Sequences and functions

Let u1(z), u2(z), …………….. un(z) denoted briefly by {un(z)} be a sequence of functions of z
defined and single valued in some region of the z plane. We call U (z) the limit of un(z)
as n → ∞ and write
lim 𝑢𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑈(𝑧)
𝑛→∞

if given any positive number  we can find a number N such that

𝑢𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑈(𝑧) <∈ For all n > N
In such cases we say that the sequence converges or is convergent to U (z)
If a sequence converges for all values of z in a region R, we call R the region of
convergence of the sequence. A sequence which is not convergent at some point z,
then it is divergent at z
Taylor’s theorem
Let f (z) be analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C. Let a and a + h be two points
inside C, then
′
ℎ2 ′′ ℎ𝑛 (𝑛)
𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ = 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + … … … + 𝑓 𝑎 + ……… (1)
2! 𝑛!
Writing z = a + h or h=z-a
 ′
𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 2
𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 𝑛
𝑓 𝑧 =𝑓 𝑎 +𝑓 𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 + 𝑧−𝑎 + ……+ 𝑧−𝑎 + …… (2)
2! 𝑛!

This is called Taylor’s theorem and the series (1) and (2) are called Taylor series or
expansion for f (a + h) and f (z)
The region of convergence of the series (2) is given by |z – a|< R, where the radius of
convergence R is the distance from a to the nearest singularity of the function f (z). For
|z – a|> R, the series diverges.

Proof of Taylor’s theorem

Let z be a point inside C. Construct a circle C1 with centre
at a and enclosing z. Then by Cauchy’s integral formula
1 𝑓(𝑤) … … … (1)
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑑𝑤
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤 − 𝑧
We have
1 1
=
𝑤−𝑧 𝑤−𝑎 − 𝑧−𝑎
1 1
=
𝑤−𝑎 1− 𝑧−𝑎 / 𝑤−𝑎

1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 2 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛 1

= 1+ + + …… + +
𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 1− 𝑧−𝑎 / 𝑤−𝑎
 1 1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 2 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛 1
or = + 2 + 3 + … … + + (2)
𝑤−𝑧 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑛 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑧

Multiplying both sides of (2) by f (w) and using equation (1) we have
1 𝑓(𝑤) 𝑧−𝑎 𝑓(𝑤) 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑓(𝑤)
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑑𝑤 + 𝑑𝑤 + … … + 𝑑𝑤 + 𝑈𝑛
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤 − 𝑎 2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤−𝑎 2 2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤−𝑎 𝑛

where
1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛 𝑓(𝑤)
𝑈𝑛 = 𝑑𝑤
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑧

Using Cauchy’s integral formula

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑤) 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3
𝑓 (𝑛) 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑤
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤 − 𝑎 𝑛+1
Equation (3) becomes
𝑓′′(𝑎) 𝑓 𝑛−1 (𝑎)
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓′ 𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎 + (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 + … … + (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛−1 +𝑈𝑛
2! 𝑛−1 !
… … …(4)
Since w is on C1
𝑧−𝑎
=𝛾<1 where g is a constant
𝑤−𝑎
Also, we have |f (w)| < M, where M is a constant

and |w – z| = |(w - a) – (z – a)| ≥ r1 - |z – a|

where r1 is the radius of C1

1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛 𝑓(𝑤) 1 𝛾𝑛𝑀
Hence 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑑𝑤 ≤ 2𝜋𝑟1
2𝜋 𝑐1 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑧 2𝜋 𝑟1 − 𝑧 − 𝑎

𝛾 𝑛 𝑀𝑟1
=
𝑟1 − 𝑧 − 𝑎

Thus lim 𝑈𝑛 = 0 and equation (4) reduces to Taylor’s series

𝑛→∞

Hence proved