Acids - Bases & Salts (S.2 SJB)

WATER AND HYDROGEN
WATER
Water is a chemical compound consisting of oxygen and hydrogen. Its chemical
formula is H2O.
Sources of water
1. Rain water
The water originates from rain and it is relatively pure with no dissolved minerals.
However, it contains suspended materials and dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide
and sulphur dioxide. Rain water is good for washing as it forms lather easily with soap
and does not contain dissolved salts. It is also good for drinking since it has a flat taste.
2. Wells and spring water

The water comes from underground and is obtained by drilling the ground inform of a
bore hole or, the water just springs out of the ground. It is actually rain water that has
drained into the ground and collected into a pool of underground water. It has less
suspended materials but contain dissolved mineral salts making it good for drinking. It
may not be good for washing because of the dissolved mineral salts that delay the
formation of lather.
3. River and lake water

The water is obtained from rivers and lakes. It contains both suspended materials and
dissolved minerals. As water flows in to rivers and lakes, it gathers floating materials
and pollutants such as sewage and industrial wastes, so it is not good for washing and
drinking.
4. Sea and ocean water

These provide large sources of water. The water contains a lot of suspended materials
and dissolved substances. The mineral salts accumulate settle at the bottom of the
water and the water may become saturated with the salt. This is why the water tastes
salty.
5. Ice caps
The water is obtained from melting ice and it is relatively pure. The ice formed at the
peaks of mountains melts and the water runs down forming springs.
Uses of water
1. Biological use
All biological processes in living organisms require water as a medium for the reactions.
For example, photosynthesis, excretion, transport of materials and transmission of
impulses.
2. Domestic use
Drinking, cooking, washing, bathing, mopping, construction, recreation e.t.c.
3. Farm use
Irrigation, for dipping animals, for drinking by animals, for fish farming e.t.c.
4. Industrial use
Water is used as a solvent in many industries, for cleaning, for cooling purposes
especially in power stations, used in steam engines, generating hydroelectricity,
transportation using boats, ships e.t.c, for recreation purposes and construction.
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Water cycle
Water cycle is the process by which water circulates round the earth. The driving force
for the cycle is the sun.
The water from the water bodies like seas, lakes, rivers e.t.c. evaporates into the
atmosphere due to the sun heat. The vapor cools in the atmosphere and then
condenses to form clouds which fall as rain. The rain then flows back into the water
bodies.
N.B. Water vapor in the atmosphere may also result from transpiration processes in
plants and respiration processes of all living organisms and burning of starchy food
materials forming carbon dioxide and water which are expelled in to the atmosphere.
Water pollution
This is the discharge of unwanted materials/ substances into water bodies. The un
wanted materials are generally called pollutants and are harmful to living organisms.
Examples include; acids, bases, insecticides, fertilizers, sewage, solid particles, oil e.t.c.
Sources of water pollutants
1. Atmospheric gases like carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide. These gases dissolve in the rain water making it acidic.
2. Dissolved materials from rocks and soil.
3. Industrial discharge (effluent)
4. Fertilizers washed from farm lands by running water.
5. Insecticides and herbicides resulting from spraying from homes and farms.
6. Soaps, detergents and other chemicals from homes, salons e.t.c.
Water treatment
This is the removal of harmful substances from water making it suitable for use
(domestic use. In Uganda, the treatment of water is done by Uganda National Water
and Sewage Cooperation (UNWSC).
Processes involved in water treatment are:
1. Addition of chemicals
Chemicals are added to water to remove harmful substances and neutralize acids and
bases. The chemicals as well remove hardness of water, precipitate metals and cause
suspended solid particles to settle.
2. Filtration
Filtration is carried out to remove the solid particles. Water is made to pass through
wire mesh screens to remove large and floating objects and then through sand and
gravel to filter out smaller solid particles. The last part of the filter bed consists of sand
with some microbes grown to remove some bacteria that might be harmful.
3. Chlorination and fluoridation

Chlorine or fluorine is added to kill the harmful organisms such as bacteria. Only a
small concentration of chlorine is used because it is harmful. However, in swimming
pools, high concentration of chlorine is used as the water may contain high bacteria
concentration is not meant for drinking. In some countries, ozone is used instead of
chlorine.
Summary of water purification process
Sewage
Sewage is running water containing wastes from toilets, bathrooms, sinks, factories
and streets of towns.
Sewage treatment
The reason for treating sewage is to remove harmful pollutants before allowing the
sewage to join water bodies. The following are the processes involved in sewage
treatment:
1. Separation of solid and liquid wastes through sieving and sedimentation.
2. Addition of certain bacteria to the liquid wastes to convert harmful materials to
harmless substances.
3. Addition of chlorine to kill the harmful bacteria
4. The liquid waste (effluent) from the treatment plant is the discharged into the water
body. The solid waste from the treatment of sewage is the called the sludge and has a
number of uses.
- It is used as fertilizer because it is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.
- It is used as a raw material to produce bio gas.
- It is used for road surfacing since it forms hard solids.
- It is used in land reclamation to fill quarries.
Properties of water
Physical properties
1. Pure water is a clear, colorless and tasteless liquid.
2. It boils at 100˚C and melts at 0˚C.
3. It has a density of 1g/cm3 at 4˚C.
4. Pure water is neutral to litmus i.e. has no effect on litmus.
5. Water expands on freezing.
6. It is a universal solvent.
Test for water

Water is chemically tested for using;
(i) anhydrous copper (II) sulphate. When water is added to anhydrous
copper(II)sulphate, it changes color from white to blue.
(ii) cobalt (II) chloride paper. when water is added to cobalt chloride paper, it
changes color from blue to pink.
a) Potassium
When a piece of potassium is placed into a trough containing water, it reacts very
vigorously, catches fire and burns with a purple flame; it darts on the water surface
producing a hissing sound and white fumes of hydrogen gas. It explodes with a pop
sound as it disappears. The resultant solution turns red litmus paper to blue.
K(s) + H2O(l) ` KOH(aq) + H2(g)
b) Sodium
Sodium reacts vigorously with water.

When a piece of sodium is placed in cold
water, it melts into a silvery ball and
darts on the surface of water as it
produces a hissing sound with evolution
of a colorless hydrogen gas. The sodium
gradually becomes smaller and smaller
as it reacts with water to produce an
alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide.
N.B. Sodium burns with a yellow flame if its movement on water is restricted.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(l) + H2(g)
c) Calcium
Calcium reacts steadily with water. When a small piece of calcium is dropped is water,
it sinks to the bottom producing streams of bubbles of a colorless gas (hydrogen gas)
and an alkaline solution that turns red litmus paper blue. The water turns milky as the
calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble in water.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
d) Magnesium
Magnesium sinks to the bottom and reacts very slowly with cold water to produce very
few bubbles of hydrogen gas on the surface of the metal and an alkaline solution of
magnesium hydroxide.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
However, hot magnesium reacts rapidly with steam, burning with a bright white flame
leaving white ash of magnesium oxide. The hydrogen gas produced burns with a blue
flame in air.
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
Note
1. The magnesium metal used is first cleaned to remove the oxide coating due to
corrosion.
2. The cotton wool soaked in water is heated to release steam that reacts with the
heated magnesium.
3. The boiling tube is first heated to drive out all air (oxygen).
e) Iron and zinc
Zinc and iron do not react with cold water but reacts with steam when heated to red
hot producing their respective oxides and hydrogen gas. Zinc reacts faster than iron.
Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Yellow when hot
White when cold
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Triiron tetra oxide
(Blue-black)
Aluminium does not react with water or steam due to the formation of an insoluble
oxide layer which prevents contact between water and the metal inhibiting any further
reaction.
All the other metals below iron do not react with either cold water or even steam.
2. Reaction with oxides
Water reacts with metallic oxides (basic oxides) to form alkaline solutions. E.g.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
With nonmetallic oxides (acidic oxides), water forms acidic solutions. E.g.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
HARDNESS OF WATER
Water can be classified as hard or soft.
Soft water is one which forms lather readily with soap. Examples of soft water include:
rain water, distilled water, de-ionized water.
Hard water
This is water that does not form lather readily with soap. Examples of hard water
include: tap water, sea water, borehole, well water, spring water.
Causes of hardness of water

Hardness of water is caused by the presence of the calcium ion (Ca2+) and magnesium
ion (Mg2+). These ions reach water when the soluble salts of calcium and magnesium
are dissolved by rain water and carried to water bodies. The compounds that cause
hardness of water include; calcium hydrogen carbonate (Ca(HCO3)2), magnesium
hydrogen carbonate(Mg(HCO3)2), calcium chloride (CaCl2), magnesium chloride (MgCl2),
Calcium sulphate (CaSO4), Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4).
Effects of magnesium and calcium ions on soap
Soap is a sodium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid. It is known as sodium stearate
(Na-st). Soap reacts with magnesium or calcium ions to form dirty white solids called
scum. So, when hard water is used for washing, a lot of soap is used because part of
the soap initially reacts with calcium and magnesium ions to form scum.
CaSO4(aq) + 2Na-st(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + Ca-st2(s)
Types of hard water

There are two types of hard water i.e. permanent and temporary hard water.
(a) Temporary hard water
This is a type of hard water whose hardness can be removed by boiling. I.e. the water
can be made soft by boiling.
Causes: it is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium hydrogen carbonate or
magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
(b) Permanent hardness
Is a type of hard water whose hardness cannot be removed by boiling. I.e. the hard
water cannot become soft on boiling.
Causes: it is caused by calcium sulphate, calcium chloride, magnesium sulphate and
magnesium chloride.
Distinguishing between permanent hard water, temporary hard water and soft
water
Procedure
- Place equal volumes of each unboiled water samples in three different conical flasks.
- Run soap solution from the burette into each sample while shaking the conical flask
until when lather forms.
- Note the volume of soap solution required to form lather with each of the unboiled
water samples.
Results
The soft water required the least volume of soap solution to form lather compared to
the samples of hard water.
Repeat the above procedure with boiled water sample.
Results
Soft water required the same volume of soap solution to form lather as the unboiled
soft water.
Temporary hard water after boiling required less volume of soap solution to form lather than the
unboiled one. This is because; the water was made soft by boiling and thus formed lather readily.
Permanent hard water even after boiling required the same volume of soap solution as
the unboiled to form lather. This is because even after boiling, the water still remained
hard and took time to form lather.
Methods of softening water

Removal of only temporary hardness of water
1. Boiling (Physical method)
Boiling decomposes calcium and magnesium hydrogen carbonates to their respective

carbonates, water and carbon dioxide gas. The calcium and magnesium ions are
removed from the water as insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates. The calcium
and magnesium carbonates may be deposited as solids at the bottom of the boiler and
are referred to as boiler scales of kettle fur.
(boiling)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Disadvantages of boiler scale/fur

- The fur produced is an insulator hence a lot of heat is required for boiling and this
wastes a lot of fuel or electricity.
- The fur produced may also block pipes carrying boiled water and possibly causing it
to burst.
By chemical means the fur can be removed from the kettle by adding mineral acids like
hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2. Addition of calcium hydroxide (lime water) (chemical method)

Calcium hydroxide reacts with the soluble magnesium or calcium hydrogen carbonates
to form insoluble magnesium and calcium carbonates.
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l)
The disadvantage of this method is that when excess lime water is used, the water
becomes hard again.
It has an advantage in that it is cheaper than boiling as calcium hydroxide is readily
available.
3. Addition of aqueous ammonia (ammonium hydroxide solution) (chemical
method)
During the process, the soluble hydrogen carbonates are converted into insoluble
carbonates. This enables magnesium and calcium ions to be removed from the water.
2NH4OH(aq) + Mg(HCO3)2(aq) MgCO3(s) + (NH4)2CO3(aq) + H2O(aq)
Methods for softening both temporary and permanent hardness

4. Distillation (physical method)
During distillation, the soft water is collected as the distillate and the dissolved calcium
and magnesium ions remain in the distillation flask as residue.
The advantage of this method is that the water obtained is actually pure. However, it
can only be used in small scale because it is expensive.
5. Addition of sodium carbonate solution (washing soda) (chemical method)

Sodium carbonate converts magnesium or calcium ions into insoluble carbonates.
Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(HCO3)2(aq) 2NaHCO3(aq) + CaCO3(s)
The method is cheap and easy to carry out on a large scale.
6. Ion exchange method (permutit) (chemical method)

The calcium and magnesium ions in hard water can be exchanged with sodium ions
using a suitable ion exchange material. This makes the water to become soft. The
common ion exchange materials are zeolites and permutit. Zeolites are natural
occurring forms of sodium aluminium silicate and permutit is the artificial form.
Zeolite/permutit can be represented by the formula Na2Y.
CaCl2(aq) + Na2Y(aq) CaY(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
MgSO4(aq) + Na2Y(aq) MgY(s) + 2Na2SO4(aq)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Na2Y(aq) CaY(s) + NaHCO3(aq)
The method works on the principle of exchange of ions. During the process, calcium
and magnesium ions are removed from water and they appear as precipitates of
aluminium silicate.
The advantage here is that, the permutit can be recovered and used several times.
Advantages of hard water

1. Calcium compounds in water are important in our diet for strong teeth and bones.
2. Magnesium in hard water is important for photosynthesis since it is used for the
formation of chlorophyll.
3. Calcium in hard water is responsible for the formation of strong shells of many
animals e.g. snails and egg shells.
4. Hard water tastes better and it is used in the brewing industry.
5. Hard water reduces lead poisoning and it is the only type of water transported by
lead pipes.
Disadvantages of hard water

1. It wastes a lot of soap, as more of the soap reacts the calcium and magnesium ions
to form scum. There for lather does not form readily.
2. When hard water ids used for washing, it leaves dirty marks on cloth due to
formation of scum.
3. Hard water forms kettle fur and boiler scales which are insulators, therefore a lot of
fuel or electricity is used during boiling of water.
4. The boiler scales may block the pipes carrying boiling water hence causing the pipe
to burst.
Exercise
1. Explain why soap does not form lather readily at first with hard water and then
eventually forms the lather?
2. Explain what is meant by hardness of water. What are the causes of temporary and
permanent hardness of water? How do these compounds that cause hardness of water
reach the water?
3. A white precipitate is formed when
i) Carbon dioxide is blown into lime water
ii) Temporary hard water is boiled
iii) Washing soda is added to water containing dissolved magnesium chloride.
HYDROGEN
Hydrogen is the smallest element and the lightest gas. Hydrogen usually does not occur
is Free State but in combined states as water, acid, hydrocarbons and other organic
compounds.
Laboratory preparation of hydrogen
Hydrogen is prepared in the laboratory by the action of either dilute hydrochloric acid
or dilute sulphuric acid on zinc granules or zinc metal.
Equation: Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
OR: Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
Set up
Place some zinc granules in the flask and add to it a little copper (II) sulphate solution.
The copper (II) sulphate acts as a catalyst in the preparation of hydrogen gas.
Arrange the apparatus as shown above and add dilute sulphuric acid/ hydrochloric
acid to the zinc granules through the funnel.
Effervescence occurs as hydrogen gas is produced. The gas is then collected over water
since it is insoluble in water.
Ionic equation: Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2 (g)
However, if the gas is required dry, it is passed through a wash bottle containing
concentrated sulphuric acid and collected by upward delivery method or the gas is
passed through a U-tube containing fused calcium chloride to dry the gas as shown;
Test for hydrogen
When a burning splint is brought into a gas jar of hydrogen, the splint will be
extinguished with a ‘pop’ sound.
Properties of hydrogen
a) Physical properties
- It is the lightest gas known (lighter than air)
- It is colorless, odourless and tasteless
- It is slightly soluble in water
- It is a neutral gas (has no effects on indicators)
b) Chemical properties
1. Combustion (burning) of hydrogen
Hydrogen burns in air with a faint blue flame to produce water vapor. The gaseous
product can be condensed in a cool environment to form a colorless liquid the turns
white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate to blue indicating that it is water.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
2. Reduction action of hydrogen
Hydrogen is a reducing agent. It removes oxygen from the oxides of some metals (less
reactive metals) like lead and copper forming the metal and the hydrogen gas itself is
oxidized to water.
When dry hydrogen gas is passed over heated copper (II) oxide in a combustion tube, a
red glow spreads through the copper (II) oxide and the oxide turns from black to brown
as the oxide is reduced to copper metal (brown in color). The hydrogen itself is oxidized
to water which collects as a colorless liquid.
CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(l)
Hydrogen also reduces lead (II) oxide and tri-iron tetra-oxide to lead and iron
respectively.
Note:
(i) Reduction is the addition of hydrogen to a substance or the removal of oxygen
from a substance.
(ii) Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from a substance or the addition of oxygen to
a substance.
3. Reaction with chlorine

A mixture of chlorine and hydrogen appears not to react at room temperature, but
when exposed to sun light or heated, the mixture explodes forming misty fumes of
hydrogen chloride gas.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
4. Reaction with reactive metals

Hydrogen reacts with highly reactive metals to form hydrides. For example, sodium
reacts with hydrogen to form sodium hydride.
2Na(s) + H2(g) 2NaH(s)
Uses of hydrogen
1. Hydrogen is a very light gas and therefore used to fill balloons.
2. Hydrogen with oxygen form oxy-hydrogen flame which is very hot and used for
welding and cutting metals.
3. Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia by Haber process.
4. Hydrogenation of vegetable oil makes it hard and used for making margarine and
cooling fats like blue band and kimbo.
5. It is used in the manufacture of hydrogen bombs.
6. Hydrogen is also used as fuel for rockets.
Exercise
1.(a) (i) With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe how a dry sample of
hydrogen can be prepared in the laboratory.
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction that takes place.
(b) Name the catalyst used during the preparation if the reaction is slow.
(c) Dry hydrogen was passed over heated copper(ii) oxide.
(i) State what was observed.
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction.
2.
Topic: ACIDS BASES AND INDICATORS
Sub Topic: ACIDS: Basicity and strength
ACIDS
An acid is a compound which when dissolved in water forms hydrogen ions as the only positively
charged ions. In nature, acids occur in fruits like lemons, oranges and pineapples.
Acids are categorized as mineral acids or organic acids.
Examples of minerals acids include: Nitric acid, Hydrochloric acid and Sulphuric acid
Examples of organic acids include: Ethanoic acid, Propanoic acid and methanoic acid
Basicity of an acid:
The basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions produced by one molecule of the acid
when dissolved in water. It is the number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in the molecule of an
acid.
Monobasic acid is one which produces only one hydrogen ion per molecule of acid when
dissolved in water. Examples of monobasic acids include; hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and
ethanoic acid.
Dibasic acid is one which produces two hydrogen ions per molecule of the acid when dissolved
in water. Examples of these include sulphuric acid and carbonic acid.
Tribasic acid is one which produces three hydrogen ions per molecule of acid when dissolved in
water. Example is phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Strength of acids:
Acids are either weak or strong
Strong acids
A strong acid is an acid which is completely ionized when dissolved in water. The aqueous
solution of a strong acid is composed of only ions of the acid and water. Examples of strong acids
and their ionization equations:
(a) Nitric acid
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
(b) Hydrochloric acid
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
(c) Sulphuric acid
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Weak acids:
A weak acid is an acid which is partially (incompletely) ionized when dissolved in water. The
aqueous solution of a weak acid contains only a few ions of the acid, unionized molecules of the
acid and water.
Examples of weak acids and their equations of partial ionization.
(a) Ethanoic acid: CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
(b) Propanoic acid: CH3CH2COOH(aq) CH3CH2COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
(c) Methanoic acid: HCOOH(aq) HCOO-(aq) + H+(aq)
Properties of acids:
• Acids are soluble in water.
• They have a sour taste.
• They are corrosive i.e. burn the skin
• They have a pH less than 7.
• They turn blue litmus paper red.
Chemical properties (reactions) of acids
1. Acids react with bases (basic oxides and hydroxides) to form salts and water only. This is a
neutralization reaction.
Example:
(a) Sodium hydroxide is neutralized by hydrochloric acid to form sodium chloride (salt) and
water. The solution formed has no effect on litmus paper (as long as there isn’t any excess sodium
hydroxide or acid i.e. complete neutralization).
Equation: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq)+ H2O(l)
The reaction with potassium hydroxide is similar, forming potassium chloride and water.
Note: The salts formed using hydrochloric acid are called chlorides. Those formed from nitric
acid are nitrates while those from sulphuric acid are sulphates.
(b) Copper (II) oxide reacts with sulphuric acid to form copper (II) sulphate (salt) and water.
Observation: Black powder dissolves in the acid to form a blue solution.
Equation: CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
2. Acids react with highly electropositive metals to form salts and hydrogen gas.
Example:
(a) Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with magnesium powder (or ribbon) to form magnesium
sulphate and hydrogen gas.
Observation: Grey solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas to form a colourless
solution.
Equation: Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(b) When zinc powder is added to dilute hydrochloric acid, the grey powder dissolves with
effervescence (bubbles) of a colourless gas (hydrogen) and form a colourless solution of zinc
chloride (salt).
Equation: Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
3. Acids liberate carbon dioxide from carbonates and hydrogencarbonates. I.e.

Examples:
(a) Copper (II) carbonate dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid to form copper (II) sulphate (salt),
water and carbon dioxide gas. Green powder dissolves to form a blue solution; and effervescence
(bubbles) of a colourless gas.
Equation: CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(b) Lead (II) carbonate (white powder) dissolves in dilute nitric acid to form a colourless
solution of lead (II) nitrate and carbon dioxide gas.
Equation: PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Sub Topic: Bases and Alkalis
A base is a compound which contains an oxide or hydroxide ion and when reacted with an acid,
forms a salt and water only.
Examples of bases include;

Calcium oxide, Magnesium oxide, Aluminium oxide, Zinc oxide, Sodium hydroxide and
Potassium hydroxide.
Solubility of bases
(a) Insoluble bases:
These are bases which do not dissolve in water. Examples include: copper (II) oxide, zinc oxide,
lead (II) hydroxide, iron (II) hydroxide, iron (III) hydroxide, copper (II) hydroxide etc.
(b) Soluble bases (alkalis)
Alkalis are bases which dissolve in water to form hydroxide ions as the only negatively charged
ions.
Examples of alkali include: Sodium hydroxide and Potassium hydroxide
Properties of alkalis:
(i) Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue.
(ii) Alkali react with acids to form salts and water only. This is a neutralization reaction in
which hydroxide ions from the alkali (high pH) combine with hydrogen ions from the acid (low
pH) to form water (neutral pH). I.e. Alkali + acid salt + water
𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) H2O(l)
Example: HType equation here.
• Alkalis liberate ammonia gas when heated with ammonium salts. The hydroxide ions from
alkali react with ammonium (NH4+) ion from the ammonium salt to form to a colourless gas
which has a chocking smell and turns wet red litmus paper to blue (ammonia gas).
Example: Ca(OH)2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(s) CaSO4(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)
STRENGTH OF ALKALIS
Strong alkalis:
A strong alkali is one that is completely ionized when dissolved aqueous solution. The aqueous
solution of a strong alkali is composed of ions of the alkali and water. Examples include sodium
hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.
Aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is made up of sodium ions, hydroxide ions and water.
Ionization equation of alkalis; NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Note: Potassium hydroxide solution is composed of potassium ions, hydroxide ions and water.
Weak alkali
A weak alkali is one that is partially (incompletely) ionized when dissolved in aqueous solution.
The aqueous solution of a weak alkali contains few ions of the alkali, water and unionised
molecules of the alkali.
Example of a weak alkali is ammonia solution. It is composed of very few hydroxide ions, few
ammonium ions, many free ammonia molecules and water.
Ammonia is very soluble in water. When dissolved, a small percentage of it ionizes as shown in
the equation below:
Sub Topic: Indicators
An indicator is a substance that has different colours in acidic or alkaline solutions.

Examples of indicators:
Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange, Red litmus, Blue litmus and Methyl red.
Colour of indicators in alkaline or acidic solutions:
NB: Litmus is the commonest indicator and it is extracted from lichen. It is either red or blue in
solution or on paper. It can also be purple on paper.
Universal indicator:
It is a mixture of indicators. It shows a series of colour changes as the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution changes.
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance is called pH and is expressed by a number
whose value lies between 0 – 14 (the pH scale). The pH of water and other neutral substances is
7. Acidic solutions have a pH number less than 7 (low pH) while alkaline solutions have a pH
greater than 7 (high pH).
Examples of neutral solutions are salts of chlorides, sulphates and nitrates of sodium, potassium,
calcium and magnesium.
The pH scale
pH scale is a range of numbers from 1 to 14 used to express acidity and alkalinity. PH is related to
the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution. PH is a measure of the hydrogen ion
concentration.
NB: 0 – 4 strong acid 4 – 6.0: weak acid 7: neutral 8 – 10: weak alkaline
11 -14: strong alkaline
Topic: EFFECT OF HEAT ON SALTS
Sub Topic: Hydrated salts
Hydrated salts are salts that contain water of crystallization. They exist in form of crystals. When
gently heated, hydrated salts lose their water of crystallization and the crystals turn into powder.
The water given off forms a colourless condensate which turns white anhydrous copper (II)
sulphate to blue.
Examples:
(a) Effect of heat on sodium carbonate crystals
Observation:
The shiny white crystals crumble into a white powder and a colourless liquid condensate.
Equation:
Preparation of sodium carbonate crystals from anhydrous sodium carbonate

• Dissolve anhydrous sodium carbonate in a minimum amount of water.
• Heat the solution to a point of saturation.
• Allow the saturated solution to cool and the crystals to form.
• Filter off the crystals and dry them between filter papers.
Equation:
(b) Effect of gentle heat on hydrated copper (II) sulphate

Observation:
Blue crystals change to a white powder and a colourless liquid condensate is formed.
Equation:
(c) Effect of gentle heat on hydrated iron (II) sulphate

Observation:
Green crystals turn into white powder and a colourless liquid condensate is formed.
Equation:
Sub Topic: Effect of heat on carbonates
Generally, when metal carbonate are heated, they decompose to form carbon dioxide gas and a
metal oxide. Carbon dioxide is a colourless gas that is easily identified by passing it through a
small amount of calcium hydroxide solution (lime water) as shown in the set up below.
Observation:
Colour of metal carbonate may change (e.g. green powder turning black); and a colourless gas
that forms a white precipitate with calcium hydroxide solution (or turns lime water milky).
(a) Sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate do not decompose on heating because these
carbonates are stable. The stability of a metallic carbonate decreases with decrease in reactivity of
the metal. There is no observable change on heating anhydrous sodium carbonate and potassium
carbonate.
(b) The carbonates of magnesium, calcium, zinc, lead, iron and copper decompose on
heating to form the corresponding metal oxides and carbon dioxide gas.
(i) Effect of heat on lead (II) carbonate
Observation:
White powder changes reddish brown when hot and then yellow on cooling. The gas given off
turns lime water milky.
Explanation:
Lead (II) carbonate decomposes on heating to form lead (II) oxide which is reddish brown when
hot and yellow when cold. The gas given off is carbon dioxide.
Equation:
(ii) Effect of heat on zinc carbonate

Observation:
White powder turns yellow when hot and white on cooling.
Explanation:
Zinc carbonate which is white decomposes to form zinc oxide which is yellow when hot and
white when cold.
Equation:
(iii) Copper (II) carbonate

Observation:
Green powder turns black when heated.
Explanation:
Copper (II) carbonate is a green powder. It decomposes to form copper (II) oxide which is black.
Equation:
(iv) Magnesium and calcium carbonate

Observation:
The white solid remain white and a colourless gas is given off that turns lime water milk.
Explanation:
Magnesium and calcium carbonate are white and decompose when heated. The oxide formed is
white and therefore no observable colour change. A colourless gas, carbon dioxide, is formed.
Equation:
(c) Ammonium carbonate decomposes when heated to form ammonia gas, carbon dioxide gas
and water. Ammonia is a colourless gas with a chocking smell, which turns red litmus paper to
blue.
Equation:
(d) Silver carbonate and mercury carbonate decompose on heating to form the metal (silver
and mercury respectively) and carbon dioxide. The metal oxide is not formed because it is
unstable and therefore decomposes further on formation.
Sub Topic: Effect of heat on nitrates
All nitrates decompose when heated. The product of the decomposition varies.
Almost all nitrates give off oxygen gas when they decompose, except ammonium nitrate. Nitrates
of heavy metal give off nitrogen dioxide gas and the metal oxide. Nitrogen dioxide gas is a
reddish brown gas (brown fumes).
(a) Sodium and potassium nitrate decompose on heating to form the corresponding nitrite and
oxygen gas.
Equation: 2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(l) + O2(g)
(b) Calcium magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead and copper nitrates decompose on
heating to form the corresponding metal oxides, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas
(i) Effect of heat on lead(II) nitrate
Procedure:
• Put a spatula end-full of lead(II) nitrate in a dry test tube.
• Heat strongly until no further change.
• Test the gas with wet blue litmus paper and a glowing splint
• Note the colour of the residue when hot and when cold.
Observation:
White crystals melt with a cracking sound; reddish brown fumes turn wet blue litmus paper to
red; and the glowing splint is rekindled; the residue is reddish brown when hot and yellow on
cooling.
Explanation:
Lead (II) nitrate decomposes to form nitrogen dioxide gas which is reddish brown and acidic. The
glowing splint is rekindled by oxygen gas which is colourless. The residue is lead (II) oxide
which is reddish brown when hot and yellow cold.
Equation:
(ii) Effect of heat on calcium nitrate

Observation:
White solid decomposes to form reddish brown fumes and a glowing splint is rekindled. The
residue is white.
Explanation:
Calcium nitrate is a white solid. It decomposes to form calcium oxide which is white, nitrogen
dioxide which is a reddish brown gas, and oxygen gas which is colourless.
Equation: Ca(NO3)2(s) 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Note: similar observations are made with magnesium nitrate and aluminium nitrate
(iii) Effect of heat on zinc nitrate
Observation:
White solid turns to a yellow solid which turns back to with on cooing; reddish brown fumes are
formed and a glowing splint is rekindled.
Explanation:
Zinc nitrate is decomposed by heat to form zinc oxide which is yellow when hot and white when
cold, nitrogen dioxide is given off which is a brown gas and oxygen gas which is colourless and
rekindles a glowing splint.
(iv) Effect of heat on copper (II) nitrate

Observation:
Blue crystals melt to form a blue liquid and then a black powder; reddish brown fumes are formed
and a glowing splint rekindled.
Explanation:
Copper (II) nitrate is decomposed by heat to form copper (II) oxide which is black, nitrogen
dioxide is given off which is a brown gas and oxygen gas which is colourless and rekindles a
glowing splint.
(c) Silver nitrate and mercury nitrate decompose on heating to form nitrogen dioxide, oxygen
and the metal. The metal oxide is not formed because it is unstable.
(d) Ammonium nitrate decomposes on heating to form dinitrogen oxide and water.
The equations for (iv), (v) and (vi) are as below;
Sub Topic: Effect of heat on sulphate
Sulphates are relatively stable compared to other salts. Generally, sulphates do not decompose
when heated, except for hydrated sulphate which lose their water of crystallization when heated to
form anhydrous sulphates
Sulphates of group I (potassium and sodium sulphate), group II (magnesium, calcium, barium
sulphate) and lead are stable and don’t decompose on heating.
A few sulphate however do decompose when heated to form the corresponding metal oxide and
sulphur trioxide gas. Iron (II) sulphate forms two gases, sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide.
(a) Effect of heat on hydrated iron (II) sulphate
Procedure:
Add 2 spatula end-full of hydrated iron (II) sulphate in a dry test tube and heat gently first, the
strongly until no further change. Test the products with anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, and damp
blue litmus paper.
Observation:
Green crystals crumble to a white powder and a colourless condensate is given off which turns
anhydrous copper (II) sulphate to blue. The white powder decomposes to form white fumes that
turn damp blue litmus paper to red. The residue is reddish brown.
Explanation:
The green crystal of hydrated iron(II) sulphate turn to white anhydrous iron(II) sulphate due to
loss of water of crystallization which forms the colourless liquid. White fumes of sulphur trioxide
form which is an acidic gas. The residue is iron (III) oxide which is reddish brown.
Equation: FeSO4.7H2O(s) FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
Then: 2FeSO4(s) Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
NB: Sulphur dioxide given off is an acidic gas with a chocking smell. It is identified using
acidified potassium dichromate solution which it turns from orange to green.
(b) Effect of heat on copper (II) sulphate
Hydrated copper (II) sulphate decomposes on gentle heating to give off a colourless condensate to
form white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate.
Equation: CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
On strong heating, white fumes of sulphur trioxide are given off and a black residue is formed.
Sub Topic: Effect of heat on hydroxides
Potassium and sodium hydroxides are stable and do not decompose on heating. Other
hydroxides decompose to form the corresponding metal oxides and water.
Example:
(a) Copper (II) hydroxide
when heated in a dry test tube the blue solid decomposes to form a black solid and a colourless
liquid condenses on the cooler parts of the test tube.
Equation: Cu(OH)2(s) CuO(s) + H2O(l)
(b) Aluminium hydroxide

The white solid decomposes to form aluminium oxide which is white and a colourless liquid
condenses on the cooler parts of the test tube.
Al(OH)3(s) Al2O3(s) + H2O(l)
Topic: SALTS
Sub Topic: Definition and types of salts
SALTS
Types of salts
1. Normal salts
These are salts formed when all the ionisable hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced by metallic
ions or ammonia ions.
Examples of normal salts include;
(i) All salts of monobasic acids (i.e. hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and ethanoic acid) e.g.
potassium chloride, sodium chloride magnesium nitrate, sodium sulphite etc. Generally all
chlorides and nitrates are normal salts.
(ii) Salts of dibasic acids (i.e. sulphuric acid, carbonic acid and sulphurous acid) in which all
hydrogen ions have been replaced e.g. sodium carbonate, ammonium sulphate, calcium sulphate
etc.
(iii) Salts of tribasic acids (i.e. phosphoric acid) in which all the three hydrogen ions have been
replaced e.g. calcium phosphate, ammonium phosphate etc.
2. Acid salts:
These are salts formed when part of the ionisable hydrogen ions of an acid is replaced by a
metallic ion or an ammonium ion.
Examples of acid salts include;
(i) Salts of dibasic acids in which one of the two hydrogen ions has been replaced e.g.
potassium hydrogen sulphate, calcium hydrogen carbonate, magnesium hydrogen sulphite,
sodium hydrogen sulphate etc.
(ii) Salts of tribasic acid in which one or two of the three hydrogen ions have been replaced e.g.
disodium hydrogen phosphate, calcium hydrogen phosphate and potassium dihydrogen
phosphate.
Note:
• An acid salt is capable of further ionization to release more hydrogen ion in aqueous solution.
This makes the solution of an acid salt acidic.
• Acid salts cannot be formed from monobasic acids. They are only formed from dibasic or
tribasic acids.
Hydrated and anhydrous salts:
A hydrated salt is a salt which contains water of crystallization.
Examples of hydrated salts include;
Anhydrous salts are those which do not contain water of crystallization.

Examples of anhydrous salts:
A crystal is a solid a regular shape, smooth surfaces, sharp edges and definite angles due to
orderly arrangement of the particles (atoms/ions) that make it up.
Crystallization is a process of formation of crystals of a substance from its saturated solution.
Water of crystallization:
Water of crystallization is the definite amount of water with which some substances chemically
combine when they form crystals from their saturated solutions. E.g. Iron (II) sulphate-7-water
contains seven molecules of water of crystallization.
Methods of preparation
The choice of method used to prepare a given salt depends on whether the salt is soluble or
insoluble in water, and whether the salt is deliquescent or not. The methods include:
(a) by action of acids on metals, bases and carbonates.
This method is used for salts that are soluble in water.
(b) Precipitation (double decomposition) method
Precipitation (double decomposition) method is where two soluble substances are mixed and
through exchange of ions, an insoluble salt is formed.
(c) Direct synthesis
This is the direct combination of two elements to form a compound. Direct synthesis is suitable
for preparing both soluble and insoluble salt. It is also used to prepare deliquescent salt. It is
commonly used to prepare salts of group VII.
General solubility rules
1. Preparation of soluble salts:
Method 1
This applies to preparation of salts from metals, insoluble bases (metal oxides) and insoluble
carbonates. The equations for the reactions are:
General procedure:
(i) Add the metal, insoluble metal oxide (base) or metal carbonate to an appropriate warm dilute
acid until the solid is in excess.
(ii) Filter off the excess solid.
(iii) Heat the filtrate to point of saturation.
(iv) Allow the hot saturated solution to cool and crystals to form.
(v) Filter off the crystals and wash them crystals with a little distilled water.
(vi) Dry the crystals between filter papers.
Note:
• Excess solid is added to the acid to ensure that all the acid has reacted and the solution is
neutral.
• Crystals are washed with distilled water to ensure that the final salt is not contaminated (to
remove soluble impurities).
• This method is not suitable for solids that dissolve in water because if added in excess, it will
dissolve in the salt solution and contaminate the product.
Determining the point of saturation
While heating the filtrate, a clean glass rod is dipped into the solution and hold it up in the air to
cool and some crystals appear on the cooling glass rod. When this happens, the solution is
saturated.
Sub Topic: Preparation of soluble salts
(a) Action of dilute acids on metals

This method is suitable for salts of metals like magnesium aluminium zinc and iron, except the
nitrates. Example:
Preparation of magnesium sulphate crystals from magnesium powder
Procedure:
• Half fill a glass beaker with warm dilute sulphuric acid.
• Using a spatula, add magnesium powder to the acid in the beaker, little at a time with constant
stirring until in excess (no more dissolves or effervescence stops).
• Filter off the excess magnesium powder to obtain a filtrate which contains magnesium
sulphate.
• Put the filtrate on an evaporating dish and heat to a point of saturation.
• Allow the resultant hot saturated solution to cool and the crystals to form.
• Wash the crystals with a little distilled water and dry between filter papers.
Equation: Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Other salts prepared in a similar way include:

(b) Reaction of acids with insoluble metal oxides
(i) Preparation of copper (II) sulphate crystals from copper (II) oxide
Procedure:
• half fill a glass beaker with dilute sulphuric acid and warm.
• Using a spatula, add copper (II) oxide little at a time with constant stirring until in excess.
• Filter off the excess copper (II) oxide and transfer the filtrate into an evaporating dish.
• Heat the filtrate to a point of saturation.
• Allow the hot saturated solution to cool and crystals to form.
• Filter off the crystals and wash them with a little distilled water. Dry the crystals between filter
papers or under sunshine.
Equation: CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Note: a similar procedure applies to preparation of:
• Magnesium sulphate crystals from magnesium oxide.
• Zinc sulphate crystals from zinc oxide.
• Lead(II) nitrate from lead(II) oxide
• Copper(II) nitrate from copper(II) oxide
(c) Reaction of acids with insoluble metal carbonates

Preparation of lead (II) nitrate
Lead metal reacts slowly with dilute acid because it is slightly above hydrogen. Therefore lead
cannot be used to prepare the soluble salt of lead (lead (II) nitrate).
Lead (II) nitrate therefore is prepared by action of dilute nitric acid on either lead (II) oxide,
hydroxide or carbonate. Lead (II) nitrate is preferably prepared using lead (II) carbonate
Procedure
• Half fill a glass beaker with dilute nitric acid and warm.
• Using a spatula, add lead (II) carbonate little at a time with constant stirring until in excess.
• Filter off the excess lead (II) carbonate and transfer the filtrate (of lead (II) nitrate) into an
evaporating dish.
• Heat the filtrate (to evaporate off most of the water) to a point of saturation.
• Allow the hot saturated solution to cool and crystals to form.
• Filter off the crystals and wash them with a little distilled water two to three times. Dry the
crystals by pressing between filter papers.
Equation. PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(d) Action of acids on soluble bases (and soluble carbonates)

When a soluble base is added to an acid, one cannot easily tell whether the acid is in excess on
not, unless an indicator is used to detect end point. End point is when all the acid has been
neutralized.
Indicators used include; litmus solution and phenolphthalein.
The method is mainly used to prepare group I salts e.g. sodium sulphate, sodium chloride,
potassium sulphate and potassium chloride.
Preparation of sodium chloride
Method: titration
Materials: Dilute sodium hydroxide, Dilute hydrochloric acid and Litmus solution
Apparatus: Pipette, burette, conical flask, retort stand with clamp, funnel and dropper
Procedure:
• Pipette 25 cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide solution into a clean conical flask.
• Add three drops of litmus solution indicator to the sodium hydroxide solution, using a dropper.
• With aid of a funnel, add dilute hydrochloric acid into a burette and record the level of the
acid.
• Slowly and carefully add the acid in drops from the burette into a conical flask containing
sodium hydroxide solution.
• Shake the mixture carefully after each addition.
• Continue adding drop by drop of the acid until there solution changes colour. At this point, the
alkali has been neutralize by the acid.
• Record the final level (volume) of acid in the burette and use it to calculate the volume of the
acid used to neutralize the alkali.
• Pour the solution containing the litmus solution indicator.
• Repeat the experiment by using exactly same volume of the same solutions of acid and alkali,
but without using the indicator.
• Evaporate the solution to dryness in order to obtain crystals of sodium chloride.
Sub Topic: Preparation of insoluble salts
Insoluble salts are prepared by double decomposition or precipitation. This method involves
reacting two soluble salts to form a soluble salt and an insoluble salt. The insoluble salt is
obtained as the residue by filtering.
The residue is then washed to remove any soluble impurities and then finally dried by pressing
between filter papers. Examples of insoluble salts include: Lead (II) chloride, Silver chloride,
Barium sulphate, Lead (II) sulphate and Most carbonates except those of group I then ammonium
carbonate.
Note most hydroxides are also insoluble in water and therefore prepared by precipitation.
The method of precipitation involves double decomposition.
Double decomposition is where two salts are in decomposition exchange of ions i.e. if one of the
salts formed is insoluble, it is precipitated out of solution and the process is called precipitation.
A precipitate is a solid product formed when two soluble substances react (after mixing two
solutions).
(a) Preparation of lead (II) chloride
Materials: lead (II) nitrate and potassium chloride
Apparatus: beakers, glass rod, filter paper and filter funnel.
Procedure:
• Put potassium chloride solution in a beaker and warm.
• Add lead (II) nitrate solution little at a time until no more precipitate is formed.
• Filter off the white precipitate of lead (II) chloride.
• Wash the precipitate with little distilled water and dry by pressing between filter papers.
Equation: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
(b) Preparation of barium sulphate:

Materials: Barium nitrate solution and sodium sulphate solution.
Apparatus: beakers, glass rods, filter paper and filter funnel.
Procedure:
• Put sodium sulphate solution in a beaker and warm.
• Add barium nitrate solution little at a time until no more precipitate forms.
• Filter off the white precipitate of barium sulphate.
• Wash the precipitate with a little distilled water to remove any soluble impurities and dry by
pressing between filter paper.
Equation: Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + NaNO3(aq)
(c) Preparation of copper (II) carbonate:

Materials: Copper (II) nitrate solution and sodium carbonate solution.
Procedure:
• Put sodium carbonate solution in a beaker and warm.
• Add copper (II) nitrate solution little at a time until no more green precipitate forms.
• Filter off the green precipitate of copper (II) carbonate.
Equation: Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CuCO3(s) + NaNO3(aq)
(d) Preparation of lead (II) iodide:
Lead (II) iodide is a yellow solid that is insoluble in water
Materials: lead (II) nitrate solution and potassium iodide solution.
Procedure:
• Put potassium iodide solution in a beaker and warm.
• Add lead (II) nitrate solution little at a time until no more yellow precipitate forms.
• Filter off the yellow precipitate of lead (II) iodide.
Equation: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + KNO3(aq)
(e) Preparation of silver chloride

Materials: silver nitrate solution and potassium chloride solution.
Procedure:
• Put silver nitrate solution in a beaker and warm.
• Add potassium chloride solution little at a time until no more white precipitate forms.
• Filter off the white precipitate of silver chloride.
Equation: AgNO3 (aq) + KCl(aq) AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
(f) Preparation of lead (II) carbonate

Materials: lead (II) nitrate solution and potassium carbonate solution.
Apparatus: Beakers, glass rod, filter paper and filter funnel.
Procedure:
• Put lead (II) nitrate solution in a beaker and warm.
• Add potassium carbonate solution little at a time until no more precipitate is formed.
• Filter off the white precipitate of lead (II) carbonate.
• Wash the precipitate with little distilled water and dry by pressing between two filter papers.
Equation: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3(aq) PbCO3(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
(g) Preparation of zinc carbonate

Materials: zinc nitrate solution and potassium carbonate solution.
Apparatus: beakers, glass rod, filter paper and filter funnel.
Procedure:
• Put zinc nitrate solution in a beaker and warm.
• Add potassium carbonate solution little at a time until no more precipitate is formed.
• Filter off the white precipitate of zinc carbonate.
• Wash the precipitate with little distilled water and dry by pressing between two filter papers.
Equation: Zn(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3(aq) ZnCO3(s) + KNO3(aq)
Preparation of salts by direct combination:

Salts can also be formed by reacting a metal directly with a non-metal. This method is called
direct synthesis.
Examples of salts prepared by direct synthesis;
 Sodium chloride  Magnesium chloride
 Calcium chloride  Iron (III) chloride
This method is suitable for preparing both soluble and insoluble salts.
(i) Iron (III) chloride is prepared by heating iron metal while passing dry chlorine gas over it.
Note: iron (II) chloride cannot be prepared by direct combination. It is prepared by passing dry
hydrogen chloride gas over heated iron filing
(ii) Iron (II) sulphide is prepared by heating a mixture of iron and sulphur.
Sub Topic: pH of aqueous salt solution
Acid salt solutions;

when acid salts are dissolved in water, they form acidic solutions. Their solutions are acidic
because they contain invisible hydrogen which forms hydrogen ions.
Example: Sodium hydrogencarbonate
The hydrogen in the hydrogencarbonate is ionisable;
Normal salts solutions

Some normal salts dissolve in water to form neutral solutions while others form either acidic or
alkaline solutions. The pH of the aqueous solution of a normal salt depends on the strength of
acid and alkali from which the salt is derived.
The table below show the acid alkali combination and nature of aqueous solution of salt formed.
(a) pH of sodium chloride solution
The pH of an aqueous solution of sodium chloride is 7 (neutral).
Reason: sodium chloride is a product of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. Both are
strong and therefore completely ionized. When mixed, all hydrogen ions from acid are
neutralized by hydroxide ions from the alkali to form a neutral solution.
Other examples of aqueous salt solutions with pH of 7 are; potassium sulphate, potassium
nitrate, sodium sulphate and sodium nitrate
(b) pH of salts of weak alkali and strong acid
Examples: Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium chloride and Ammonium nitrate.
The aqueous solutions of these salts (ammonium sulphate) have a pH less than 7 (i.e. acidic).
Explanation:
When dissolved in water, the salt reacts with water to form ammonium hydroxide and sulphuric
acid.
(NH4)2SO4(s) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
Sulphuric acid is strong acid and completely ionizes to form a lot of hydrogen ions.
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Ammonium hydroxide is a weak alkali and partially ionizes to produce few hydroxide ions.
NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The few hydroxide ions are not enough to neutralize the hydrogen ions. The solution therefore
contains excess hydrogen ions making it acidic.
(c) PH of salts of strong alkali and weak acid
Examples;
• Sodium carbonate
• Potassium ethanoate
• Sodium phosphate
The aqueous solution of sodium carbonate has a pH greater than 7 (alkaline).
Explanation:
Sodium carbonate reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and carbonic acid.
Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkali and therefore completely ionizes to form a lot of hydroxide
ions. NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Carbonic acid is weak and therefore partially ionize to form few hydrogen ions.
H2CO3(aq) H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
The hydroxide ions neutralize all the hydrogen ions and excess of these remain which make the
solution alkaline.
(d) PH of salts of weak alkali and weak acid
Examples:
• Ammonium carbonate
• Ammonium ethanoate
Aqueous solution of ammonium carbonate is neutral.
Ammonium carbonate reacts with water to form ammonium hydroxide and carbonic acid.
Ammonium hydroxide partially ionizes to form few hydroxide ions and carbonic acid also
partially ionizes to form few hydrogen ions. The few hydrogen ions completely neutralize the
few hydroxide ions. There are no excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions in the salts solution. Hence
solution is neutral.
Note: the reaction of water with a salt is called hydrolysis.
Sub Topic: Hygroscopy, Deliquescence and Efflorescence
A hygroscopic substance is one that absorbs water from the atmosphere.
Examples of hygroscopic substances
• Copper (II) oxide • Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate

• Calcium oxide • All deliquescent substances.
• Concentrated sulphuric acid
A deliquescent substance is one which absorbs water from the atmosphere and dissolves in it to
form a solution.
Examples of deliquescent substances
• Iron (III) chloride • Calcium chloride

• Sodium hydroxide • Zinc nitrate
• Potassium hydroxide • Phosphorus pentoxide (Phosphorus (V)
• Calcium hydroxide oxide)
NB: All deliquescent substances are hygroscopic however hygroscopic substances are not
necessarily deliquescent.
An efflorescent substance is one which loses its water of crystallization to the atmosphere.
Salts that are capable of losing their water of crystallization to the atmosphere are called
efflorescent salts.
Examples of efflorescent substances
Sodium carbonate-10-water loses nine molecules of water of crystallization when exposed to the
atmosphere.
The shiny white crystals of hydrated sodium carbonate turn into a white powder during the
process.
Na2CO3.10H2O(s) Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O(l)
DRYING AGENTS
Hygroscopic and deliquescent substances are used as drying agents because they are able to
absorb water from their surroundings.
Examples of drying agents and the gases they dry are given below;
SOLUBILITY OF SALTS
Solubility is the amount of solute in grams required to saturate 100g of solvent (water)
at a particular temperature.
A salt is described as soluble if it can dissolve in a given solvent and insoluble if it
cannot dissolve in the solvent. Salts have varying degree of solubility in water as
described below:
All ammonium, sodium, and potassium salts are soluble in water.
All nitrate salts are soluble in water.
All chloride salts are soluble in water except silver chloride, lead (II) chloride (sparingly
soluble) and mercury (I) chloride.
All sulphate salts are soluble in water except lead (II) sulphate and barium sulphate.
Calcium sulphate is sparingly soluble in water.
All carbonate salts are insoluble in water except sodium, potassium and ammonium
carbonates.
Determining the solubility of a salt e.g. sodium chloride
Procedure
- Take about 50cm3 of distilled water in a beaker.
- Add sodium chloride crystals to the water a little at a time while stirring
continuously until when no more salt dissolves. The solution formed is saturated.
- Weigh a clean evaporating dish and pour into it a little of the clear salt solution.
- Weigh the evaporating dish with the salt solution and evaporate the solution to
dryness carefully through a water bath.
- Allow the evaporating dish to cool and reweigh the dish with the dry salt.
Results
Mass of empty dish= a g
Mass of dish + saturated solution = b g
Mass of dish + dry salt = c g
Calculations
Mass of saturated solution = (b-a) g
Mass of dry salt = (c-a) g
Mass of water (solvent) = (b-a)-(c-a)
= b-a-c+a
= (b-c) g
(b-c) g of water dissolves (c-a) g of NaCl
𝑐−𝑎
1 g of solvent dissolves ( ) g of NaCl
𝑏−𝑐
𝑐−𝑎
100g of solvent dissolves (𝑏−𝑐 ) × 100 g of NaCl
𝑐−𝑎
Therefore, the solubility of NaCl at room temperature is (𝑏−𝑐 ) x100 g/100 g of
water.
Examples
1. 30g of sodium chloride crystals were dissolved in 75 g of water at 80oC. Calculate
the solubility of sodium chloride at this temperature.
Solution
75 g of water dissolves 30 g of NaCl
30
1 g of solvent dissolves (75)g of NaCl
30
100g of solvent dissolves (75 x 100) g of NaCl
=40g
Therefore, the solubility of NaCl at 80 temperatures is 40g/100 g of water.
2. 12.0g of potassium chlorate was carefully evaporated to dryness, 2.4 g of potassium
chlorate crystals were left on the evaporating dish. Calculate the solubility of
potassium chlorate in grams per 100g of water at room temperature.
Solution
Mass of solvent = mass of solution–mass of solute
= (12.0-2.4) g = 9.6g of solvent (water)
9.6 g of water dissolves 2.4g of potassium chlorate
2.4
1 g of solvent dissolves (9.6) g of potassium chlorate
2.4
100g of solvent dissolves ( x 100) g of potassium chlorate
9.6
=25g
Therefore, the solubility of potassium chlorate at room temperature is 25g/100 g of
water.
3. 75g of a saturated solution contains 30g of salt. Calculate,
i) The solubility of the salt
ii) The percentage of salt in the saturated solution
Solution
i) Mass of solvent = mass of solution- mass of solute
= (75-30) g = 45g of solvent
45 g of solvent is saturated by 30g of salt
30
1 g of solvent is saturated by(45) g of salt
30
100g of solvent saturated by (45 x 100 )g of salt
=66.67g
Therefore, the solubility of the salt at room temperature is 66.67g/100 g of water.
30
ii) Percentage of salt = (75 x 100) =40%
Exercise
1. In an experiment to determine the solubility of potassium nitrate at 20˚C, the
following results were obtained.
Mass of evaporating dish + saturated solution = 100.7g

Mass of evaporating dish = 65.3g
Mass of dish + dry salt = 73.8 g
Use the data above to calculate the solubility of potassium nitrate at 20˚C. Clearly
show your working.
Factors that affect the rate of solubility of salts
1. Amount of solvent
Solubility of most salts increase with increase in the amount of solvent used.
2. Nature of solvent/solute
Solubility of a salt may increase or decrease depending on the nature of solvent or
solute.
3. Temperature
Solubility of most salts increase with increase in temperature. For example, potassium
chlorate and potassium nitrate. Solubility of a few salts like calcium chloride and
calcium sulphate decrease with increase in temperature. The solubility of sodium
hydroxide and gases as well also decrease with increase in temperature.
Solubility curve
Uses of solubility curves

1. It can be used to find the solubility of a salt at a given temperature.
2. It gives the temperature at which a given amount of salt saturates 100g of solvent.
3. It can be used to explain the trend of solubility of salts.
4. A solubility curve can be used to calculate the mass of salt obtained by cooling a
solution from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.
Mass of salt= (solubility at a higher temperature – solubility at a lower temperature)

For example, if a salt P with solubility of 180g/100g of water at 90˚C was cooled to a
temperature of 30˚C where its solubility is 25g/100g of water. Calculate the mass of
salt formed after cooling the solution.
Solution
Mass of salt= (solubility at a higher temperature – solubility at a lower temperature)
= (180-25) g
= 155g
Application of solubility
1. Solubility is used to separate soluble salts from a mixture by fractional
crystallization.
2. It is used in the extraction of salts from large water bodies like lakes and seas.
Exercise
1. a) Describe an experiment that you would carryout to determine the solubility of
potassium nitrate at room temperature.
b) Determine the solubility in water of substance S at room temperature from the

following data.
Mass of evaporating basin =25g
Mass of evaporating basin + Saturated solution of S = 55g
Mass of evaporating basin + Solid S = 30g
2. a) Define the term solubility?

(b) The table below shows the solubility (ies) of salt P in water at different
temperatures.
Temperature/˚C 10 20 30 40 50 60
Solubility, g/100g of water 18 20 24 30 38 50
i) plot a graph of solubility of P against temperature

ii) use your graph to determine
a) solubilities of P at 25˚C and 45˚C
b) the mass of crystals deposited when a solution of P is cooled from 50˚C to 25˚C
iii) calculate the mass of P that would dissolve in 45g of water at 25˚C
3.
4.
IT IS YOUR ATTITUDE NOT YOUR APTITUDE THAT DETERMINES YOUR ALTITUDE

Acids - Bases & Salts (S.2 SJB)

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Acids - Bases & Salts (S.2 SJB)

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WATER AND HYDROGEN

2. Wells and spring water

3. River and lake water

4. Sea and ocean water

3. Chlorination and fluoridation

Summary of water purification process

Test for water

Sodium reacts vigorously with water.

2. Reaction with oxides

Causes of hardness of water

Types of hard water

Methods of softening water

Boiling decomposes calcium and magnesium hydrogen carbonates to their respective

Disadvantages of boiler scale/fur

2. Addition of calcium hydroxide (lime water) (chemical method)

Methods for softening both temporary and permanent hardness

5. Addition of sodium carbonate solution (washing soda) (chemical method)

6. Ion exchange method (permutit) (chemical method)

Advantages of hard water

Disadvantages of hard water

3. Reaction with chlorine

4. Reaction with reactive metals

Sub Topic: ACIDS: Basicity and strength

Equation: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq)+ H2O(l)

3. Acids liberate carbon dioxide from carbonates and hydrogencarbonates. I.e.

Equation: PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Sub Topic: Bases and Alkalis

Examples of bases include;

Example: Ca(OH)2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(s) CaSO4(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)

Sub Topic: Indicators

An indicator is a substance that has different colours in acidic or alkaline solutions.

Sub Topic: Hydrated salts

Preparation of sodium carbonate crystals from anhydrous sodium carbonate

(b) Effect of gentle heat on hydrated copper (II) sulphate

(c) Effect of gentle heat on hydrated iron (II) sulphate

Topic: EFFECT OF HEAT ON SALTS

Sub Topic: Effect of heat on carbonates

(ii) Effect of heat on zinc carbonate

(iii) Copper (II) carbonate

(iv) Magnesium and calcium carbonate

Sub Topic: Effect of heat on nitrates

(ii) Effect of heat on calcium nitrate

(iv) Effect of heat on copper (II) nitrate

The equations for (iv), (v) and (vi) are as below;

Sub Topic: Effect of heat on sulphate

Sub Topic: Effect of heat on hydroxides

(b) Aluminium hydroxide

Sub Topic: Definition and types of salts

Anhydrous salts are those which do not contain water of crystallization.

(a) Action of dilute acids on metals

Other salts prepared in a similar way include:

(c) Reaction of acids with insoluble metal carbonates

(d) Action of acids on soluble bases (and soluble carbonates)

Sub Topic: Preparation of insoluble salts

(b) Preparation of barium sulphate:

Equation: Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + NaNO3(aq)

(c) Preparation of copper (II) carbonate:

(e) Preparation of silver chloride

(f) Preparation of lead (II) carbonate

(g) Preparation of zinc carbonate

Preparation of salts by direct combination:

Sub Topic: pH of aqueous salt solution

Acid salt solutions;