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Published in IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution
Received on 31st August 2013
Revised on 5th November 2013
Accepted on 15th November 2013
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2013.0624

ISSN 1751-8687

Optimal scheduling of electric vehicle charging

and vehicle-to-grid services at household level
including battery degradation and price uncertainty
Miguel A. Ortega-Vazquez
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
E-mail: maov@uw.edu

Abstract: It is expected that electric vehicles (EVs) will soon represent a large share of the demand for electricity. Several
research works have extolled the advantages of these devices as flexible demands, not only to charge their batteries when it is
cheaper to do so, but also to provide services in the form of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) power injections to the system. These
services, however, could reduce the useful life of the battery and thus introduce a cost that needs to be taken into account
when scheduling the charging of these vehicles. This study presents a scheduling algorithm for EVs under a real time pricing
scheme with uncertainty. The objective function explicitly takes into account the cost of battery degradation not only when
used to provide services to the system but also in terms of the EV utilisation for motion. The results show that the scheduling
of the V2G services is sensitive to the electricity prices uncertainty and to the degradation costs derived from the energy
arbitrage. Also, the optimal energy state of charge of the batteries is highly dependent on whether the cost of battery
degradation is taken into account or not.

Nomenclature ωv, t, p decision variable to determine the points P of the

piecewise linear approximation in which the depth
Sets of discharge Dv, t is contained
x vector of the decision variables
P set of points of the piecewise linear approximation
with index p and cardinality |P|
T set of time periods with index t and cardinality |T| Binary variables
V set of electric vehicles with index v and cardinality |V|
J0 time periods at which the price uncertainty could d1v,t , d2v,t 1/0 variables that determine whether the EVs are
materialise, with cardinality |J0| either charging or discharging, respectively
S0 time periods at which the price uncertainty is expected
to materialise, with cardinality |S0| Scalars
Functions
Bv EVs’ battery capacity, kWh
f(D) cycle-life as a function of the depth of discharge CvB EVs’ battery cost, $
f −1(D) battery degradation as a function of the depth of cmax
v maximum EVs’ charging power, kW
discharge dvmax maximum EVs’ discharging power, kW
Variables Γ0 robust control parameter
k slope of the linear approximation of the battery life
cv, t EVs’ charging power, kW as a function of the cycles
D mv,t EVs’ motion status (1 moving, 0 otherwise)
Cv,t EVs’ battery degradation cost for any discharge, $
V2G Sv,0 EVs’ state of charge at t = 0, kWh
Cv,t EVs’ battery degradation because of V2G/V2H, $ min
Dv, t EVs’ depth of discharge Sv,t EVs’ minimum state of charge, kWh
max
dv, t EVs’ discharging power, kW Sv,t EVs’ maximum state of charge, kWh
Sv, t EVs’ state of charge, kWh Xv,p depth of the discharge point ‘p’ of the piecewise
z0 dual variable for the robust optimisation linear approximation
q0 dual variable for the robust optimisation Yv,p battery degradation (f −1(D)) point ‘p’ of the
ρv, t battery degradation associated to a depth of piecewise linear approximation
discharge Dv,t Δt time interval resolution, h

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2014, Vol. 8, Iss. 6, pp. 1007–1016 1007
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2013.0624 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2014