Experiment # 1

To measure the turbidity of different water samples

Aim
To find out the turbidity of a given sample of water.

Introduction
Turbidity is the technical term referring to the cloudiness of a solution and it is a qualitative
characteristic which is imparted by solid particles obstructing the transmittance of light through a
water sample. Turbidity often indicates the presence of dispersed and suspended solids like clay,
organic matter, silt, algae and other microorganisms. So, in short turbidity is an expression of the
optical property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight
lines through the sample.

Environmental Significance
When the turbid water in a small, transparent container such as drinking glass is held up to the
light, an aesthetically displeasing opaqueness or milky coloration is apparent. The colloidal
material which exerts turbidity provides adsorption sites for chemicals and for biological organism
that may not be harmful. They may be harmful or cause undesirable tastes and odors. Disinfection
of turbid water is difficult because of the adsorptive characteristics of some colloids and because
the solids may partially shield organisms from disinfectant. In natural water bodies, turbidity may
impart a brown or other color to water and may interfere with light penetration and photosynthetic
reaction in streams and lakes. Turbidity increases the load on slow sand filters
The filter may go out of operation, if excess turbidity exists. Knowledge of the turbidity variation
in raw water supplies is useful to determine whether a supply requires special treatment by
chemical coagulation and filtration before it may be used for a public water supply. Turbidity
measurements are used to determine the effectiveness of treatment produced with different
chemicals and the dosages needed. Turbidity measurements help to gauge the amount of chemicals
needed from day-to-day operation of water treatment works. Measurement of turbidity in settled
water prior to filtration is useful in controlling chemical dosages so as to prevent excessive loading
of rapid sand filters. Turbidity measurements of the filtered water are needed to check on faulty
filter operation. Turbidity measurements are useful to determine the optimum dosage of coagulants
to treat domestic and industrial wastewaters. Turbidity determination is used to evaluate the
performance of water treatment plants.
Turbidity in water may be caused by a wide variety of suspended matter suspended matter, such
as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, and
other organisms. Under flood conditions, great amounts of topsoil are washed to receiving streams.
As the rivers pass through urban areas, the domestic and industrial wastewaters may be added.

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Guideline

According to WHO standard 5 NTU (Nephelometric turbidity unit) is suggested as the turbidity
limit for drinking water, while 1 NTU is recommended to achieve the adequate disinfecting safety.

Principle

Turbidity is based on the comparison of the intensity of light scattered by the sample under defined
conditions with the intensity of the light scattered by a standard reference suspension under the
same conditions. The turbidity of the sample is thus measured from the amount of light scattered
by the sample taking a reference with standard turbidity suspension. The higher the intensity of
scattered light the higher is the turbidity. The angle at which light falls is 900

The applicable range of this method is 0-40 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Higher values
may be obtained with dilution of the sample.

Turbidity Meter

Related Theory

Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of the degree to which the water loses its transparency due to the presence
of suspended particulates. The more total suspended solids in the water, the murkier it seems and
the higher the turbidity. Turbidity is considered as a good measure of the quality of water.

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 Turbidity

Causes of turbidity in surface water

 Erosion
 Open to atmosphere
 Rain water (directly, runoff)
 Waste deposits

Immediate effect of turbidity

 Fishes and other organisms

 Turbid water temperature increases more than simple water because particles also absorb
heat
 Temperature of water increases oxygen level decreases

Apparatus

 Turbidity Meter

Procedure

 Sample handling and preservation

Water samples should be collected in plastic cans or glass bottles. All bottles must be cleaned
thoroughly and should be rinsed with turbidity free water. Volume collected should be sufficient
to ensure a representative sample, allow for replicate analysis (if required), and minimize waste
disposal. No chemical preservation is required. Keep the samples at 4°C. Do not allow samples to

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freeze. Analysis should begin as soon as possible after the collection. If storage is required, samples
maintained at 4°C may be held for up to 48 hours.

Lab Samples

 Steps

1. For testing the given water sample first, the reagents are to be prepared. Then the turbidity
meter is required to be calibrated.
2. To the sample cells, add sample water up to the horizontal mark, wipe gently with soft
tissue and place it in the turbidity meter. Cover the sample cell with the light shield.
3. Check for the reading in the turbidity meter. Wait until you get a stable reading.

Precautions

The following precautions should be observed while performing the experiment:

1. The presence of colored solutes causes measured turbidity values to be low. Precipitation
of dissolved constituents (for example, Fe) causes measured turbidity values to be high.
2. Light absorbing materials such as activated carbon in significant concentrations can cause
low readings.

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 3. The presence of floating debris and coarse sediments which settle out rapidly will give low
readings. Finely divided air bubbles can cause high readings.

Observations and Calculations

Sample No Turbidity (NTU)

1 12.4

2 15.6

3 14.3

Comments

 Turbidity in water may be caused by a wide variety of suspended matter suspended matter,
such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, soluble colored organic
compounds, and other organisms. Under flood conditions, great amounts of topsoil are
washed to receiving streams. As the rivers pass through urban areas, the domestic and
industrial wastewaters may be added.
 The higher the intensity of scattered light the higher is the turbidity

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 Experiment # 2

To determine the pH value of different water samples

Aim

This test method sets out the procedure for determining the pH (hydrogen ion concentration) of
water using a pH meter

Introduction
The ionization of water results in the formation of hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl ion (OH-).
Change in the concentration of one brings about the simultaneous changing in the concentration
of the other thereby altering the condition of the water. So, a number scale, termed as pH scale, is
used to determine the pH of a medium, i.e., the acidity or the alkalinity of the same.

Or

pH of water is a measure of amount of hydrogen ions that is present in the water. It determines if
the water is alkaline or acidic in nature. pH stands for potential of hydrogen pH can be calculated
mathematically as

pH = -log [H]

Where (H+) is the concentration (or activity) of hydrogen ion (or photon) in moles per litre (M).
Water dissociates to form hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl ion (OH-) according to the following
equation

H2O –> H+ + OH–

This scale was developed by the scientist Sorenson in the year 1909. The below reaction implies
that the water shows that the number of H+ and OH– ions are equal in amount experimentally. It
has also been proved that the product of both the concentration is equal to a constant ‘K’. The
value of this constant found to be between 10 and 14.

Environmental Significance

Determination of pH is one of the important objectives in biological treatment of the wastewater.

In anaerobic treatment, if the pH goes below 5 due to excess accumulation of acids, the process is
severely affected. Shifting of pH beyond 5 to 10 upsets the aerobic treatment of the wastewater. In
these circumstances, the pH is generally adjusted by addition of suitable acid or alkali to optimize
the treatment of the wastewater. pH value or range is of immense importance for any chemical
reaction. A chemical shall be highly effective at a particular pH. Chemical coagulation,

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disinfection, water softening and corrosion control are governed by pH adjustment. Lower value
of pH below 4 will produce sour taste and higher value above 8.5 a bitter taste. Higher values of
pH hasten the scale formation in water heating apparatus and also reduce the germicidal potential
of chlorine. High pH induces the formation of tri-halomethanes, which are causing cancer in
human beings.

Guideline

As per the World Health Organization (WHO), value of pH for the water is 6.5 to 8.5.

Common pH values

Principal

The pH electrode used in the pH measurement is a combined glass electrode. It consists of sensing
half-cell and reference half-cell, together form an electrode system. The sensing half-cell is a thin
pH sensitive semi permeable membrane, separating two solutions, viz., the outer solution, the
sample to be analyzed and the internal solution enclosed inside the glass membrane and has a
known pH value. An electrical potential is developed inside and another electrical potential is
developed outside, the difference in the potential is measured and is given as the pH of the sample.

pH Meter

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Related Theory

Determination of pH value

There are two methods involved in the determination of pH value of water. They are:

1. Colorimetric Method
2. pH Meter Method
3. Electrometric Method

In environmental engineering experiments, every stage of water treatment is dependent on

the pH value of the water. For example, the coagulation, disinfection, control of corrosion,
acid-base neutralization and water precipitation.

 Colorimetric Method

Take the pH standard solution and the water that is to be tested. Take the colorimetric paper. Dip
this paper on the water sample. The obtained color is computed from the standard table and the
respective pH value is recorded. This pH Value will conclude whether the sample of water is acidic
or alkaline.

Colorimetric Method

 pH Meter Method

The pH electrode uses a specially formulated, pH-sensitive glass in contact with the solution,
which develops the potential (E) proportional to the pH of the solution. The reference electrode is
designed to maintain a constant potential at any given temperature, and serves to complete the pH
measuring circuit within the solution. It provides a known reference potential for the pH electrode.

pH meter

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  Electrometric Method

One of the most widely accepted method for the hydrogen ion determination (pH) is the
electrometric method. This method is highly accurate and used in laboratory work and by
researchers. The accuracy of the pH value is 0.1 to 0.0001

Electrometer

Factors affecting pH of Water

 Carbon dioxide concentration in water

 Acid rain
 Dissolved Minerals
 Temperature (As temperature increases, the pH level decreases; and as temperature
decreases, the pH level increases.)
 Waste water

Apparatus

 pH meter
 4 solution samples

Procedure

 Turn the meter's power on by pressing the "power" button.

 Press the “CAL” button to select the 'calibration (standardization)' function
 When the "reading" is stable, press the "ENTER" button to accept. The primary reading will flash
briefly before the secondary display begins scrolling through the remaining
 The meter will automatically return to measurement mode upon the successful completion of the
calibration.

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 Samples and testing

Precautions

 After taking 1st sample reading remember to dry the pH meter.

Observation and Calculations

Sample No pH value

1 6.54

2 6.46

3 6.25

4 6.14

Comments

 The pH of the given water samples was found to be less than 7 which indicates that the
samples are acidic.
 pH is one of the most commonly measured chemical parameters of aqueous solutions. It is
a critical parameter in water and wastewater treatment for municipal and industrial
applications, chemical production, agriculture research, and production. It is also critical
in environmental monitoring, chemical and life sciences research, biochemical and
pharmaceutical research, electronics production, and many more applications.

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 Pure water is neutral, with a pH of 7.00. When chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture
can become either acidic or basic. Vinegar and lemon juice are acidic substances, while
laundry detergents and ammonia are basic. Chemicals that are very basic or very acidic are
considered "reactive." These chemicals can cause severe burns. Automobile battery acid is
an acidic chemical that is reactive. Automobile batteries contain a stronger form of one the
acids found in acid rain. Household drain cleaners often contain lye, a very alkaline
chemical that is also reactive.

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 Experiment # 3

To find the solid contents in waste-water sample

Aim

To introduce the definitions, analysis methods, and environmental significance of various kinds of
solids, and to determine the solids content of different sewage and sludge samples.

Introduction
Environmental engineering is concerned with the solid material in a wide range of natural waters
and wastewaters. The usual definition of solids (referred to as "total solids") is the matter that
remains as residue upon evaporation at 103~105°C. The organic fraction of solid material is
estimated (by weight loss) by burning the sample at 500 ± 50oC to volatilize the organics. The
various components of “total solids” can be simplified as follows

Various Components

Total Solids (TS) are the total of all solids in a water sample. They include the total suspended
solids and total dissolved solids. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) is the amount of filterable solids
in a water sample. Samples are filtered through a glass fiber filter. The filters are dried and weighed
to determine the amount of total suspended solids in mg/l of sample. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
are those solids that pass through a filter with a pore size of 2.0 micron (1/1000000th of a meter,
also known as a Micrometer) or smaller. They are said to be non-filterable. After filtration the
filtrate (liquid) is dried and the remaining residue is weighed and calculated as mg/l of Total
Dissolved Solids.

The total solids (TS) contents of sludges are used in the design and process control of wastewater
treatment facilities. Total dissolved solids (TDS) are used to evaluate the suitability of water for

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both domestic supplies and industrial purposes. The total suspended solids (TSS), including the
volatile fraction (VSS), are commonly monitored to evaluate the degree of pollution in natural
waters and serves as a key process control parameter for wastewater treatment operation.

Environmental Significance
Total solids measurements can be useful as an indicator of the effects of runoff from construction,
agricultural practices, logging activities, sewage treatment plant discharges, and other sources.
Total solids also affect water clarity. Higher solids decrease the passage of light through water,
thereby slowing more rapidly and hold more heat; this, in turn, might adversely affect
photosynthesis by aquatic plants. Water will heat up affect aquatic life that has adapted to a lower
temperature regime. As with turbidity, concentrations often increase sharply during rainfall,
especially in developed watersheds. They can also rise sharply during dry weather if earth-
disturbing activities are occurring in or near the stream without erosion control practices in place.
Regular monitoring of total solids can help detect trends that might indicate increasing erosion in
developing watersheds. Total solids are related closely to stream flow and velocity and should be
correlated with these factors. Any change in total solids over time should be measured at the same
site at the same flow. Water with total solids generally is of inferior palatability and may induce
an unfavorable physiological reaction. It may be esthetically unsatisfactory for purposes such as
bathing. Total solids will be higher in highly mineralized waters, which result in unsuitability for
many industrial applications. It indicates effectiveness of sedimentation process and it affects
effectiveness of disinfection process in killing microorganisms. It is used to assess the suitability
of potential supply of water for various uses. In the case of water softening, amount of total solids
determine the type of softening procedure. Corrosion control is frequently accomplished by the
production of stabilized waters through pH adjustment. The pH stabilization depends to some
extent upon the total solids present as well as alkalinity and temperature.

Solids analyses are important in the control of biological and physical wastewater treatment
processes and for assessing compliance with regulatory agency wastewater effluent limitations
Although the waste water or sewage normally contains 99.9 percent of water and only 0.1 percent
of solids, but it is the solids that have the nuisance value. The amount of solids in wastewater is
frequently used to describe the strength of the water. The more solids present in a particular
wastewater, the stronger that wastewater will be. The environmental impacts of solids in all forms
have detrimental effects on quality since they cause putrefaction problems. If the solids in
wastewater are mostly organic, the impact on a treatment plant is greater than if the solids are
mostly inorganic.

In the realm of municipal wastewater, suspended solids analysis is by far the most important
gravimetric method. It is used to evaluate the strength of the raw wastewater as well as the overall
efficiency of treatment. Furthermore, most waste water treatment plants (WWTP’s) have effluent
standards of 10 to 30 mg/L suspended solids which may be legally enforceable. As was the case
with municipal wastewater, suspended solids analysis is useful as a means of assessing the strength
of industrial wastewaters and the efficiency of industrial wastewater treatment.

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Guideline

Potable water should not contain more than 1000 mg/l of total dissolved solids (TDS). Water
containing TDS concentrations below 1000 mg/liter is usually acceptable, by WHO although
acceptability may vary according to circumstances. Concentrations of TDS from natural sources
have been found to vary from less than 30 mg/liter to as much as 6000 mg/liter. Concentrations of
TDS above 500 mg/L result in excessive scaling in water pipes, water heaters, boilers and
household appliances

Principal

The measurement of solids is by means of the gravimetric procedure. The various forms of solids
are determined by weighing after the appropriate handling procedures. The total solids
concentration of a sample can be found directly by weighing the sample before and after drying at
103°C. However, the remaining forms, TDS and TSS require filtration of the sample. For liquid
samples, all these solids levels are reported in mg/L.A rapid assessment of the dissolved solids
content of water can be obtained by specific conductance measurements. Such measurement
indicates the capacity of a sample to carry an electric current which in turn is related to the
concentration of ionized substances in the water. Most dissolved inorganic substances in water are
in ionized form and so contribute to the specific conductance. Although the nature of the various
ions, their relative concentrations, and the ionic strength of the water affect this measurement, such
measurement can give practical estimate of the dissolved mineral content of water. The TDS
content can be approximated by multiplying the specific conductance in micro-Siemens per cm
(μS/cm) by an empirical factor varying from 0.55 to 0.90 depending on the chemical composition
of the TDS.

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 Karl Imhoff

Related Theory

Total Solids

Total solids are a measure of the suspended and dissolved solids in water

Types of total solids

There are two types of total solids

1. Total dissolved solids

2. Total suspended solids

Total suspended solids (TSS)

Suspended solids are those that can be retained on a water filter and are capable of settling out of
the water column onto the stream bottom when stream velocities are low. They include silt, clay,
plankton, organic wastes, and inorganic precipitates such as those from acid mine drainage.
Dissolved solids are those that pass through a water filter.

Total Suspended Solids

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Total dissolved solids (TDS)

A total dissolved solid (TDS) is a measure of the combined total of organic and inorganic
substances contained in a liquid. This includes anything present in water other than the pure H 2O
molecules. These solids are primarily minerals, salts and organic matter that can be a general
indicator of water quality. High TDS generally indicate hard water, which can cause scale build
up in pipes and appliances. Scale buildup reduces performance and adds system maintenance costs.

TDS Level

Types of Suspended Solids

Settleable Suspended Solids (45-60 min)

The term applied to the material settling out of a sample within a one-hour period. Settleable solids
may include floating material depending on the technique used in the test.

Settleable Suspended Solids

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Non-Settleable Suspended Solids

The term applied to the material which do not settle out of a sample within a one-hour period.

Non-settleable solids

Types of Dissolved Solids

Volatile (organic solids)

Volatile solids are a rough estimate for the organic portion of the solids, which has been used to
evaluate the impact of solids loading from wastewaters entering treatment processes or natural
waters, the character of the activated sludge process, and the performance of a sedimentation
process.

VOC

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 Fixed Solids (inorganic, organic)

Fixed solids or inorganic ash is the measure of solid matter in a water that remains after the total
solids, total dissolved solids or total suspended solids have been evaporated and then ignited to
burn off the combustible portion. Volatile solids are the combustible portion.

Apparatus

 Evaporating Dish
 Karl Imhoff
 Water Bath
 Oven
 Desiccators
 Analytical Balance
 Graduated Cylinders
 Dish Tongs
 Gooch Crucibles
 Filter
 Vacuum Pumps
 Crucible tongs

Procedure
o
 Total Solids (Total residue, dried at 103 C)
o
1. Prepare three evaporating dishes for each sample by cleaning and ignition at 500 C for 1 hour in
a muffle furnace.
2. Cool, desiccate, weigh, and store dish in a desiccator until ready for use.
3. Transfer sample to the prepared dish and weigh (weight of wet sample plus dish) and evaporate
to dryness on a steam bath or in a drying oven. Choose a sample volume that will yield a residue
of between 2.5 mg and 200 mg. If necessary, add successive sample portions to the same dish.
When evaporating in a drying oven, lower the temperature to approximately 98 0C to prevent
splattering.
o
4. Dry the evaporated sample for at least 1 hour at 103 to 105 C.
5. Cool dish in the desiccator and weigh (weight of dry solids).

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 o
6. Repeat cycle of drying at 103 to 105 C, cooling, desiccating, and weighing until a constant weight
is obtained, or until weight less than 4% of previous weight.

7. Calculate

Total solids, as % by weight

Where:
A = weight of dried residue plus dish, mg,
B = weight of wet residue plus dish, mg, and
C = weight of dish, mg.
o
 Volatile and Fixed Solids (volatile and fixed residues, burned at 500 C)

1. After completing the total solids analysis, ignite the sample and dish for 20 minutes at
500oC in a muffle furnace
2. When cooling dish in the desiccator, open the top cover for about 2 min to let off the hot
gas. Close desiccator to complete cooling.
3. Weigh the cooled dish.
4. Calculate:

Volatile solids, as % total solids

Fixed solids, as % total solids

where:

A = weight of residue plus dish before burning, mg,

B = weight of residue plus dish after burning, mg, and
C = weight of dish, mg.
o
 Total Suspended Solids (total non-filtrable residue, dried at 103 C)

1. Place the pre-treated glass-fibre filters on filtration manifold with distilled water.
2. Select sample size that will yield between 10 and 200 mg residue. Keep sample mixed.
3. Filter sample to dryness. If pipetting small volumes (use a sawed-off pipette) and pipette
into approximately 10 mL of distilled water to ensure sample is well distributed over filter.

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 Do not use 10 mL of distilled water if saving the filtrate for analysis of total dissolved
solids.
4. Transfer filter back to its original planchet with forceps and dry filter plus planchet for 1
o
hour at 103 C.
5. Cool in desiccator and weigh (dry weight of solids plus filter and planchet).
6. Calculate:

TSS, mg / L

where:
A = dry weight of solids plus filter and planchet, mg, and
B = weight of filter plus planchet, mg.

 Volatile and Fixed Suspended Solids (volatile and fixed non-filterable residue, burned
o
at 500 C)

o
1. After determination of TSS, ignite filter plus planchet at 500 C for 20 minutes.
2. Cool in desiccator and weigh (weight of burned solids plus filter and planchet).
3. Calculate:

Volatile Suspended Solids, mg / L

Fixed Suspended Solids, mg / L

where:

A = weight of solids plus filter and planchet before burning, mg,

B = weight of solids plus filter and planchet after burning, mg, and
C = weight of filter plus planchet, mg.

Procedure-1

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 Procedure-2

Precautions:

 Wear the latex examination gloves and face masks

 Imhoff cone should be free from disturbance
 Filter paper should attach with assembly vigilantly
 When removing china dish from water bath, it must be holed with the help of Tong

Calculations and Observations

Total solids

Pre-weight of china dish = 59236 mg

After weight of china dish = 59528 mg

Volume of sample taken = 100 ml

(59528−59236)×1000
Total solids =
100

Total solids = 2920 mg/L

Total Suspended Solids

Pre-weight of filter paper = 84 mg

After weight of filter paper = 123 mg

Volume of sample taken = ml

(123−84)×1000
Suspended solids =
100

Suspended solids = 390 mg/L

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Total Dissolved Solids

= Total solids – Total suspended solids

= 2920 – 390

= 2528 mg/L

Or it can be assumed because due to lockdown we didn’t took the weight of dish taken out of
oven

Comments

 Total solids = 2920 mg / L

 Suspended Solids = 390 mg / L
 Total Dissolved Solids = 2528 mg / L
 Water containing TDS concentrations below 1000 mg/liter is usually acceptable, by WHO
although acceptability may vary according to circumstances. Concentrations of TDS from
natural sources have been found to vary from less than 30 mg/liter to as much as 6000
mg/liter. Concentrations of TDS above 500 mg/L result in excessive scaling in water pipes,
water heaters, boilers and household appliances
 Concentrations of TDS from natural sources have been found to vary from less than 30
mg/litre to as much as 6000 mg/litre, depending on the solubilities of minerals in different
geological regions.
 In early studies, inverse relationships were reported between TDS concentrations in
drinking water and the incidence of cancer, coronary heart disease, arteriosclerotic heart
disease, and cardiovascular disease. Total mortality rates were reported to be inversely
correlated with TDS levels in drinking-water
 Certain components of TDS, such as chlorides, sulphates, magnesium, calcium, and
carbonates, affect corrosion or encrustation in water-distribution systems. High TDS levels
(>500 mg/litre) result in excessive scaling in water pipes, water heaters, boilers, and
household appliances such as kettles and steam irons. Such scaling can shorten the service
life of these appliances.

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