𝑥2 = 8, 𝑥3 = 21, 𝑥4 = 7, 𝑥5 = 1, 𝑥6 = 18, 𝑥7 = 4, 𝑥8 = 7
Evaluate the following summations.
a. 8 b. 5

∑ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=3
Solution: Solution:
8 5

∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 10 + 8 + 21 + 7 + 1 + 18 + 4 + 7 = 𝟕𝟔 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 21 + 7 + 1 = 𝟐𝟗
𝑖=1 𝑖=3

Example 2: Write the expressions as summation notation.

a. 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + 𝑣4
b. 𝑤1 + 𝑠3 + 𝑠5 + 𝑤4 + 𝑠4 + 𝑤2 + 𝑤1

Solution:
a. From the given data, the variable is v, 𝑖 = 1 and 𝑛 = 4, thus
𝒗𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒗𝟑 + 𝒗𝟒 = ∑𝟒𝒊=𝟏 𝒗𝒊 +

b. Group all common variable with the subscript, arrange in ascending order, thus
𝟒 𝟓
(𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 + 𝒘𝟑 + 𝒘𝟒 ) + (𝒔𝟑 + 𝒔𝟒 + 𝒔𝟓 ) = ∑ 𝒘𝒊 + ∑ 𝒔𝒊
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟑

2. Summation of a Constant

The summation of a constant from 1 (starting for 𝒊 in this example) up to 𝒏 is equal to the product of
the constant and n. Thus, general form can be represented from this form:
𝑛

∑ 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛
𝑖=1
or Summation of a constant
𝑛

∑ 𝑛𝑐
𝑖=1

Example 1: Find the following summation.

a. 4 b. 6 c. 4 7

∑8 ∑5 ∑6 + ∑8
𝑖=1 𝑖=2 𝑖=1 𝑖=3
Solution:
a. 4

∑ 8 = 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 32 ((for another solution, simply multiply 8 by 4, thus)

𝑖=1
= 4(8) = 32 (𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)
b. 6

∑ 5 = 5(5) = 25
𝑖=2
c. 4 7

∑ 6 + ∑ 8 = 4(6) + 5(8) = 24 + 40 = 64
𝑖=1 𝑖=3

3. Summation of a Constant and a Variable:

𝒏

∑(𝒄 + 𝒙𝒊 )
𝒊=𝟏

The summation of a constant and a variable is equal to the summation of the product of n and the
constant ( c ) plus the variable (x).

𝒏 𝒏
Summation of a constant and
∑(𝒄 + 𝒙𝒊 ) = 𝒏𝒄 + ∑ 𝒙𝒊
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏
variable

Example 1:
4 4

∑(8 + 𝑦𝑖 ) = 4(8) + ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Example 2:
6 6

∑(𝑚 + 𝑐) = ∑ 𝑚 + 6(𝑐) (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 𝑖 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

𝑖=1 𝑖=1

4. Summation of Several Variables:

𝒏

∑(𝒙𝒊 + 𝒚𝒊 )
𝒊=𝟏
 The summation of several variables (x and y) is equal to the sum of the given terms.

𝒏 𝒏 𝒏

∑(𝒙𝒊 + 𝒚𝒊 ) = ∑ 𝒙𝒊 + ∑ 𝒚𝒊 Summation of several variables

𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏

Example: Evaluate the following from the given table.

a. 3 b. 4 c. 5

∑(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦1 ) ∑(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦1 ) ∑(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦1 )

𝑖=1 𝑖=2 𝑖=1

i 𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊
1 3 3
2 6 4
3 1 2
4 7 4
5 7 3
Solution:
a. 3 3 3

∑(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦1 ) = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 + ∑ 𝑦1
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
= (3 + 6 + 1) + (3 + 4 + 2)
= 10 + 9
= 𝟏𝟗
b. 4

∑(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦1 ) = (6 + 1 + 7) + (4 + 2 + 4)
𝑖=2
= 14 + 10
= 𝟐𝟒
c. 5

∑(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦1 ) = (3 + 6 + 1 + 7 + 7) + (3 + 4 + 2 + 4 + 3)
𝑖=1
= 24 + 16
= 𝟒𝟎

5. Summation of the Squares of the Variables:

𝒏

∑ 𝒙𝟐𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
 Obtaining the results of the sum of the squares of the variables, we first get the square of all the
observations, and then find the sum. Thus, in general form, the sum of square of the variables is

∑ 𝒙𝟐𝒊 = 𝒙𝟐𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝟐𝒏 Summation of the square of the variables
𝒊=𝟏

Example: From the table below, find the following:

a. 𝟒 b. 𝟓 𝟑
𝟐
∑ 𝒙𝒊 ∑ 𝒙𝒊 + ∑ 𝒚𝟐𝒊
𝟐

𝒊=𝟐 𝒊=𝟐 𝒊=𝟏

Solution:

a. 4

∑ 𝑥𝑖2 = 32 + 62 + 12 + 72
𝑖=2

= 9 + 36 + 1 + 49
= 𝟗𝟓
b. 5 3

∑ 𝑥𝑖2 + ∑ 𝑦𝑖2 = (62 + 12 + 72 + 72 ) + (32 + 42 + 22 )

𝑖=2 𝑖=1
= 𝟏𝟔𝟒

6. Square of the sum of variables:

𝒏 𝟐

[∑ 𝒙𝒊 ]
𝒊=𝟏
To get the sum of the square of the variables, we have to take first the sum of the variables before
getting the square of it.
In general, the following form will illustrate the square of the sum of variables.

𝒏 𝟐

[∑ 𝒙𝒊 ] = (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝟒 )𝟐 Square of the sum of variables

𝒊=𝟏
Example: From the given table of values, evaluate the following summation.
𝒊 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝒙𝒊 3 4 1 5 2 8

a. 𝟐 b. 𝟐
𝟓 𝟔

[∑ 𝒙𝒊 ] [∑ 𝒙𝒊 ]
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟑

Solution:
a. 𝟐
𝟓

[∑ 𝒙𝒊 ] = (𝟑 + 𝟒 + 𝟏 + 𝟓 + 𝟐)𝟐 = (𝟏𝟓)𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓

𝒊=𝟏
b. 𝟐
𝟔

[∑ 𝒙𝒊 ] = (𝟏 + 𝟓 + 𝟐 + 𝟖)𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔

𝒊=𝟑

7. Sum of the product of variable:

𝑛

[∑(𝑥𝑖 )(𝑦𝑖 )]
𝑖=1

The sum of the product of the variable is the product of any pair of observation. That is
𝑛

[∑(𝑥𝑖 )(𝑦𝑖 )] Sum of the product of variable

𝑖=1

Example: From the given table below, evaluate

𝟒

∑(𝑥𝑖 )(𝑦𝑖 )
𝒏=𝟏

i 1 2 3 4
𝑥𝑖 3 1 7 1
𝑦𝑖 1 0 2 3
Solution:
𝟒

∑(𝑥𝑖 )(𝑦𝑖 ) = (𝑥1 )(𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 )(𝑦2 ) + (𝑥3 )(𝑦3 ) + (𝑥4 )(𝑦4 )
𝒏=𝟏
= (3)(1) + (1)(0) + (7)(2) + (1)(3)
= 𝟐𝟎

8. Sum of the products of a constant and a variable:

𝒏

∑(𝒄𝒙𝒊 )
𝒊=𝟏
The summation of the products of a constant and a variable is equal to the product of the constant
and the summation of the variable. Hence,
𝒏

∑(𝒄𝒙𝒊 ) = 𝒄𝒙𝟏 + 𝒄𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙𝟑 + 𝒄𝒙𝟒 + ⋯ + 𝒄𝒙𝒏

𝒊=𝟏
or Sum of the products of a constant and a
𝒏 variable
𝒄 ∑(𝒙𝒊 ) = 𝒄(𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟒 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝒏 )
𝒊=𝟏

Example: If 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟔, 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟕, 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝒙𝟒 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝟒

𝒄 ∑(𝒙𝒊 )
𝒊=𝟏
Solution:
4

𝑐 ∑(𝑥𝑖 ) = 4(6 + 7 + 10 + 1)
𝑖=1
= 4(24)
= 𝟗𝟔
 LEARNER’S PACKET in Elementary Statistics
Quarter 1 / Week 3
MELC/s:
Topic: A Brief History of Statistics and Qualities of Statistician

Illustrative Examples:
A Brief History of Statistics
In the seventeenth towards the eighteenth centuries, mathematicians were asked by gamblers to develop
principles that would improve the chances of winning at cards, dices, and coins.
Bernoulli and De Moivre were the two mathematicians who studied probability. In 1730s, De Moivre
developed the equation for normal curve.
During 19th century, La Place and Gauss were two other mathematicians applied probability principles to
astronomy.
In the early 19th century, a famous Belgain statistician in the name of Quetelet applied statistics to
investigation of social and educational problems. Quetelet was able to develop statistical theory on a general method
of research to science.
Francis Galton had the greatest effect upon the introduction and use of statistics in the social sciences. His
contributions in the field of heredity and eugenics, psychology, anthropometry, and statistics. The concept of
correlation or the measure of agreement between two variables is credited to him. Galton also contributed the
development of centiles and percentiles.
Pearson is another mathematician who collaborated with Galton in developing many of the correlations and
regression formulas that are being used today.
James Mckeen Cattel is a famous American psychologist who studied in Europe in 1880 and contacted Galton
and other European statisticians. Upon his return to United States, he and his students, including E.L. Thorndike, apply
statistical methods to psychology and educational problems.
In the 20th century, new techniques and methods were applied to the study of small samples by R. A. Fisher,
an English statistician. Most of his contributions were applied in agriculture and biological settings.
Today, statistics is the major tool used by researchers in agriculture, biological, business, medical, behavioral,
and social sciences.

Qualities of a Good Statisticians

Scientific
Talented
Active
Tenacious
Innovative
Skillful
Terrific
Inventive
Creative
Interpretative
Noble
 LEARNER’S PACKET in Elementary Statistics
Quarter 1 / Week 4

MELC/s:

Topic: Statistical Symbols, Nature of Statistics, and Types of Data

Illustrative Examples:
LOGO QUIZ
Directions: Give the name of the following symbols or logos.

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

Guide question:
1. What is the importance of familiarizing these symbols of logos?
2. What are the common symbols do you have at home?
3. What are the common basic symbols used in Mathematics?

STATISTICAL SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS

The students will find very useful to familiarize the following expressions:
𝑥=𝑦 x equals y
𝑥≠𝑦 x is not equal to y
𝑥>𝑦 x is greater than y
𝑥<𝑦 x is lesser than y
𝑥≥𝑦 x is greater than or equal to y
𝑥≤𝑦 x is lesser than or equal to y
 The students in Statistics should familiarize the use of the following symbols although notational usage varies
from one author to another author but there are some of the common symbols used in statistics:
SYMBOLS MEANING
∑ Summation
𝐻𝑆 Highest Score
𝐿𝑆 Lowest Score
𝑈𝐿 Upper Limit
𝐿𝐿 Lower Limit
𝐹𝐷 Frequency Distribution
𝑋 One Variable
𝑌 Another Variable
𝑖 Interval
𝑓 frequency
𝐹𝑑 frequency times deviation
𝐶𝐼 Class Interval
𝐹𝑢 Cumulative Frequency from the upper Limit
𝑛 Number of cases in the sample
𝐶 Correction
R Range
𝑀 Mean
𝑀𝑑 Median
𝑀𝑜 Mode
𝑄3 Quartile 3
𝑄2 Quartile 2
𝑄1 Quartile 1
𝑄𝐷 Quartile Deviation
𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐷 Standard Deviation
𝑟 Pearson Product
∑𝑋 Summation of Scores
∑𝑓𝑥 Summation of Frequency times Scores
𝐴𝑀 Assumed Mean
𝑃 Percentile
𝐷 Decile
 The characteristics of the population are called parameters while the characteristics of the sample are called
statistics. Consider the following different symbols on the characteristics, parameters, and statistics.
Characteristics Parameters Statistics
Mean 𝜇, 𝑚𝑢 𝑥̅
Standard
𝜎, 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑎 𝑠
Deviation
Number of Cases 𝑁 𝑛
Proportion 𝑃 𝑝
Pearson Product
Moment
𝑅 𝑟
Correlation
Coefficient
Variance 𝑆2 𝑠2

THE NATURE OF STATISTICS

Statistical investigation can be classified into two major functions:
1. Descriptive Statistics
Is the method of collecting and presenting data. It includes the computation of measures of central tendency,
measures of central location, likewise the measures of dispersion or variability. It also includes the construction of
tables and graphs.

2. Inferential Statistics
Is concerned with higher degree of critical judgment and advanced mathematical modes such as using the
different statistical tools both the parametric and nonparametric tests. This is concerned with the analysis and
interpretation of data in order to draw conclusion and generalization from organized data. This also includes the
testing of the significant relationship between the dependent and the independent variables as well as the
significant differences between and among independent samples.

TYPES OF DATA
1. QUALITATIVE DATA are categorical data, which take the categorical or attributes such as gender, course, year level,
religion, etc.

2. QUANTITATIVE DATA or the numerical data are obtained from measurements like heights, weights, ages, scores,
temperatures, IQ and other measurable quantities.
 LEARNER’S PACKET in Elementary Statistics
Quarter 1 / Week 5

MELC/s:

Topic: STATISTICAL DATA

Illustrative Examples:
TYPES OF VARIABLES
1. CONTINUOUS VARIABLE assume infinite values within a specified interval and can be obtained by measurement,
measures like feet, pounds, kilos, minutes and meters.

2. DISCRETE VARIABLE assume exact values only and can be obtained by counting like number of students, houses,
workers and soon.

STATISTICAL DATA
Concerned with quantitative or any kind of numerical data such as figures on sales, ages, tax returns, population,
births, deaths, and many more.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
1. NOMINAL NUMBERS do not mean anything; they just label.
Ex. SSS number
2. ORDINAL NUMBERS are used to label + rank.
Ex. size of T-shirt
3. INTERVAL NUMBERS are used to label rank; do not have a true zero
Ex. temperature
4. RATIO NUMBERS are used to label + equal unit of interval; have true zero.
Ex. Number of votes
DATA COLLECTION is the process and methods of gathering information.
 LEARNER’S PACKET in Elementary Statistics
Quarter 1 / Week 6

MELC/s:

Topic: METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

METHODS OF GATHERING DATA

1. Interviews
2. Questionnaires
3. Objective observations
4. Experimentations
5. Psychological tests

Data Gathering Techniques

1. The Direct or the Interview Method:
In this method, the researcher has direct contact with the researcher.
A: Clarification can be done easily.
D: Costly and time-consuming

2. The Indirect or Questionnaire Method:

The researcher gives or distributes the questionnaire to the respondents either by personal delivery or by mail.
A: Saves time and money; large number of samples can be reached.
D: Problem of retrieval
CHARACTERISTICS OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
1. There is a descriptive title/name for the questionnaire.
2. It is designed to achieve objectives.
3. The directions are clear.
4. It is designed for easy tabulation.
5. It avoids the use of double negatives.
6. It also avoids double barreled questions.
7. It phrases questions well for all respondents.
Types of Questionnaires
1. Open – this type has an unlimited response.
2. Closed – this type limits the scope of responses.
3. Combination – this type is a combination of open and closed types of questionnaires
4. Multiple choice – allows respondent to select answer/s from the list.
5. Ranking – asks respondents to rank the given items.
6. Scales – asks respondents to give his/her degree of agreement to a statement (Likert-scale)
3. The Registration Method:
This method of gathering data is governed by laws.
A: Most reliable source of data
D: Data are limited to what are listed in the documents

4. The Experimental Method:

This method of gathering data is used to find out cause and effect relationships.
A: Can go beyond pain description
D: Lots of threats to internal and external validity
 LEARNER’S PACKET in Elementary Statistics
Quarter 1 / Week 7

MELC/s:

Topic: Population and Sample (Sampling Techniques)

Illustrative Examples:
POPULATION – identifies the totality of objects under investigation. The researcher may use the population as subject
of studies when it is small and manageable when employing statistical methods. However, if the population is too
large, the researcher may use the representative sample.

SAMPLING – it refers to the method of getting a small but representative cross-section of the population. It is a finite
number of objects chosen from population.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Samples are chosen in such a way that each member of the population has a known though not necessarily
equal chance of being included in the samples.
• Avoids biases
• It provides the basis for calculating the margin of error.
Types of Probability Sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multi- Sampling

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Each member of the population does not have a known chance of being included in the sample. Instead, personal
judgment plays a very important role in the selection.
Non-probability sampling is one of the sources of errors in research.

TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. A CONVENIENCE sample is simply one where the units that are selected for inclusion in the sample are the
easiest to access.
 2. QUOTA SAMPLING
This is very similar to the stratified random sampling. The only difference is that the selection of the members
of the samples in stratified sampling is done randomly.

3. JUDGMENTAL /PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

Choosing the respondents on the basis of pre-determined criteria set by the researcher.

4. SNOWBALL SAMPLING is particularly appropriate when the population you are interested in is hidden and/or
hard-to-reach.

5. SELF-SELECTION SAMPLING is appropriate when we want to allow units or cases, whether individuals or
organizations, to choose to take part in research on their own accord.

Difference between non-probability sampling and probability sampling:

 LEARNER’S PACKET in Elementary Statistics
Quarter 1 / Week 8
MELC/s:

Topic: Presentation of Data (Textual, Tabular, and Graphical)

Illustrative Examples:
PRESENTATION OF DATA
This refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts, so that logical and statistical conclusions can be
derived from the collected measurements.

Data may be presented in three methods:

1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical

TEXTUAL PRESENTATION
- The data gathered are presented in paragraph form.
- Data are written and read.
- It is a combination of texts and figures.

Example:
Of the 150 sample interviewed, the following complaints were noted: 27 for lack of books in the library, 25 for a dirty
playground, 20 for lack of laboratory equipment, 17 for a not well maintained university buildings.
- a combination of text and figures. This is usually found in news items concerning business, finance, economics, and
industries.
The reader acquires information through reading the gathered data. Readers are directed to pay particular
attention on specific data such as comparisons, contrast, syntheses, generalizations, or findings. However, this
method, when employed alone elicits boredom.
It is a weak mean of presenting the quantitative comparisons or relations among quantitative or numerical data
attractively and interestingly.
TABULAR PRESENTATION
- Method of presenting data using the statistical table.
- A systematic organization of data in columns and rows.

Parts of a Statistical Table

1. table Heading – consists of table number and title
2. Stubs – classifications or categories which are found at the left side of the body of the table.
3. Box Head – the top of the column.
4. Body – main part of the table.
5. Footnotes – any statement or note inserted
6. Source Note – source of the statistics.
- a table is a full presentation of collected facts arranged in a most logical manner, with rows or columns.
The tabular method is a more effective way of presenting relationships or comparisons of numerical data. It
provides a more precise, systematic and orderly presentation of data in rows and columns. This method results to easy
and comprehensible comparison of figure.
1. CONTINGENCY
2. STEM AND LEAF
3. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

1. CONTINGENCY TABLE
This is a table which shows the data enumerated by cell. On type of such table is the “r by c” (r x c) where the
columns refer to “c” samples and the rows to “r” choices or alternatives
Parts of a good statistical table:
1. Table caption
3. Box Head
2. Stub
4. Body

2. STEM-LEAF PLOT
Vocabulary
Leaf – the last number (trailing digit)
Stem – anything a to the left of the very last number (sometimes that is “0”; sometimes it is two numbers). It is the
leading digit.
Key – an explanation of the stem and leaf
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
Kinds of Graphs or Diagrams
1. Bar Graph – used to show relationships/comparison between groups.
2. Pie or Circle Graph – shows percentages effectively.
3. Line Graph – most useful in displaying data that changes continuously over time.
4. Pictograph – or pictogram. It uses small identical of figures of objects called isotopes in making comparisons. Each
picture represents a definite quantity.
Kinds of Graph
1. Bar graph
A bar graph depicts amounts or frequencies for different categories of data by a series of bars. A bar graph can
be horizontal or vertical.

The election results in the senior assembly.

Candidates for President Number of Votes
/Melvin 28
Bong 32
Tony 40
Eugene 51
Homer 49

2. Histogram
A histogram is a bar graph in which the score frequencies are represented by a series of columns. The width of
each column correspond to the interval size, and the height of each column corresponds to the frequencies in
each interval. The midpoint of each interval is in the middle of the column.
3. Line Graph
A line graph is a visual comparison of how two variables—shown on the x- and y-axes—are related or vary with
each other. It shows related information by drawing a continuous line between all the points on a grid

4. Pictograph
A pictograph is a graph in which pictures or symbols are used. A pictograph uses one or more rows of
identical symbols, has a key explaining the meaning of the symbol, and is frequently used to compare output.
5. Pie Chart or Circle Graph
Depicts the percentage represented by each alternative as a slice of a circular pie; the larger the slice, the
greater the percentage.

To construct a pie chart, first convert the distribution into a percentage distribution.
PRESENTING DATA USING MS EXCEL
Steps to follow to create a chart in MS Excel
 LEARNER’S PACKET in Elementary Statistics
Quarter 1 / Week 9

MELC/s:

Topic: Frequency Distribution Table (Ungrouped and Grouped Data)

Illustrative Examples:
Frequency Distribution Table is a table which shows the data arranged into different classes (or categories) and the
number of cases (or frequencies) which fall into each class.

Sample of a Frequency Distribution Table for Ungrouped Data

Frequency Distribution Table for the Ages of 20 Students Enrolled in Statistics

Age Frequency
12 2
13 1
14 2
15 4
16 6
17 4
n = 20

Sample of a Frequency Distribution Table for Grouped Data

Frequency Distribution Table for the Quiz Scores of 50 Students in Geometry
Scores Frequency
0-2 1
3-5 2
6-8 13
9-11 15
12-14 19
n = 50
STEPS IN MAKING A GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
1. Find the range.
2. Find the class interval.
3. Set up the classes.
- real limits or exact limits
- integral limits
4. Tally the scores.