Life

Assosa Water Supply Project Final Year Project, June 2008
Chapter one
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Water plays a major important role in life existence. That is why we say “water is life”. All living
things on the earth like human beings, animals and plants use water for their survival. For example,
a man can survive without food for month together but without water to quench his thirst; his
survival beyond 40 hours would be a miracle (source, water supply and sanitary installation by
A.C PANCHDHARI)
About 75%of earth is covered by water. But from this high amount only 3% of it is available as
fresh water , which is found in lakes, rivers, springs, ice and ground water etc. Even this little
amount of fresh water is not found evenly distributes in all parts of the earth. In addition, it is
polluted and contaminated by water born diseases like typhoid, cholera, Bacillary, Disunity,
Amoeba and other kinds of bacteria. In addition the density of population in cities and towns is
high. Therefore, the provision of safe, clean, sufficient and potable water and disposal of garbage
and undesirable material has become an important factor to live with. This is the e main
responsibilities of the water Engineers especially Hydraulic Engineers to design, construct, operate
and maintain the water supply and sanitary services.
1.2 Location
Assosa is a regional town of the Benishangul-Gumuz Regional state located 690 km west of Addis
Ababa. About 335km of the road is asphalt road while the remaining 355km is all weather gravel
road. It is situated on a flat plane at an average altitude of 1645m ASL.
1.3 Climate
The average annual rainfall at Assosa is 1172mm. The coefficient of variation of annual rainfall is
17% which indicates modest variability among dry and wet years. The monthly rainfall pattern
shows a uni model rain fall pattern with longer rainy season from May to October with the highest
rainfall occurring in June, July, August and September.
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is the major rain causing mechanism in Ethiopia.
The movement of the ITCZ in the northern direction brings moisture from the South Atlantic
Ocean, which results in the high rainfall in the Assosa area. The position of ITCZ at different
months between March and November determines the amount and distribution of rainfall in
Ethiopia; rainfall increases from north to south, Because Assosa
Arba Minch University

Hydraulic Eng ‘g Page 1
is located in the southwest of Ethiopia where the ITCZ reaches the area early and leaves late. It
gets rainfall for a longer period that is from May to October.
The monthly average, maximum and minimum temperature of Assosa varies between 19.70c-
25.80c, 24.30c-33.90c and 14.60c-17.80c respectively. The maximum temperature occurs in March
and the minimum in October, November and December.
1.4 Socio- economic characteristics In Assosa, the major economic activities are mainly
related to selling and buying agricultural products and retail trade of consumable goods. Economic
activities related to traditional gold mining is also important in Assosa town.
1.5 Urban Infrastructure and social services

The town is divided into 4 kebeles and it has a master plan developed in 1995. The kebeles are the
smallest administrative Units under the municipality. There are kiosk/ shops, small hotels, bars and
two open market areas. There is one bus station and Government and non governmental institution
in the town.
1.6 Existing Water supply and sanitation

1.6.1 Water supply
Assosa town water supply is from 2 bore holes, BHI and BHII that were drilled in 1983 and
1995, respectively. Due to low yield BHI is pumped at a rate of 6l.s for 2 hours in the morning and
for 1.5 hours in the afternoon while BHS is pumped at a rate of 4.6l/s for 8 hours a day. The pump
pumps at a rate of 4.6 l/s for 8 hours per day. The pump installed in BHS is run by a diesel
generator while that of BHI is run by the towns electric power supply. Water from BHI is pumped
to two brick masonry reservoirs of 25m3capacity each while from BHS water is pumped to a 20 m3
steel reservoir and a 50m3 capacity elevated reinforced concrete reservoir. From the reservoirs
water is distributes by gravity to the consumers through 12public fountains and 234 yard
connections. Due to inadequacy of the water supply system, most of the houses holds use
traditional water supply sources.
1.6.2 Sanitation
The sanitary condition of the town is poor, like many similar towns in Ethiopia. Most of the
households surveyed use pit latrines that are in poor condition and domestic solid waste disposal in
any available open field is common. This has been observed by the survey. The socio-economic
survey on the sample house holds use dry pit latrine while

two percent used open fields. As to usage of latrine, 96 percent use private facilities while the
remaining four percent use shared facilities.
1.6.3 Treatment
For the existing water supply system, No proper treatment process is conducted other than
chlorination. Disinfection using calcium hypo chlorite is said to take place at a reservoirs prior to
distributions. During the site visit it was reported that 40gm calcium hypochlorite has been added
to 50m3 of water.

Chapter two
2.0 DESIGN PERIOD AND POPULATION FORCASTING
2.1 Design period
A water supply scheme shall, almost without exception, cater for a requirement which is
continuously increasing with the coming years. Hence a new water supply scheme is normally
made large enough to meet the needs of growing communities for an economically justifiable
number of years in future. Huge and costly construction works like dams, reservoirs, treatment
works and distribution pipelines are required for a complete water supply scheme. These works
can not be replaced easily and conveniently for future expansion. Hence these works should be
designed for sufficient capacity to meet the future demand of the town for an established length of
time. This length of time or the number of years for which the design of the water supply works
has done is known as design period.
The design period should neither be too long that the financial burden is thrown on the future
generation nor should be too small that the whole financial burden is thrown on the present
generation and the design of water work becomes uneconomical. The design period is not only
limited by general economic consideration but also the following factors.
 Funds available for the completion of the project if more funds are available
design period may be more, but if small funds are available the design period
shall be less.
 As far as possible the design period should be nearly equal to the materials used
in the water supply work.
 Rate if interest on the loans taken to complete the project. If rate of
interest is less, it will be good to keep design period more. But if the interest rate
is very high, the design should be small.
For design of water supply schemes for small towns, a design period of 20-25 years is considered
appropriate. For Assosa town water supply project by considering the above factors we adopt a
design period of 20 years. This period is divided in to two phases. The first phase covers the time
up to 2018 and the second up to 2028.

2.2 Population Forecasting

In the design of a water supply scheme, after deciding the design period the next step is to
determine population in various times. Several methods are present, but it should be point out that
judgment must be exercised by the engineer as to which method is most applicable. The methods
of forecasting future population are discussed below so that the most appropriate method can be
used on the basis of the available past population data.
2.2.1 Methods of forecasting population

a) Arithmetic increase method
b) Geometric increase method
c) Incremental increase method
d) Decreasing rate method
e) Simple graphical method
f) Ratio and correlation
g) Master plan method
h) The logistic curve method
i) Method used by Ethiopian Statistics Authority
a. Arithmetic increase Method

This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing at a constant rate. The
rate of change of population with time is constant i.e. dp/dt=k (a=constant)
Integrating ∫pn dp=k∫
po
n
dt0
Pn=Po +kn, where Pn=population at n decades or years
n= decades
k=Arithmetic increase
This method is generally applicable to large and old cities.
b. Geometric increase method

This method is based on the assumption that the percent increase in population from decade to
decade remains constant. In this method the average percentage of growth of last few decades is
determined; the population forecasting is done on the basis that percentage increase per decade
will be the same. The method is expressed as follow
Pn=Po (1+k) n, where Po= initial population

Pn=population at nth decade or year n=
number of decades

k=percentage (geometric) increase This

method is generally applicable for growing cities.
c. Incremental increase method

This method is an improvement over the above two methods. The average increase in the
population is determined by the arithmetic method and to this is added the average of the net
incremental increase once for each future decade.
d. Decrease Rate of Growth Method

It has been seen that all life grows within limited space. If the complete growth of a very old city is
plotted, it will be seen that the curve has s-shape, which indicates that early growth takes place at
an increasing rate, later growth is at a decreasing rate which indicates that saturation limit is
reached. In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out and is then
subtracted from the latest percentage increase for each successive decade. This method is
applicable where the rate of growth of population showed a down ward trend.
e. simple graphical method

In this method the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to a suitable scale on the
graph with respect to decade. The curve is smoothly extended to forecast the future
population. The graph on present city is plotters’ from the beginning and it will show the growth
curve.
f. Ratio and Correlation method

In this method, the rate of population growth of a town is related to the rate of population growth
of state or nation. Hence it’s possible to estimate the population of a town under consideration by
considering the rate of population growth of state or nation.
g. The Master Plan Method

The development of towns and cities is not allowed in haphazard way. For the development of the
towns and cities, their master plans are prepared. The city is divided in to various zones such as
commercial centers, industrial areas and residential areas, the schools, colleges, parks etc. The
future expansion of the cities is strictly regulated by various laws of corporations and other local
bodies according to the master plan.
The master plans are prepared for the development of the cities for 25-30 years. The population
densities for various zones of the towns to be developed are also fixed. It is

very easy to design the water supply scheme for the particular zones. The future development of
the various stages of the water works is also designed on the basis of the master plan.
h. Logistic Curve Method

When the growth rate of population due to birth death and migration takes place under normal
situation and it is not subjected to extraordinary changes to unusual situations like war, epidemic,
earthquake, exodus of refuges etc. The population would probably follow the growth curve
characteristics of living things within limited space and economic opportunity. This curve has s-
shape and is known as logistic curve.
I. Method by Using Ethiopian Statistical Authority

This method is used by the central statistics Authority of Ethiopia. It is expressed by in the
form of the following.
Pn=Poekn Where; Pn=population of n decade or year
n =decade
k=growth rate
2.2.2 POPULATION FORCASTING USING DIFFERENT METHOD

1. Arithmetic increase method
Table2. Given Population Data
Year population
1984 4049
1994 11749
Pn=Po+kn
From the above population data lets estimate
P1994  P1984
K =
n
K=770

Let =11749
=11749+700*14 =22529
Using similar fashion
Let
+ K*n =22529+770*5
Let
- stage 1
let 30229
Let
-stage 2
Summary
Year population stage

1994 11749
2008 22529
2013 26379
2018 30229 Stage 1
2023 34079
2028 37929 Stage 2

2. Geometric increase method
, n=10
11749=4049
K=0.112
11749 = 16155
16155 =27468
27468 =51934
51934 =88303
88303 =15041 –stage 1
150141 =283876
283876 =434058 –stage 2
Summary
Year population stage

1994 11749
1997 16155
2002 27468
2008 51934
2013 88303
2018 150, 141 Stage 1
2024 283, 876
2028 434, 058 Stage 2

3. Method used by Ethiopian Statistics Authority

Ethiopian statistics authorlty use the following formula for population forecast
, where the value of k obtained from table below P
11749 =13609
13609 =17300
17300 =22936
22936 =28723
3 =35791 –stage 1
150141 =46326
283876 =54582 –stage 2
Summary
Year K (%) population

1984 4049
1994 11749
1997 4.9 13609
2002 4.8 17300
2008 4.7 22936
2013 4.5 28723
2018 4.4 35791 –stage 1
2024 4.3 46326
2028 4.1 54582 –stage 2
Therefore the population of Assosa town for the selected design period of 20 years and by assuming
the commissioning of the project in 2008 is the following
Forecasted population

Stage 1 – up to 2018= 35791

Stage 2—up to 2028=54582
From all the above method we select the of Ethiopian statistics authority because it gives
reasonable result.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 WATER DEMAND
3.1 General
The design and execution of any water supply scheme requires an estimate of the total amount of
water required by community. The total amount of water demand is affected by the expected
development of the city, presence of industries, quality of water and its cost, characteristics of the
population and efficiency of the water work administration. Generally speaking in designing the
water supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary to determine the total quantity of water
required for various purposes. The demand for various purposes is divided under the following
categories.
 domestic water demand
 Commercial water demand and industrial water demand.
 Loss due to leaking joints.
 Open taps on unauthorized tapping of water.
 Fire water demand.
3.2 Domestic water demand

The water demand for actual household activity is known as domestic water demand. It
includes water for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, flushing, toilet, etc. The demand will
depend on many factors, the most important of which are economic, social and climatic factors.
Water supply for population is served by the mode of service which is prevalent to most
Ethiopian towns used to be Classified in to three major categories as follows:-
 House tap users (HTU)
 Yard tap users (YTU)
 Public tap users (PTU)

3.2.1 Per capita Domestic water Demand

The per capita water demand for various demand categories varies depending on the size of the
town, the level of development , the type of water supply schemes, the socio- economic conditions
of the town, cost of water, system of sanitation and climatic condition of the area. The per capita
water demand for adequate supply level has to be determined based on basic human water
requirements and adjusted to the specific conditions of each area as required.
The basic human water requirement for different use could vary based on the mode of service to be
used and the closeness to water supply facilities. The following table shows the composition of the
basic human per capital water demand based on needs for different use adopted for the estimation
of water demand for Assosa town.
Table 3.1: Consumption of water for different purposes (lpcd) in 1999
Activity HC YC PF
Drinking 1.6 1.6 1.6
Cooking 6 6 6
Ablution 2.5 2 1
Washing 4.5 3.5 2
Utensils 8.5 8.2 3.4
Laundry 4 2.5 2
House cleaning 15.8 8.5 2
Toilet 6.5 4.5 1
total 49.4 36.8 19
(Source: twelve town Water supply study result)

3.3 Non-domestic water demand

Depending on the relative importance, size, economic conditions of a city, the rate of water
demand will always be associated with non-domestic need also. The various aspects of non-
domestic need will be discussed below.
3.3.1 Institutional water demand

This is also known as public demand and it includes the quantity of water required for various
public utility purposes. The water required for various public buildings and institutions, public
parks, playgrounds, gardening, sprinkling on roads etc will come under this demand.
3.3.2 Commercial water demands

This consumption includes water used for commercial buildings & commercial centers including
stores, hotels, shopping centers, cinema houses, restaurants, bars, airports and bus stations etc.
3.3.3 Industrial water demands

The water required by factories, paper mills, cloth mills, cotton mills, breweries, sugar refineries
etc. The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries, which exist in
the city.
3.3.4 Fire fighting water demand

Fire generally breaks in thickly populated localities, industrial area, and cause serious damages of
properties . Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching
materials explosions, bad iterations of criminal people or any other unforeseen happenings. If fires
are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to serious
damages and may burn the city.

3.3.5 Loss and waste

This is due to defective joints in the main, broken and cracked pipes, defective house connections
and faulty plumbing, unauthorized water connections etc. this allows a continuous flow of water
going to waste.
3.4 Water demand projection (calculation)

The result of the project population of the year 2008, 2018 and 2028 is presented as follows.
Table 3.2 population projection of the Assosa town
year 2008 2018 2028

Projected population 22936 35791 54582
3.4.1 Domestic demand by mode of services

Table 3.3 projection of service level in percentage of the Assosa town
Mode of service Year

1999 2005 2015 2025
House connection 0.2 5.9 15.5 25
Yard connection 3.6 17.8 41.4 65
Public fountain 67.3 54.1 32.1 10
Estimation of per capital water domestic demand by mode of service for the year
2008, 2018 and 2028:
Change in living standard and improved service coverage are two of the main factors which often
have substantial influence on percentage distribution of population by modes of services. In
estimating projected per capital water demand corresponding to each mode of service, Water
Works Design and Supervision Enterprise (WW DSE) had adopted the following growth rates.
HC = 2%, YC = 2%, PF= 1%,

To calculate the domestic demand by mode services the following formula is derived as follows.
HC1999 is given
 For HC2000=HC1999+(HC1999* R)
HC2000=HC1999 (1+R)-------------------------------------------------a
 For HC2001 = HC2000+(HC2001*R)------------------------------------b
Substitute equation “a” in to equation “b”
HC2001 = HC1999+ (HC1999*R) + (HC1999 (1+R)*R)
HC2001 = HC1999 (1+R)(1+R)
----------------------------------------------
HC2001 = HC1999 (1+R) 2 c
 For HCn = HC1999 (1+R)a
Where n is the year for which domestic demand by mode of service is to be estimated, a is the
number of years between HC1999&HCn and R is growth rate per year.
Sample calculation for year 2018, HC
Activity type; cooking in HC
HC = 6 l/c/d
a = 2018-1999 = 19
n= 2018
HC2018 = HC1999 (1+R) a
HC2018 = 6(1+2%) 19 = 8.74

Table 3.4 domestic demand by mode service for year 2008, 2018, 2028
Activity Year 2008 Year 2018 Year 2028
HC YC PF HC YC PF HC YC PF
drinking 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6
Cooking 7.17 7.17 6.56 8.74 8.74 7.25 10.66 10.6 8.01
Ablution 2.99 2.39 1.09 3.64 2.91 1.21 4.44 3.55 1.33
Washing 5.38 4.18 2.19 6.56 5.10 2.42 7.99 6.22 2.67
utensil
Laundry 10.16 9.8 3.72 12.38 11.95 4.11 15.09 14.56 4.54
House 4.78 2.99 2.19 5.83 3.64 2.42 7.10 4.44 2.67
cleaning
Bath or 18.88 10.16 2.19 23.2 12.38 2.67 28.06 15.09 2.67
shower
Toilet 7.77 5.38 1.09 9.47 6.56 1.21 11.54 7.99 1.33
total 58.73 43.67 20.63 71.42 52.88 22.89 86.48 64.11 24.82
(NB: the above calculation is done by the growth rate of HC=2, YC=2 and PF= 1)

Table 3.5: projection of per capital water demand by mode of service for 2008, 2018, and 2028
Year Demand (l/c/d)

HC YC PF
2008 58.73 43.67 20.63
2018 71.42 52.88 22.89
2028 86.48 64.11 24.82
Projection of Population distribution by modes of service for year 2008, 2018 and
2028
As shown above in table 3.3 the percentage populations of house connection (HC) and yard
connection (YC) users are increasing, where as the public fountain users are decrease.
Calculation for the percentage of population for years 2008, 2018, 2028, are follows. Mode
service type......................................................house connection(HC)
Percentage of population in 2005…………PHC-2005 =5.9%
Percentage growth rate from 2005 to 2015
Where R= percentage growth rate Percentage
growth rate from 2015 to 2025
PHC2025  PHC2015 =0.95

R 2025  2015
The percentage of HC in 2008=PHC2005+R*(2008-2005) =8.78% The
percentage of HC in 2018=PHC2015+R*(2018-2015) =18.35% The
percentage of HC in 2028=PHC2025+R*(2028-2025)=27%
The values of YC and PF is calculed as above and the result is summarized in table below

Table 3.6 projection of the percentage of population by modes of services
Connection type Year

2008 2018 2028
HC 8.78% 18.35% 27%
YC 24.88% 48.48% 71%
PF 47.5% 25.47% 2%
The projected average domestic water demand

Based on the above discussions results and information the projected average domestic water
demand of Assosa town is calculated and tabulated as follows.
Projected population = population distribution by mode of service * total population Table
3.7 projected population by mode of service
Year Modes of Total Population Projected

service population distribution population
2008 HC 22936 8.78% 2014
YC 22936 24.88% 5706
PF 22936 58.72% 10895
2018 HC 18.35% 35781 6568
YC 48.48% 35791 17351
PF 25.47% 35791 9116
2028 HC 27% 54582 14737
YC 71% 54582 38753
PF 2% 54582 1092

Sample calculation of the above table for the year 2018 Data:
 Total population =35781
Population distribution by mode of service (%)
 HC =18.35%
 YC = 48.48%
 PF = 25.47%
Projected population = population distribution by mode of service * total population
Therefore,
HC = 18.35%* 35781 = 6568
YC = 48.48% * 35781 = 17351
PF = 25.4% * 35781= 9116
Projected daily average domestic demand

This is obtained by multiplying the projected population of each mode of service and the
projected per capita water demand by mode of service.
Projected average domestic demand (l/d) = projected population * projected per capita water
demand.

Table 3.8: projected average domestic demand
Year Modes of projected Projected per Projected

service population capital water average
demand domesticate
2008 HC 2014 58.73 118282.22
YC 5706 43.67 249181.02
PF 10895 20.63 224763.85
Total average domestic demand(l/d) 592227.09
2018 HC 6568 71.42 469086.56
YC 17351 52.88 917520.88
PF 9116 22.89 208665.24
2028 HC 14737 86.48 1274455.76
YC 38753 64.11 2484454.83
PF 1092 24.82 27103.44
3.4.2 The adjusted domestic water demand

The projected daily average domestic demand should be adjusted considering socio-
economic factor and climatic effects.
1. Adjustment due to socio-economic factor

The socio-economic factor is selected from socio-economic factors table given below;

Table 3.9: socio-economic factor
Group Distribution Factors

A Town enjoining high living 1.10
standard and with high
potential for development
B Town having a very high 1.05

potentialfor development,
but lower living standard at
present
C Town under normal 1.00
Ethiopian condition
D Advanced rural town 0.9
(Source: national water supply and sanitary master plan)
The socio-economic factor for Assosa town is selected to be group “B”, with factor 1.05 as the
town has high potential for development.
2. Adjustment due to climatic effect

Since Assosa town has a mean annual rainfall of 1170 mm, it is grouped under group “C”
town with adjusted factor of 1.0
Table 3.10: climatic effects factor
Group Mean annual Factors

precipitation(mm)
A 600 or less 1.10
B 601-900 1.05
C 901 or more 1.00
(Source: national water supply and sanitary master plan)

. Thus, the over all adjustment of the projected average domestic demand for the town can be
calculated as
D adjusted = D* socio-economic factor * climatic factor
Where: - D adjusted = adjusted average domestic demand D=
The projected average domestic demand
For Assosa town,
D adjusted = D * 1.05* 1.0= 1.05D
The results are tabulated below.
Table 3.11 adjusted domestic water demand
Year Projected average Adjusted domestic water

domestic demand(l/d)=[D] demand(l/d)=[1.05*D]
2008 592227.09 621838.445

2018 1595272.68 1675036.314
2028 3786014.03 3975314.732
3.4.3 Institutional and commercial water demand

projection Projection of Institutional water demand
This is the quantity of water required for public buildings and institution such as schools,
Hospitals, public parks, play grounds, gardening, sprinkling on roads.....................etc

Table 12: water demand for various institutions in Assosa town in 2005, 2015, and 2025
Serial Institutional Demand (m3/sec)

number type Year 2005 Year 2015 2025
1 Education Day 19.2 34.4 57.4
school
Boarding 17.8 140 262
school
Total 37 174.4 319.40
2 Health 14.8 19.5 24.2
3 Public office 8.5 12.9 19.1
4 Cinema 0.5 0.8 1.1
5 Prison 7.6 11.7 17.2
6 Mosques 1.9 2.8 4.2
7 Public bath 6.6 3.9 5.7
8 Bus station 3.9 6.0 18.9
9 Military camp 104.8 131 157.2
10 Abattoir 2.5 3.9 5.8
11 Recreation 6.8 10.4 15.3
12 Farm 1.0 1.7 2.4
(Source feasibility report )
In the table above the demand for various institution of the Assosa town is given in the year 2005,
2015 and 2025. Hence the demand of water in the year 2008, 2018 and 2028 is calculated as
follow.

Sample calculation:
Educational water demand type
Demand in 2005…...................................37.0m3/day
Demand in 2015…....................................174.4m3/day
Demand in 2015…....................................319.40m3/day
Growth rate (R) of demand from 2005 to 2015
174.4  37.0) =13.74m3/day/year

R= ( (2015 
2005)
Hence,
Demand in 2008 = demand in 2005 +R*∆t where , R=growth rate
∆t= the time interval of growth rate
=37+13.74*(2008-2005)
= 78.22m3/day
Demand in 2018 =demand in 2015+R*∆t
=174.4+13.74*3
=215.62m3/day
The demand in 2028 is calculated as above which is 360.62m3/day
Similarly the demand of other institution is calculated and summarized as follow in the table.

Table 13: water demand for various institutions in Assosa town in 2008, 2018, and 2028
Serial Institutional Demand (m3/sec)

number type Year 2008 Year 2018 2028
1 Education Day 22.94 40.48 65.82
school
Boarding 54.60 176.60 298.60
school
Total 78.22 215.62 360.62
2 Health 16.2 20.91 25.61
3 Public office 9.63 14.57 21.31
4 Cinema 0.59 0.89 1.19
5 Prison 8.6 13.2 19.12
6 Mosques 2.12 3.17 4.72
7 Public bath 5.79 4.44 6.24
8 Bus station 4.53 9.87 22.7
9 Military camp 112.66 138.86 165.06
10 Abattoir 2.87 4.42 6.47
11 Recreation 7.74 11.73 17.03
12 Farm 1.21 1.91 2.61
total 250.2 439.6 652.7
The commercial water demand projection

The commercial water demand of the Assosa town in 2005 is 90.435m3/day and growth by
average of yearly growth rate assumed to be 7%.

The demand for the year 2008, 2018, and 2028 are calculated and summarize as follow Table 14:
commercial water demand of Assosa town in year 2008, 2018and 2028
Year Demand (m3/day)

2005 90.435
2008 110.79
2018 217.94
2028 428.71
Fire fighting water demand

The requirement of fire fighting water demand is for protection of property and human levies
from fury of fire. It is taken as 10% of the volume of storage of the tank or the
reservoir or the average demand of the town.
On-line community water demand

Four (4%) of the average daily demand water is allocated for on-line communities.
Industrial water demand

The demands imposed on the water supply system by industries are assessed separately and
individually, if the industrial demand is excessively high, serious consideration should be made as
to whether to supply the industrial water demand from the water supply or not. However, in our
case, 7% of the daily net demand is adopted for industries.
Uncounted for water loss

Defective joints in the main, broken and cracked pipes, defective house connections and faulty
plumbing, an authorized water connection causes the water loss. This allows a

continuous flow of water going to waste. Care full maintenance and universal metering can
minimize this.
Generally, 20%-30% of the daily demand is allocated for water losses. For Assosa town, 25% of
the daily demand is considered as loss.
3.5 summary of water demand

The water demand analyzed and determined earlier are summarized and presented in the table
below.
Table 3.15: Summery of water demand
Year 2008 2018 2028

Population unit 22936 35791 54582
Adjusted average m3/day 621.835 1675.036 3975.315
domestic demand
Institutional & m3/day 360.28 659.01 1044.76

commercial water
demand
Industrial water m3/d 68.748 163.383 351.40
demand (10%)
Fire fighting water m3/day 98.2 233.405 502.607
demand (4%)
On-line community m3/day 39.285 53.362 200.803
(4%)
Uncounted loss (25%) m3/day 245.53 583.512 1255.019
Total average daily m3/d 1433.891 3407.708 7329.309
demand

3.6 Variation of water use

In fixing the capacities of different components of water supply system, it is vital to consider the
daily and hourly fluctuation of demand. Hence, the following conditions of demands are
considered.
 Total average daily water demands.
 Maximum daily water demands.
 Peak hourly water demand.
3.6.1 Total Average Daily Water Demand

It is the total sum of domestic, non-domestic and an accounted for water demand.
3.6.2 Maximum Daily Water Demand

The water consumption in a year varies day to day due to habits of the consumers, climatic
condition, holidays, etc. The ratio of the maximum daily consumption to the average day
consumption is said to be maximum day factor. There is no recorded data for the maximum day
factor for many Ethiopian towns. However, a factor ranging from 1.2 to 1.5 is used in several of
our towns, hence these figures may be adopted for other towns. Therefore a maximum day factor
of 1.4 is taken for Assosa town water supply project.
3.6.3 Peak Hour Demand

The peak hour demand is greatly influenced by the living standard of the population and the size of
the town. The peak hour demand is the most prominent figure for the design of the distribution
networks. On this particular project the peak hour demand factor of about
1.9 is given and the peak hourly demand calculation is performed and tabulated below

Table 3.16: summary of total average daily water demand, maximum daily water demand and
peak hourly water demand
Year 2008 2018 2028

Total population 22936 35791 54582
Total Avg. daily 16.59017 39.44106 84.82997
water demand(L/s)
Total Avg. daily 1433.891 3407.708 7329.309

water demand(m /d)
3
Maximum daily 26.54428 63.1057 135.7279

water demand(L/S)
Maximum daily 2007.447 4770.791 10261.03

water
demand(m3/d)
Peak hourly 33.1803 78.882 169.66
water demand(L/s)
Peak hourly 2867.78 6815.4 14659

water (m /d)
3

variation of water demand
180
160
water demand in 140 average daily water (l/s)
120 maximum daily water demand
100 peak hourly water demand (l/s)
80
60
40
20
0
2000
2010 2020 2030
time in year
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 SOURCE OF WATER
4.1 General
Estimating the water demand of the Assosa town at the design period for water supply scheme is
discussed in the previous chapter. Knowing the water demand of the population at the design
period, the next step is to search water source, which may be able to supply the required quantity
of water. The source of water can be either surface source of water or subsurface source of water
(ground water).
4.2 Ground source of water

The ground water source includes springs, infiltration galleries and well. A number of ground
water resources are investigated around areas called Selga, Hoha and Gambella located in the
Hoha, Selga and Gambela valley respectively around the town.
4.3 Surface source of water

Surface water includes rivers, depressions, lakes, ponds etc. Rivers may be perennial or non
perennial. Perennial rivers are those in which the water is available through out the year. Perennial
rivers can be used as source of public water supply directly by providing storage on the upstream
of the intake works. The head works such as barrage or a weir,
may also be constructed on those perennial rivers, where supplies are considerably reducing during
dry weather periods.
The quantity of water obtained from rivers is generally not reliable, as it contains large amount of
silt, sand, and a lot of suspended matter. Disposal of sewerage in to the river is further liable to
contaminate the water. The river water must therefore be properly analyzed and well treated before
supplying to the public.
So, for Assosa town water supply schemes, the two alternatives are considered.
Alternative 1: Ground water from areas of Selga, Hoha and Gambella located in the Hoha,
Selga and Gambela valley respectively around the town.
Alternative 2: surface water from Selga, Afa and Hoha stream through impoundment dam.The
three rivers or steams called Hoha, Afa and Selga are considered as the main source of the town's
water supply schemes.
1. Afa stream
This stream is located 20km south of the Assosa town. The source of this stream is mainly
precipitation and it is non- perennial river .so, it needs a construction of dam to store water during
the low flow period. At the selected dam site, the stream has a catchments area of 144km2.
2. Selega stream
This stream originates near the Assosa town and drain to the east direction away from the town.
So, it contains highly polluted contaminated water, which also drains from the town. Like the Afa
stream, it is non- perennial. It requires the construction of dame to store water during the low
flow season. The possible dam site selected is 30km from the town and the reservoir area block the
road connecting Assosa town and Dabus village.

3. Hoha river
This river is located about 12km North West of the town and it is the only perennial gauged river
in the basin. It has about 161km2 catchments area at the proposed site of diversion. The river is
gauged at down streams of the bride on the Assosa- kurmuk road.
4.4 Choice of source of water supply

Factor affecting the choices of the water sours for water supply scheme:
1. Location- the source of water should be as near to the town as possible. If there are both
surface and ground sources available to the town the selection will be deciding by considering
other factors also.
2.Quantity of water- the source of water should have sufficient quantity of water to meet up
all the demands of city such as domestic, industrial, fire fighting, public etc through out the year.
There should be sufficient extra quantity of water to be required in the future while expansion of
the city is done.
3. Quality of water – the quality of water should be good which can be easily and cheaply
treated. It should not contain disease germs or other pathogenic bacteria which may endanger the
health of the public. Therefore as far as possible the water of the source should be safe and free
from pollution.
4. Cost of water supply scheme- the cost of water supply project should also be taken in to
account while selecting the source of water. The cost of water supply scheme depends on many
factors as system of supply, ground levels of city, distance between source and distribution system
etc. if the water flows under the gravitational force it will be cheap, but if it is to be pumped it will
be costly.
Generally; the selection of the source of water supply is done on the above points and the source
which will give good quality and the quantity at less cost will be selected.

According to the analysis of the given hydrometric data flow of Hoha river, the 95% dependable
minimum flow read from the flow duration curve is (Q 95percentage=88L/S). And the maximum daily
demand at the end of the design period (year 2028) is 85L/S which directly indicates the river flow
is much enough for the proposed water supply project and for down stream users.
Based on the above criteria the source of water selected for the Assosa water supply project is
surface source of water specifically Hoha River.
4.5. Hydrology
4.5.1 General
The primary objectives of hydrological investigations are mainly in connection with the design,
construction and operation of hydraulic structures. The established river flow characteristics are:
mean daily and monthly flow, daily and monthly flow duration curves, firm flows and probable
maximum flood. Hydrology is required in the design stage to determine the maximum, minimum
and mean flow of the river at the proposed location of the structure. Design flood corresponding to
a certain return period is required to design efficiently and economically functioning hydraulic
structures. The maximum flow is used to design the hydraulic structure and the minimum possible
flow is used to determine whether storing the flow or not.
4.5.2 Data availability

The 34 years maximum and minimum discharge of Hoha River is available for the analysis and
design of Assosa town water supply project.

Table 4.1 Gauging station of the Hoha River
Name Location Basin Elevation Latitude Longitude Drainage

of area
river
Hoha Near Blue 1460m.a.s.l 10'9" 34'38" 161km2
Assosa Nile
4.5.3 Data quality analysis

In order to select and recommend a certain meteorological, hydrological data in the future,
which were recorded in the past, the sample stastics data distribution should be tested for
goodness. The data quality analysis is made using
1. The student t-test

2. The fisher F-test
3. Test for outlier
1. Student t-test
For two series of uncorrected data X1 andX2 the student t-test can be used to establish the level
of significance of difference between the two data
For minimum flow of Hoha

Table: Data test by student t-test of Hoha River
Year No Annual Year No Annual

n1=17 min(Q) n2=17 min(Q)
m3/sec m3/sec
X 1=mean=0.108 X 2=mean=0.509
1966 deviation,
Standard 1 10.05
=0.064 1983 18
2=0.872 0.123
1967 2 0.088 1984 19 0.194
If µ1, µ2 are the mean, we have to denote between the hypotheses H0=µ1=µ2
1968 3 0.15 1985 20 0
1969 4 0.133 1986 21 0.002
1970 5 0.088 1987 22 0.002
1971 6 0.052 1988 23 0.002
1972 7 0.133 1989 24 0.01
1973 8 0.106 1990 25 0.183
1974 9 0.06 1991 26 0.063
1975 10 0.026 1992 27 0.209
1976 11 0.184 1993 28 0.239
1977 12 0.09 1994 29 0.263
1978 13 0.277 1995 30 0.326
1979 14 0 1996 31 0.227
1980 15 0.114 1997 32 0.264
1981 16 0.123 1998 33 0.122
1982 17 0.163 1999 34 0

H=µ1≠µ2
Under the hypothesis, Ho pooled variances (sp) SP=
(n  1)2 (n1122 1)  2
n1  n2  2
= (17 1)0.0642  (17  1)0.08722

=0.618
17  17  2
tcal = x  x  (  
1
sp1 * (2 1n  1n2 )
) 1 2
0.108  0.509  0
= = -1.892
0.618 * ( 1  1 )
1717
On the basis of a two-tailed test at α=0.05 level of significance, we would reject Ho
if tcal were out side the range
-t(1-α/2) to t(1-α/2) for
n1+n2 - 2 = 17 + 17 – 2 = 32 degree of freedom.
t(1-0.05/2) = t (0.975) = 2.03 for degree of freedom =30
Hence, t(0.975) = -2.03 ≤ -1.892 ≤ t(0975) = 2.03,
Hence, tcal, is inside the range
Thus, we cannot reject Ho, at a 0.05 level of significant
2. Fisher test (F-test)

This test examines the variability of the means and variance using split record test. The
procedure for this test may be summarized as follow.
1). Fist the record flow hydrometric data divided into equal non- overlapping sub sets, j=1,
2…..m and j=m+1, m+2….n.
2) .Then, mean (Qm) and the variances (n-1) are computed. The variances are examined first using
the F- test, in which the test statistic is

 n1
F= ; wherever n-1>n-2
 n2
The computed F is compared with the tabulated ordinates of the F- distribution for the

significance level of (two tailed test, and (m-1) and (n-m-1) degrees of freedom. If the
2
computed value is less than the tabulated value, then hypothesis (Ho) are estimates of the same
population variance can be accepted. The calculation is as follow.
Table 4.3 the F-test for Hoha River
бn-1 19.25025 бn-2 = 14.69263
S.No year Qmax s.no year Q max
N= 17 N = 17
1 1966 5.51 18 1983 9.188
2 Q =1967 12.845
10.15 19 Q 1984= 14.89335
9.707
3 1968 7.24 20 1986 7.113
4 1969 12.25 21 1987 17.155
5 1970 4.65 22 1988 17.155
6 1971 9.06 23 1989 46.815
7 1972 8.78 24 1990 9.225
8 1973 4.199 25 1991 9.225
9 1974 10.169 26 1992 9.225
10 1975 13.691 27 1993 3.839
11 1976 86.805 28 1994 9.225
12 19777 6.468 29 1995 3.407
13 1978 8.746 30 1996 12.35
14 1979 4.751 31 1997 11.539
15 1980 10.201 32 1998 5.293
16 1981 9.532 33 1999 15.264
17 1982 6.163 34 2000 57.462

 n1
F=
 n2 = 19.25025 =1.31
14.69263
Degree of freedom =34-17-1=16
The tabulated value of F for 16 and 16 degrees of freedom and a significance level of 2.5% are
found to be 2.9885 (from table). Hence the computed value is less than the tabulated values, then
the hypothesis (Ho) are estimates of the same population variance can be accepted.
3. Test for outlier
A) Maximum flow
Outliers are date points that depart significantly from the trend of the remaining data. The retention
or deletion of this outlier can significantly affect the magnitude of statistical parameters computed
from the data; especially for small samples procedures for trending outliers require judgment
involving both mathematical and hydrological considerations. According to the water resources
council, if the station skew is greater than +0.4 tests for high outliers are considered first; if station
skew is less than -0.4, test for low outlier are considered first. Where the station skew is between
0.4 tests for both high and low outlier should be applied before eliminating any outliers from the
data set.
The following frequency equation can be used to detect high outliers.
Yh= Y +K *бn-1
Where: -Yh=is the high outlier threshold in log units
K=value read from table for sample size
n-1=standard deviation
n-1=
(Yi  Y )2
n 1
QH = (10) Yh
A similar equation can be used to detect low outliers
Yl=Y -K * бn-1 , Where Yl=is the low outlier threshold in log units.
QL = (10) YL

Test I
For higher outliers
Y  0.97484
n =34
n-1 = 0.307
For n=34, K=2.616 (from table) Yh
=Y +K* бn-1
=0.97484+2.616*0.307
=1.778952
QH= 60.11078m3/s
In the given data there is discharge of 86.805m3/s which is greater than QH = 60.11078 m3/s
therefore there is high outlier. Therefore 86.805m3/s should be removed from the data and the next
test will be done for 33 years data.
For lower outliers
YL  0.17073
Q  1.48159m3 / s
L
There is no lower outliers because there is no discharge less than QL= 1.561m3/s in the given
data.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
maximum
30 Series1
20
10
0
-101960
1970 1980 1991 2001

year
Fig 4.1 maximum discharge vs. year for test one

Test II
For higher outlier
Y  0.969
n= 33
n-1 =0.263
For n=33
K=2.604 (from table)
Yh= Y +K * бn-1
=1.652601
QH= 44.937m3/s
In the given data there are discharges of 57.462 and 46.815m 3/s which are greater than
QH=44.937m3/s. Therefore there are high outliers. 57.462m3/s and 46.81 m3/s should be removed
from the data and the next test will be done for 31 years data.
For lower outliers
YL  0.285
Q  1.929m3 / s
L
data.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
MAXIMUM
Series1
0
1960 1970 1981 1992 2002
YEAR
Fig 4.2 maximum discharge vs. year for test two

Test III
For higher outlier
Y  0.921
n= 31
n-1 =0.184
For n=31 K = 2.577 (from table)
Yh= Y +K * бn-1 =1.395

QH= 24.850m3/s
As there is no discharger greater than QH= 24.8497m3/s in the data there is no high outlier.
For lower outliers
YL  0.446
Q  2.795m3 / s
L
data.
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
MAXIMUM
6 Series1
4
2
0
1960
1970 1981 1993

YEAR
Fig 4.3 maximum discharge vs. year for test three

B) Minimum flows
The procedures are already mentioned in the above section
Test I
(For high outlier)
Y  1.10494
n-1 =0.617
For n=31 K=2.577 (from table)
Yh= Y +K * бn-1 =0.486

QH=3.060m3/sec
As there is no discharge greater than QH=3.06017m3/sec in the given data there is no high
outlier
(For low outlier)
Yl=-2.69563
Ql=0.002015m3/sec
In the give data there are three discharges (0.002) which are less than Ql=0.002015 therefore
this three discharges should be removed from the data.
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
MIN.
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
YEAR
Series1
Fig 4.4 minimum discharge vs. year for trend analysis

4.5.4 Flow duration curve

Basically one of the popular methods of studying stream flow variability is through flow duration
curves. A flow duration curve of a stream is a plot of discharge against the percent of time equaled
or exceeded.
Flow duration curves find a considerable use in water resource planning and development. Some
of important uses are:
i. In comparing the adjacent catchments with a view to extend the stream flow data.
ii.In evaluating various dependable flows in the planning of water resources engineering projects
etc…
There are two main methods of plotting flow duration curve

1. Total year method
It considers a total time series of floods that represent equal interval increment of time for each
measured values, such as mean daily, weekly or monthly flows and ranks the flows according to
magnitude. The rank order values are assigned in individual order value the largest being the 1st
with rank.
In the total year method the entire available record is used for plotting the flow duration curve. All
the data’s are tabulated in descending order starting from the wettest month on the entire period
and ending with the driest month of the period for which the flow record is available.
2. Calendar year method

In calendar year method each year average monthly flow value are first arranged in ascending
order. Then the average flow values corresponding to the driest month, the second driest month
and so on up to the wettest month are found out by taking arithmetic mean of all values of the
same rank. These average values are then used for plotting the flow duration curve.

As the total year method incorporates all the flow records, it gives more accurate result than the
calendar year method. Thus it is used to plot the flow duration curve for this project.
By using Weibull formula i.e.
 m 
P *100
N 1 Where; m =is the order of the discharge
 
Pp=percentage probability of the flow magnitude being equaled or exceeded N=
number of data points that are used in the listing
flow duration curve for hoha river
flow duration curve for hoha river

3
minimun
0
0.2512.75 25.25 37.75 50.25 62.75 75.25 87.75
percentage of excedence
Figure 4.5 flow duration curve
4.5.5 Estimation of Design Flood

4.5.5.1 Design Flood
Design flood is a flood adopted for a design of hydraulic structure. It is selected based on types of
hydraulic structure and the magnitude of loss life and property damage or the down stream of the
structure.

When ever an important structure is to be constructed on a river or in the vicinity of a river, it

must be properly designed keeping in view the damage to which it is susceptible and the
catastrophe which it is going to create in the event of its failure. Hence fixing the flood value for a
given return period for which structures is safe through out the design period is very important.
4.5.5.2 Selection of return period

Return period (T) is the average interval in years between events which are equaled or exceeded a
given magnitude. It may, however, be clearly understood that the concept of return period doesn’t
imply that the event of any given magnitude will occurred at constant or even approximately
constant interval of n years. It only indicates frequency of an event over a long period of years.
Selecting higher return period means the corresponding flood magnitude is high. Such a very high
flood may not occur during the lifetime of the structure. On the other hand if a very low discharge
corresponding to lower return period is chosen for the design and if it is exceeded it will result in
the failure of the structure causing more damage than would have been caused by in the absence of
the structure.
The general guidelines for selecting the return period for a given design flood is as shown
below:
Table 4.3: Structures with their recommended design flood
Structure Recommended design flood

Spill way for major and medium projects Return period (T)=1000yrs

with storage more than 60Mm3

Permanent barrage and minor dams with Return period (T)=100yrs
capacity less than 60Mm3
Weirs and other small structures Return period of 100 or 50 yrs depending on
the importance of the project.
(Source: Engineering hydrology, SUBARAMANYA (1994)
For diversion structure a 50 or 100 years return period can be adopted depending on the
importance of the structure. For Assosa water supply project a return period of 50 years is
considered.
4.5.5.3 Flood Estimation

For planning and designing of water resource development project the important parameter are
river discharges and related questions on the frequency and duration of normal flow and extreme
flows.
At a given location in the stream, flood peaks enable one to assign a frequency to a given flood
peak value. In the design of all hydraulic structures, the peak flows that can be expected with an
assigned frequency are of primary importance to adequately proportion the structures to
accommodate its effect.
To estimate the magnitude of a flood peak the following alternative method are available -
Rational Method
- Empirical method
- Unit hydrograph technique and
- Flood frequency studies.

Rational method is applicable to a small site (<50km2) catchments but the Hoha has an
approximate area of 161km2.
Regarding the unit hydro graph method it is normally restricted to moderate size catchments with
areas less than 5000Km2.Though the catchments satisfy the condition for the project, it is not
used due to shortage of available data like rain fall resulting floods and infiltration.
As empirical formulas are used for the estimation of peak flood is mostly regional formula and it is
not applicable for this project.
Flood frequency studies are statistical methods of frequency analysis that can correlate the given
hydrological data in to a best fit. Therefore, considering the desired objective, the available data
and the importance of the project, frequency analysis method is selected for the estimation of peak
flood.
4.5.5.4 Flood frequency analysis

In this method, the predictions for the future flood are made based on the available records of the
past flood. It can safely used to determine the maximum flood that is expected on a river with a
given frequency on condition that sufficient past record data are available.
4.5.5.5 Estimation of design flood

In order to estimate the design flood around six methods of distribution are used namely:
 Gumble’s distribution
 Log Pearson distribution
 Normal distribution
 Log normal distribution
 Gev. (Generalized extreme value distribution)
 Uniform distribution

To select and evaluate the parent distribution, L-moment, which is the recent method and that
gives efficient result as compared with the others is used.
4.5.5.6 Estimation of L-moment

L-moments are ways of summarizing the statistical properties of hydrologic data. The first L-
moment estimator is the mean
L1  E( X )
Let X (i/n) is the Ith largest observation in a sample of size n (i=1 corresponding to the largest).
Then, for any distribution the second L- moment is a description of scale based on the expected
difference between two randomly selected observations.
L2  0.5 * E[ X 1  X 2 ]
2 2
Similarly L-moment measures of the skew ness and kurtosis

1
L  * E[ X
1  2 * X
2  X 3 ]
3
3 3
3 3
1
L  * E[ X
4 1 3*X2 3*X3 X4 ]
4 4 4 4 4
L-Moment estimator: L-moment can be written as function of probability-weighted moments

(PWMs), which can be defined as
b  E{X [F ( X )]r }
r
When unbiased ness is important one can employ unbiased PWM ESTIMATOR
bo=Qmean = 9.04741935
n1
(n 
j 1
j)(xj)
b1 = = 6.64093011
n(n  1)

n2
(n  1)(n  j  1)
(xj)
b2= = 4.06610857
j 1
n(n  1)(n  2)
n3
(n 1)(n  j  1)(n  j  2)

(xj)
b3 = = 3.24374789
j 1
n(n 1)(n  2)(n  3)

For any distribution; L-Moments are easily calculated interims of PWMs from
L1=bo =9.04741935
L2=2b1-bo =2.0344086
L3=6b2-6b1+ bo =0.1984901
L4=20b3-30b2+12b1-b0 =0.33544287
L-moment ratio
L-coefficient of variation Z2 = L2/L1 = 0.224864
L-coefficient of skew ness Z3 = L3/L2 = 0.097565
L-coefficient of kurtosis Z4 = L4/L2 = 0.164882
The relation ship between the third and the fourth L-moment ratios for different types of frequency
distribution is given below
Table 4.4: L-moment ratio
Distribution Z3 Z4
uniform 0 0
exponential 1/3 1/6
Normal 0 0.1226
Gubmel 0.1699 0.1504
 Log-normal distribution
Z4 = 0.12282 + 0.77518 Z32 + 0.12279 Z34 - 0.13638 Z36 + 0.11368 Z38
Z4 (0.097565) = 0.13021445
 General extreme value distribution

Z4=0.1070+0.1109Z3+0.84838Z32+0.06669Z33+0.00567Z34-

0.04208Z 5+0.03763Z
3
6
3
Z4 (0.097565) = 0.125966
 Pearson distribution
Z4 = 0.1224 + 0.30115 Z 2 +3 0.95812 Z 4 - 0.57488Z
3
6
+ 0.19383Z
3
8
3
Z4 (0.0977565) = 0.125354820.34231155
Based on the L-Moment estimator, the value of sample Z4 is close to the value of Z4 of the
Gumble. Therefore, the most fitted probable distribution for this specific water supply project is
Gumble distribution.
The graphical representation of the relationship between L-skew ness (Z 3) and kurtosis (Z4)
and the values of Z3 and Z4 of the diversion site is given below.
Z4 PERSO Z4GEV
1.2 Z4 LOG NORMAL
Z4N0MAL Z4UNIFORM Z4GUMLE Z4EXPENTIAL
1 HOHA RIVER
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5
Fig 4.6 L-moment diagram
4.5.5.7 Calculation of design discharge

Thus, for determining extreme design flood Gamble’s distribution is largely used and the required
statistical parameters are determined from the available data, for which flood magnitude (Q) for
any specific return period (T) can be determined.
Qp=Q+Kδ

Where Qp = peak flood

Q=mean of the variant
= standard deviation of the variant K
=constant
This equation has been shown by chow to be the governing equation for almost all the theoretical
frequency distribution functions. According to Gumbel’s theory of extreme events, the probability
occurrence of on event equal to or larger than a value xo is given by
P(XXo) =1-e-lny
Where y = dimensional variable given by Y

=(X-)
Where =1.2825/,=X-0.45005
=Standard deviation of variant x.
Y=1.2825/ (x-x +0.45005)
Y=1.2825/(x-x) +0.577
In actual practice, it is the value of x for given probability (P) that is required; and as such
equation above is transposed as
Y(p)= Value of variant y for given probability (p)
= -ln (-ln(1-p))
Using p=1/T
We have YT=-(ln ln T/T-1)
From YT=1.2825/ (XT-X)+0.577
Where XT= Value of X for return period of T.
 YT-0.577 /1.2825=XT-X
 XT= X+ ((YT-0.577) /1.2825) 
 XT= X+K

Where K= (YT-0.577)/1.2825 for N  

K is known as frequency factor.
-For smaller N (Sample size) of finite value k will be as follows K=
(YT-Yn)/Sn
Where Yn= Reduced mean, depending on N Sn=Reduced
standard deviation, depending on N
Q=  Q/N =9.047 m3/s
 =3.617851, for=50 years return period Y50
= - (ln (ln T/T-1))
= - (ln (ln 50/49)) =3.9019
For sample size of N=31

Yn= 0.537 and Sn = 1.1159 (from table)
 K 50= (Y50-Yn)/Sn =(3.9019-0.537)/(1.1159)= 3.015
Therefore, the design flood will be
Q 50= Q +K  =9.047+3.015*3.618 =19.69 m3/s
Therefore, the peak flood of 19.69m3/s is expected to occur in the 50 years return period. By
taking 95% confidence limit the calculation will be as follows X1/2=X50  +f(c)*Se
Where Se= b*( / (N) 0.5)

n
b= (1  1.3k  1.1k 2
= (1  (1.3 * 3.0154)  (1.1* (3.0154)2 )) = 3.863
Se =3.863*(3.618/ (31) 0.5) been

=2.510
And f(c) for 95% confidence limit is 1.96 (from table)
Therefore from the above equation
Maximum discharge…...............................24.8796 m3/sec

Minimum discharge …………………15.040m3/sec in which the calculated design discharges

is between the confidence limit.
Therefore the maximum design discharge will be 20m3/sec

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 R IVER D IVERSION H EAD WORKS

D IVERSION WEAR
5.1General
A wear is an obstruction or barrier constructed across a river the obstruction is of small height in
comparison with the dam, it is used for raising water level in river to divert the water into the
intake.
In this case the Hoha diversion weir site is located about 200m u/s of the bridge over the Hoha
River on the Assossa – Kurmuk road. The bed level of this 1460m a.s.l
The river bed is massive basaltic rock foundation.
5.2 Selection of Types of Weir

Weir can be classified according to the material of construction and certain design futures as
 Masonry weirs with vertical drop or vertical drop weir
 Concrete weir with d/s glacis
 Rocks fill weirs with sloping aprons
They are also classified as gravity and non gravity according to design aspect.
From the above types of weir for our scheme we select massonary weir with vertical drop, because
it is suitable for any type of foundation
5.3 Selection of site for Weir

Having decides up on the location of the weir the actual site is selected with the following consideration.
1) A narrow, straight, well defined channel with defined banks is the best.
2) Availability of material of construction
3) Accessibility of the site to the road

4) Arrangement of diversion of the river
5.4 Design of Vertical Drop Weir

The complete design of a vertical drop weir consists of the design calculation for the
following
i) Hydraulic calculation for fixing varios elevation
ii) Design of a weir wall
iii) Design of impervious apron
iv) Design of inverted filter and d/s talus
i) Hydraulic calculation
Available data
 Qd = maximum flood discharge
= 20m3/s
 River bed level = 1460m a.s.l
 Afflux = 1 (assumed)
 Lacey’s silt factor =1(assumed)
 Discharge concentration factor = 20%
 Coefficient of discharge =0.58
 Intake level of main supply line = 1460m a.s.l
Procedures
 Length of water way
L = 4.7 Qd3/2 ,where Qd =20m3/s
= 4.7 (20)3/2
= 13.67m
 Discharge (q) per unit width of the river
q= Q/L = 20/14
= 1.43m3/s/m

 Regime scour depth is calculated from lacey’s formula

q
R  1.35( 2
f )1 /
3 , where f= silt factor
R  1.35(1.432
1/ 3  1.71m
1 )
 Regime velocity (V) and velocity head (ha)
q
V  1.43
R  0.836m / s
1.71
V
ha  2
(0.836)2  0.0356m
2g  2 *
9.81
 Design discharge over the crest of the weir is given by
q = 1.7H 3/2
d
Head over crest weir Hd = (q/1.7)2/3 = 0.891m
Water level and Total energy levels are calculated as follows
 Elevation of T.E.L = River bed level + head over crest weir +Weir height
= 1460 +0.89 + 1.5
= 1462.39m a.s.l
 Elevation of u/s H.F.L = u/s T.E.L -V 2/2g

a
= 1462.39- 0.0356
= 1462.3564m a.s.l
 Elevation of d/s T.E.L = u/s T.E.L – Afflux
= 1462.354 – 1
= 1461.354m a.s.l

 Elevation of d/s H.F.L = u/s H.F.L – Afflux

= 1462.354 – 1

=1461.354m a.s.l
5.4.1 Design of under sluice portion

Head over under sluice portion = u/s TEL - river bed level
=1462.39 – 1460.0
=2.39m
The under sluice portion is so designed that it can pass 20% of the maximum flood
=0.2*20 =4m3/s
Provide one under sluice with one meter width at the bottom of diversion
q= Q sluice/L sluice
=4m3 / 1m =4m3/s/m
Scour depth (R) for the sluice section
R=1.35(q2/f)1/3 =1.35(4/1)1/3 =3.402m
5.4.2 Design of weir wall
The design of a vertical drop weir wall is similar to the of the over flow section of gravity dam ;
Incase of weir greater the discharge the discharge the smaller is the difference of level between the
head and tail water surfaces.
Preliminary section of weir wall

 top width
 bottom width (picture)
Top width (a)
Is fixed as the largest of the following
i) a= d/√G,, where d = maximum depth of water over the crest on u/s side) d =
u/s HFL – crest level
d = 1462.354 –1461.5 d
= 0.354m
G = specific gravity of wall material, 2.24kN/m3 a
= 0.354 /√2.24 =0.57

ii) a =0.552(H)*(√d) = 0.552*√1.5*√0.85

iii) a =3/2*d / √G =3/2*0.854/√2.24 =0.57m
Therefore take top width 0.65m which is the largest of the three results.
Stability check for weir
Under two states
State 1) when the u/s is at crest level or at level of crest shutter and there is no flow State 2)
when the water is passing over the weir crest and the weir is submerged
Bottom width (b)
 Can be calculated by equating over turning moment to the resisting moments taken at the outer
third point
 To find moment, we shall consider all the two states mentioned above.
State 1) Head water at the crest level and no water to the d/s side
-overturning moment with no shutter (assuming no shutter is provided) Mo
=γH3/6
-Resisting moment
M r = γ HG/6(b2+ab-a2) , G=2.24KN/m3
Equating overturning and resisting moments
γH3/ 6 =γ HG/6(b2+ab+a2)
H2=G (b2+ab-a2)
1.52 = 2.24(b2+0.65b-0.652)
b2+0.65b- 1.427 =0
Solving quadratic equation, b=0.913m
State -2) The weir is just submerged
- Overturning moment
Mo= hH2/2
Resisting moment
M r = H (G-1)/12*(b2+ab-a2)

Equating the two moments

γhH2/2 = γ H/12 (G-1)(b2+ab-a2) hH
= (G-1/6)(b2+ab-a2)
where h=d, when the tail water is at crest level ,d and h be equal for this case the value of d(head
over the crest ) is given by drowned weir formula.
q= 2/3*cd*g2*d3/2
d=(1.52*g2/cd2*g2)2/3 ,where Cd – coefficient of discharge =0.58 d=
1.52*1.432/0.582*19.62
d=0.886≈1m= h
1*1.5 = (2.24-1)/6*(b2+0.65b-0.652)
By solving quadratic equation
b≈2.465m
Therefore take bottom width,
B=2.46m (which is larger)
Depth of piles
 Bottom level of d/s pile=d/s HGL after retrogation-2R
Where d/s HGL after ret rogation = d/s TEL –Velocity head
=1461.39 -0.0356
=1461.354m a.s.l
 Bottom level of d/s pile =1461.354 – 2*1.71
=1457.934 m a.s.l
 Depth of d/s pile
d2 = bed level –bottom level of d/s pile
=1460m -1457.934m
=2.066m
Provide 2.5m depth of d/s pile
 Bottom level of u/s pile =u/s HFL -1.5R
=1462.354 - 1.5*1.71
=1459.789m a.s.l

 Depth of u/s pile= Bed level – bottom level of u/s pile

=1460m – 1459.789
d1=0.211m
Provide 1m depth of d/s pile
5.4.3 Design of Impervious Apron

For the under seepage, the worst condition will be when the water at the u/s is up to the crest and
there is no tail water.
If the floor of the weir is designed on’ Bligh Creep Theory’
 The total creep length(l)
L = CH
L = 9*1.5 =13.5m, where C= Creep coefficient = 9 (for gravel mixed with sand
and bolder)
 D/s impervious flow
l1=2.21C*(H/13)1/2
=2.21C*(H/13)1/2
=6.75m
 U/s impervious floor length
l2=18-6.75-(2.46+2*1+2*2.5)
=1.783m (take 2m)
 Total length of d/s floor
l3=18*C*((H/10)*(q*75))1/2
=18*9*((1.5/10)*(1.43*75))1/2
=8.66m (take 9m)
Length of filter +launching apron=9-6.75
(Length of d/s protection work)=2.25m
But, minimum length of d/s concrete block = 1.5d2 = 1.5*2.5 = 3.75m
An inverted filter is provided immediately d/s of the d/s impervious floor beyond the d/s pile to
relive the pressure so that piping does not occur. The filter is properly graded with finer

layer at the bottom and its total thickness is usually between 50cm to 70cm (irrigation
structure and water power eng ’g).
Thus provide 1m*1m*1m concrete block over 0.5m thick inverted filter and the open joint with
10cm gap are filled with river sand.
- Minimum length of d/s launching apron
= 1.5d2= 1.5*2.5=3.75
Length of d/s protection work =3.75+3.75 =7.5
U/s protection work
Minimum length of u/s concrete blocks = d1 = 1m
Provide 1m*1m*1m thick concrete block.
Minimum length of u/s launching apron at horizontal position = 1.5 * d1= 1.5*1 = 1.5m
Thickness of horizontal launching apron T
T 5 *1
2d 5*t  1.118  1.2m
5 * d1 1* t  2

2
Hence provide launching apron of length 1.5m and thickness of 1.5mand thickness of 1.2m
Actual creep length (L)
L = 2d1+L2+B+Ld+2d2
L = 2*1+2+2.46+6.75+2*2.5
L = 18.21m
 Residual head at the toe of the weir wall or at point B
H
h  H  (2d
1  Lu  B)
L
1.5
h  1.5 (2 *1  2  2.46)
 18.21
h  0.968m
Thickness of impervious floor (t) using Bligh’s theory
4 1 4
t * h  * 0.968
3 G 3 2.24  1
 1.04m

Therefore provide thickness of 1.04m for d/s floor from just near its junction with weir wall.
H
hH * (2d
L
1  Lu  B  3)
 Residual head at point C,(that is 3m from toe) 1.5

h  1.5 * (2 *1  2  2.46  3)
 18.21
4
Thus thickness (t)  * h  0.72m
3 4
h  0.81
 0.77  0.8m
G 2.24 
*
1 3 1
Therefore, provide thickness of 0.8m for the next 3m from point c
 Residual head at point D, at a distant of 5.5m from the toe of the weir wall
H
h  H  * (2d
1
L  Lu  B  5.5m)
h  1.5 1.5
* (2 *1  2  2.41  5.5)
 18.21
h  0.51m
4
Thus thickness (t)  *
3
h 4
0.64
  0.548m
G 2.24 
*
1 3 1
Therefore provide thickness of 0.6 for the last 1.25m of d/s impervious floor.
And also provide a nominal thickness of 0.5m below the u/s floor and below the weir wall.

Fig 5.1 dimensions of same of weir body components

Check for thickness by Khosla’s theory referring the above figure.
I. Exit gradient
II. Uplift pressure
Exit gradient
- Total length of the impervious floor
b = 2m+2.41m+6.75m = 11.16m
Depth of d/s pile (d2) = 2.5m
H 1
Thus exit gradient (GE) = * 1
d2 1.5  0.114  1      safe!
 *
  2.5  2.79
b 11.16 Because safe exit gradient for course sand with
   4.464
d2 2.5 mixed gravel of weir foundation is
1 1
1 (1  2 ) (1 4.4642 ) between and .(source irrigation structure
 1  
2.787
2 2 5 6
and water power eng ‘g, PUNMIA)

II. Up lift pressure

a) u/s pile
b 11.16
   11.16
d1 1
1  (1   2 )
b= 11.17m d1 = 1m   6.1
2
1 1    2  1 1  6.1  2 
E1
  * cos    * cos
 
    6.1 

 E 1  26.53%
 C1  100   E1  100  26.53  73.47%

  100 
where  1 * cos1    1   1 * cos1  6.1  1 
D1 D D
   
   6.1
 D  8.48%
 D 1  100   D  100  18.48  81.52%
Correction for C1
Correction due to mutual interference
D * (d  D)
Correction = 19 *
b' b
Where b’= the distance between two piles

D=the depth of the pile line, the interference of which has to be determined on the
neighboring pile of depth d. D is to be measure below the level at which interference is desired.
b= total floor length

b’=b=11.21
D= 2.5-0.5=2m and d = 1-0.5 = 0.5m
Correction = 19 * D * (d  D)
 19  3.78%(ve)
b' b * 2* (0.5  2)
11.2111.21
Thickness correction
  D1   C1  81.52  73.47 

 d1m *t   * 0.5  4.025%(ve)
 1   
Correction due to slope at C1 is nil, as C1 is neither situated at the start nor at the end of the slope.
Therefore corrected  C1  73.47  4.025  3.78  81.275%
B. d/s pile
b=11.21m d2= 2.5m
b

d  11.21  4.484
2
2.5
1
 (1   2 )
 2.79
 2
1 1    2  1 1  2.79  2 
 E 2  * cos    * cos
  
     2.79 
1
 E  * 73.39   40.77%
2 * 180

1 1    1  1 1  2.789  1 
 D2  * cos    * cos
  
     2.789 
1
 D  * 50.09   27.83%
2 * 180

 C 2  0%
Correction for  E 2
Correction due to mutual interference

b=b’=11.21
D=1-0.6=0.4 &
d=2.5-0.6=1.9

Correction = 19 * D * (d  D)
 19 * 0.4 * (1.9  0.4)  1.62%(ve)
b' b 11.2111.21
Thickness correction
  E2   D2  40.77  27.83 

2.5m
 *t   * 0.5  2.588%(ve)
 d
 2   
Note:-the correction is negative because the pressure at E2 shall be less than at E ’

2
Correction due to slope

Correction due to slope is nil, as the point E2 is neither situated at the start nor at the end
of a slope.
Hence corrected E 2 =40.77% - 1.62%- 2.588% = 36.57%
 Percentage pressure at toe B, C,D

Percentage pressure at B
 C 1   E 2 
  E  * Ac'
A 2  
b  
  81.27 36.57 
  36.57  * 6.75  63.48%
A  
 11.21 
Thus residual head at pt, B = 2*63.48% = 1.269m
h 1.2965
Thickness of floor at B, t    1.04..................................................ok!
G  1 2.24 
1
 Percentage pressure at pt, C
 C 1   E 2 
  E  * Bc'
B 2  
b  
  81.27 36.57 
  36.57  * 3.75  51.52%
B  
 11.21 
Thus residual head at C = 2*51.52% = 1.03m
1
h 1.03
Thickness of floor at B, t  
G  1 2.24 
 0.83 >0.8..................................................
There fore take t =0.83m from the 2.5m of the d/s impervious floor.

 Percentage pressure at D
  C1   E2 
  E  * Cc'
C 2  
b  
  81.27 36.57 
  36.57  * 21.25  41.55%
C  
 11.21 
Thus residual head at D = 2*41.55% = 0.83m
h 0.83
Thickness of floor at B, t    0.63  0.6..................ok !
G  1 2.24 1
Therefore take t=0.63m from the last 1.25m of d/s impervious floor.
%age presser at D
  E 2
ØD=Ø+ c1 * DD /
b
81.27  36.57
=36.57+ ( ) *1.25 =41.55%
11.21
Therefore; Residual head at D=2*41.55%
=0.83m
Therefore; Thickness of floor at D
h
t= = 0.83
G1 =0.63.......................Ok
2.24 
1
t=0.63m>0.6m
Therefore take t =0.63m from the 1.25 of downstream impervious floor.
5.5 Water profile at weir site
5.5.1 Water profile u/s of the weir
 Water profile u/s of the river
 Effect of back water curve on structure
 To suggested weather river training works are required or not

 To determine the minimum height of river banks u/s of weir.

 To find out whether the water surface is high enough to deliver the required
discharge to the off take canals
Water profile d/s of the weir
Required, to
 Carry out the stability analysis of the weir.
 Design the weir structurally
 Design the d/s ring wall and protector
Hydraulic jump
To check weather the hydraulic jump is occurs or not, if the d/c between u/s and d/s energy
grade line is very high, there fore the energy must be dissipation be fore it reaches the natural river
course, other wise it causes damage to the banks and d/s of the apron.
Hydraulic jump is used to dissipate energy which is caused to increase by (He)
He= ( q ) 0.66667=hd+ Vo2

1.7 2g
= 0.891m
Applying Bernoulli equation between section 1-1 and section 2-2 take reference datum river
bed level Zo=Z1
V 12
Zo+P+hd+
2g
Where Zo=Z1 and He= hd+Va2/2g
Va 2 V 12
P+hd+ =Y +
1
2g 2g
V 12 V 12
P+He= Y + =1.5+0.89= Y +
1
1
2g 2g
V 12......................................
2.39= Y + Equation 1
1
2g
Applying continuity equation i.e. Q=VA

Where, Q=q/B=V*B*Y,
 V1=q/Y1…........................................................Equation 2

Solving equation1 and 2 we get;

19.62Y 13-46.89Y 21+2.045=0...................Equation 3
Solving equation 3 by trial and error
Y1=0.219
V1=q/Y1= 1.43
=6.53m/s
0.219
V1 6.53
Fr1 (Fraud number)= = =4.455
g * y1 9.81* 0.259
 Critical depth (Yc)=(q2/2g)0.66667=(1.432/2*9.81)0.66667=0.6575

Y1=0.219<Yc: 0.22; therefore there will be jump.
 The conjugate(sequent) depth(i.e. Y2)
Y1
Y2= *[
(1  8Fi 2 )  1] =0.1095[ (1  8 * 4..455)  1
2
Y2=1.274m
Head loss (HL);
(Y 2  (1.274  0.219)3
HL= = =1.032m
Y1) 4 *1.274 *
4Y 1Y 2 0.219
Length of jump
L=5(y2-y1) = 5(1.274-0.219) = 5.275
= 5.275 < 6.75(d/s impervious length)…….ok!
The down stream floor length (Apron length )should be greater than or equal to the length of the
jump to accommodate the hydraulic jump in it.
The Apron length determined for satisfying seepage requirement is enough to
accommodate the jump.Finally, it is calculated that measures such as using chute blocks

and end sill or extending the length of the down stream impervious floor which are used to bound
the jump in the downstream impervious floor are not necessary.
5.6 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF WEIR

Forces acting on weir body
 Hydrostatic pressure of the water
 Soil reaction at weir base
 Uplift pressure
 Friction force at the base which balance the horizontal force
 Weight of weir and water wedges
The weir should be designed stable against

- Overturning
- Sliding
- Over stress
Where, The analysis of the weir is done for static condition.
Static condition
This is the case where by Water is impounded u/s of the weir and no over flow condition is
observed.
γw =unit weight of water = 10kN/m3 pw
=water pressure
M = unit weight of masonry (23KN/m3)
Forces acting on the weir
Hydrostatic force
Pw = ½*γw*H2*L =1/2*9.81 KN/m3*1.52*1 , where γw= 9.81KN/m3
=11.036KN
- Weight of weir
W1 =M*A*L =24 KN/m3*0.65*1.5*1 , where M= unit wt of masonry
=24KN/m3

W1=23.4KN
W2=M*A*L=24 KN/m3*1/2*1.81*1.5*1
W2=32.58KN
- Uplift pressure
U=1/2* γw *H*b =1/2*9.81*1.5*2.46 U=
18.099 KN
Type of Vertical force(KN) Horizontal force(KN) Level Moment about the

force arm toe(KNm)
from toe
(+ve) (-ve) (+ve) (-ve) (m) (+ve) (-ve)
Pw 11.036 0.5 5.518
W1 23.4 2.135 49.96
W2 32.58 1.206 39.29
U 18.099 1.64 29.68
∑H =55.98 ∑v=18.099 ∑H=11.036 ∑M=35.198 KN.m

∑M=89.25 KN.m
∑M=∑M-∑M
∑M=54.052KN.m
1) Check for overturning
∑M+/∑M- ≥1.5, 89.25/35.198 =2.53 > 1.5................ok! Safe
2) Check for sliding
∑H/∑v < 0.75, 11.036/37.881=0.2913 < 0.75..........ok! Safe
3) Check for over stresses
In order to avoid lifting up the structures heel forces and tension occurrence at the base. The forces
must pass through the middle third of the structures base.
B
. The forces must pass through the middle third of the structures base (i.e. (e= -X<B/6))
2

X=∑M /∑V =54.052/37.881=1.426

B 2.46
e= -x = -1.426=0.196
2 2
e<B/6=2.46/6=0.46
0.196=e<=B/6=0.46, therefore it’s ok!
 Thus the structure is safe for all condition.
5.7 Design of Retaining Wall

This is a structure place at stone angle normal to the direction of the fill of the water to retain the
end of the approach and, to support the loads of the structure built . In order to prevent out flanking
of water towards the main canal and safely over pass the discharge during high flood time. It is
usually constructed from masonry or gabions and provided at both banks.
Data available
Height of retaining wall above the foundation
=H++freeboard
=1.5+0.946+0.5m (assumed)=2.9463m
Top width of retaining wall=0.4m (with vertical water face)
Assuming back slope of 1V:0.5H
Angle of repose =30o
 Ranking coefficient of active earth pressure
1  sin  1  sin 30
Ka= = =1/3
1  sin  1  sin 30

5.7.1Structural analysis of retaining wall

Force acting on a retaining wall
- Weight of retaining wall
- Weight of soil
- Active earth pressure
- Water pressure
- Uplift earth pressure
1) Weight of retaining wall
W1=A1*m*l=0.5*3*24*1=36KN , where m= Unit weight of massonary
= 24KN/m3
W2= A2*m*l=0.5*3*1.5*24*1=54KN
W3=A3*m*l=0.5*2.46*24*1=29.52KN
2) Weight of soil
W4=A4*s*1=0.5*1.5*3*19*1=42.75 KN , where s = Unit weight of soil
= 19KN/m3
W5=A5*s*1=0.5*3*19*1=28.5 KN
3) Active earth pressure
PA=0.5*Ka*s*H2=0.5*1/3*19*32=28.5KN
4) Water pressure
Pw=0.5*w*H2*1=0.5*9.81*1.52*1=11.036KN
5) Uplift earth pressure
U=0.5*H*w*B*1=0.5*3*9.81*2.46*1=36.199KN

Table 5.3 Forces and moments on retaining wall
Type Vertical Horizontal Level Moment about toe KN.m

of forces(KN) forces(KN) arm
forces +ve -ve +ve -ve from toe +ve moment -ve moment
(m)
W1 36 0.25 9
W2 54 1 54
W3 29.52 1.23 36.309
W4 42.75 1.5 64.125
W5 28.5 2.25 64.125
PA 28.5 1 28.5
Pw 11.06 0.5 5.518
U 36.199 1.64 59.36
∑ ∑V+=190.77 ∑H+=11.036 ∑H- ∑M+=227.56 ∑M-=93.378
∑V-=36.199 =28.5
∑V =
154.571KN.m
∑M=∑M+-∑M-=227.56-93.378=134.182KN.m , ∑H =17.464KN.m
a) Check the stability against over turning
1. For no water condition
Fso= M 227.56
= 28.5 =7.78>1.5 ….OK! , where ∑M-=excluding hydrostatic and

uplift force
M

2. Normal flow condition

Fso=∑M+/∑M-=227.56/93.378=2.44>1.5…… ok!
b) Check stability against sliding
∑H/ ∑V=17.46/154.571= 0.113<0.75…….Ok safe!

CHAPTER SIX
INTAKE AND PUMP

6.1 INTAKE
6.1.1 GENERAL
The intake or intake works are the structures placed in a surface water source which consists of the
opening strainers or grating through which the water entered and the conduit conveyed the water,
usually by gravity , to a well or sump. From the well or sump, the water is pumped to the mains or
treatment plant. The structure may be of stone masonry, brick masonry and R.C.C. or concrete
blocks. It is to be constructed water tight and it should be designed for all forces likely to come
upon it including the pressure due to water wave action, wind, floating derbies etc
6.1.2 SITE SELECTION

Success of an intake greatly depends up on its location while selection of sie for an intake,
the following mentioned points should be kept in mind
1. The intake site should be such that the water available is of best quality and can be easily
and economically purified.
2. The intake should be located at such a site where sufficient quality of water remains
available under all circumstances.
3. Site should be such that the intake work can provide more quality of water if required in future
for expansion of water works
4. At selected site the velocity the velocity of flow in the source should gentle, otherwise heavy
currents may endanger the safety of the intake towers and stirrup the silt from
the bottom.
5. The site should be easily accessible without any obstruction and should be free from the
effects of loads.
6. It should be near the treatment plant so that conveyance cost from the source to the works
can be minimized.
7. It should not located in navigation channels generally polluted and may also damage the
structure.
8. It should not be on curve in case o meandering river. If there is no alternative, then intake
should be located on the outer bank and not on the inner bank. Water concentrated more
near the outer bank although erosion problem will be
there. Inner bank always keeps on silting and this may bock the intake and put it out of
commission.

9. It should be located on the upstream side of the town. Water will not be contaminated due to
sewerage disposal.
6.1.3 River Intake Types

Types of river intake are
1. Intake wells
2. Weir intakes
3. Pipe intakes
1. Intake wells: this is a circular masonry tower, two to six meters in diameter, provided on
the bank. The water flows in to the intake wells through the penstocks located at
different levels. The penstocks can be closed or opened with valves. These penstocks
face down stream to avoid the entry of silt. This type of intake is adopted for rivers,
which have sufficient flow through out the year.
2. Weir Intake: water is drawn from the through a channel into a sump well. For rivers which are
more or less dry in summer, a weir is built across the river to the required height, to store excess
floodwater during the rainy season. A channel is provided from the river to the intake well
from where water flows by gravity or is pumped.
3. Pipe intake: when a small quantity of water to be drawn the pipe intake ids economical.
The required number of intake pipes is laid across the river bed. The pipes are
supported on masonry blocks at regular intervals. The ends are provided with strainers and
anchoreerd firmly by masonry blocks. The pipes carry water to a jack well.
6.1.4 Design consideration of Intakes

The design of intake structure is generally specific. Rarely can a standard design be adopted for a
given site without major modification s. Some design considerations that must be addressed in the
design of each structure are listed below.
1.Intake Velocities: The velocity water entering the intake port is the single most important design
value to be selected by an engineer. High intake velocities increase headless, entrain suspended
matter , trap fish other aquatic animals .low velocities on the other hand require the intake port to
be larger and so add to the cost of the structure
2. Intake Port Location: properly designed intake structures should provide water provide water
treatment plant operators the flexibility to draw water from the stream with the best water
quality. In order to achieve this multiple intake ports set at
various levels are generally provided.

3. Gates: are used in intake structure to control inflow of water from the raw water source into the
water conveyance system. Gates typically in intake structures are sluice gates.
4. Coarse screen-trash rack: intake ports should be equipped with a coarse screen to prevent
large objects form entering the conveyance systems
5. Fine screen: Fine screens are used to remove smaller objects that nay pumps or other
equipment.
6.1.5 Design of Intake structures

6.1.5.1 The inlet opening is sized such that from maximum day demand can be withdrawn from a
single level at a maximum recommended velocity of 0.15 m/sec (Water Treatment Plant Design,
AWWA)
Q=0.119m/s, V=0.15m/s A=Q/V
= 0.119/0.15 =0.79m2
Using square opening the sixe will be, b= √A =√0.79 =0.89m
Therefore, square opening of 0.89*0.89 is to be provided
6.1.5.2. Design of Coarse Screen

The coarse screen will be located at the intake slightly projected away from the intake gate. This
will prevent derbies from interfering with the operation of the gate. The coarse screen will be
constructed of flat bars attached to concrete seat projected from the intake tower. It is typically
installed vertically
The recommended spacing between bars is (50-100mm) Taking spacing of 50mm. Provide bar
with size 10mm*50mm at a center to center spacing of 50mm.
Check of head loss
Using Kirecher’s formula for head loss through bar screen
hl=  ( w
4/3 * Va
2 *Sin  <0.15 ,(maximum head loss)
b ) 2g
where hl = head loss
w = width of bars
b = clear space between the bars Va
= velocity head
 = angle wich the bars make with the
horizontal
 = dimensional coefficient that is a function of
bars geometry and is equal to 2.42 for rectangular b
10 *103
4/3 (0.15)2 -4
* *Sin (90) =3.246*10 m
Hl=2.42( 3
) 2 * 9.81
50 *10
=3.246*10-4mthemaximum head
loss=0.15m…...........................ok!
Provide two ports bottom and top of intake tower. The bottom port should be at least
1mabove the bed of the river to prevent rolling bodies to enter in to the ports.
6.1.5.4 Design of Fine Screen (strainer)

Fine screens are provided on the two circular intake conduits to trap sediments that are too small to
be captured by coarse screen.
Design Criteria (Water treatment plant design, AWWA)
1. Total area of clear opening in screen 200% or more than the area of channel
protected by the screen.
2. Maximum head loss should be limited to 0.8-1.5m
3. Velocity through hole is 0.15-0.3m/s. it is recommended that the velocity be near the
lower limit to prevent the entry of impurities.
4. Opening the strainer hole be 6-9mm.
5. Discharge through screen= 119*10-3m3/s
Assume (take) velocity through the screen 0.18m/sand height of strainer 0.45m.
Aeff = Q/V = (119*10-3m3/s) /0.18m/s
= 0.661m2
Agross = 2 * Aeff = 2 *0.661 = 1.322m2
Perimeter = Agross / height = 1.322m2/0.45m=2.94m
Diameter = perimeter / 3.14 = 0.936m
Provide cylindrical strainer of height 0.45m and diameter 0.936m

6.1.5.5 Sump Well

 In design of sump well care must be exercised
 To maintain sufficient depth of water to avoid air entry during drawdown
 To obtain uniform distribution of inflow
Design criteria
 Detention period = 30min(t)
 Velocity in suction ppipe =2m/s (1.5-3m/s)
 Ratio of bell mouth diameter of suction pipe =D/d (1.5-2)
 Minimum width of sump well =2nD
Where n=number of units
D=diameter of suction pipe
 Submergence of pump to prevent air entry, H> 2D
 Bottom clearance of suction bell mouth= D/4 to D/2
Volume of sump well = t* Q = 30*60*119*10-3 =214.2m3
Diameter of suction pipe

Velocity in suction pipe is 2m/s
A=Q/V=0.5*0.119/2 =0.02975
A=∏d2//4 d=√4A/∏ =√4*0.02975/∏
d=0.195m
195mm diameter suction pipe is to be provided for each pump
Opening of bell mouth, D/d =1.8 D=1.8*d
D=1.8*0195 = 0.351m (351mm)
Minimum water level to prevent entry of air during drawdown is H min= 2*D =2*0.351= 0.702m
Assume depth below river bed =1.5m
Min= width of sump well =2nD =2*3*0.702 =4.212
Take width 4m
Provide free board = 0.5m
Depth from top of ground level river bed
Total depth =0.5m + 1.5m +3m =5m
Correctional area =214.2m3/5m =42.89m2 ,providing rectangular , dimension of sump is 4*11m

6.1.5.6 Design of Overflow Conduit

The pump unit installed for the first phase should have a capacity of maximum daily demand for
the year 2018. But the sump well is designed for maximum daily demand for the year 2028.
Therefore, there is an overflow discharge.
Q overflow=Incoming discharge-Pumping rate per 2018
=119-39.44
=79.56l/s
Taking velocity of 0.6m/s,
Area of overflow conduit = Q overflow/V =79.56* 10-3m3/s/0.6m/s =0.1326m2 D=√4A/∏
=√(4*0.1326)/∏ =0.411m
450mm diameter pipe for overflow need be provided.
6.1.5.7 Design of delivery pipe
Delivery pipe designed for the maximum day demand for the year 2028 which is 119l/s. Assuming a
velocity of 0.9m/in the pipe, the required diameter of pipe will be D=
√4*0.119/0.9*∏ =0.410m , take D=450mm
So provide a 450mm cast iron main is provided.
6.2 Construction
The intake structure should be constructed from R.C.C structure to with stand the water pressure
and some impact force due to the rolling stoned and logs. The foundation depth should be below
the normal scour depth the normal scour depth. The steel sluice gates are provided at the
openings or the impacts should have a capacity to resist lateral pressure
6.3 Pump
6.3.1 General
Pump is a mechanical device to increase the pressure energy of a liquid. In most of the case pump
is used for raising fluids from a lower level to a higher level. This is achieved by crating a low
pressure at the inlet or suction end and high pressure at the outer or delivery end of the pump.
6.3.2 Pumping design parameter Capacity

The capacity of a pump is the volume of liquid pumped per unit of time which usually are measured in
liter per second or cubic meters per second

Head
In pump system the head refers to both pump systems having one or more pumps and
corresponding piping system. The height to which a pump can raise liquid is the pump head and the
head required to overcome the losers in a pipe system at a given flow rate is the system head. The
head against which the pump must work when water is being pumped is called total dynamic head.
Efficiency
Thee pump should be selected to operate near its peak efficiency point. In typical water supply
applications, pumps operate over a bond of head conditions. Therefore they can not operate at
their peak efforts all the time.
Shut off and Run out

Continued operation condition will result in damage to the pump from over heating. The higher
discharge head can dam age piped and valves from excessive pressure and higher power
requirements can overload pump driver.
6.3.3 Determination of pipe size from sump well to treatment plant (phase 1)
a) diameter of suction pipe q
= 39.44l/s
Velocity of flow in the pipe may vary from 0.8m/s to 1.8m/s
Take v = 1.8m/s
A = Q/V = (39.44*10-3m3/s)/1.8m/s
= 0.0219m2
D2 4*A 4 * 0.0219
Area= , d= = =0.167m=167mm
4  
So provide d=200mm (available in the market)
 Check velocity of flow
Q 0.03944
V    1.255m / s
A  * 0.2 2
4
V  1.255m / s  1.8m / s........ok!
b. Diameter of delivery pipe
To determine economic diameter of pumping main we use lea formula

D  0.97to1.22Q
Where Q is in m3/s
D-economic diameter of pipe in (m)
Assuming, Q 39.44 *103
D  1.00  0.199m  199mm
1.00
Provide pipe size of D=200 mm (market available)
 Check velocity of flow
Q 0.03944
V   1.255m / s
A  * 0.2 2
4
V  1.255m / s  1.8m / s........ok!
6.3.3.1 Determination of total lift of the pump
The total head against which the pump should work includes discharge lift and total loss of head due to
friction, entrance, exit etc in suction and rising mains
fLV 2
hf
2gd

Where hf
=head loss in (m)
L=length of pipe in (m)
V=velocity of flow in pipe(m/s)
g=acceleration due to gravity
f=dimensionless friction factor
Cast iron is selected for rising main. Length of pipe from pumping station to treatment plant.
L =0.555Km=555m
f=0.02(for cast iron)
Q 0.03944
V   1.255m / s
A  * 0.2 2
I) h f fLV 2 0.02 * 555  4.46m

 2gd *1.2552
2 * 9.81* 0.2
(1.255)2
II) Entry loss, he  V2  0.040m
2 *(2g)  2 * (2 *
9.81)

III) Head loss due to construction such as valve pipeline (h1)

kV 2
h1
0.5 *  0.0401m
 2g 
(1.255)2
2 * 9.81
k=0.5 for circular pipe
H L  h f  he  h1  4.46  0.040  0.040  4.54m
Static head against which the pump lift is
Hs= (elevation of treatment plant –elevation of sump well) +depth of sump well below ground
level)
Hs= (1470-1460) +5=15m
Hence total dynamic head (Hf) =Hs+HL Hf
=15+4.54
=19.54m
Therefore for the first phase two pumps one as stand by each discharging a capacity of 39.44l/s and
head of 19.54m required for the second phase one additional pump with delivery head of 19.45m is
required.
6.3.4 Power required of pump (phase i )

The water hoarse power = qwh/75
= 39.44*10-3*1000*19.54/75
= 10.28Hp
The power input to the pump =
Pp = WHP/EP, where = efficiency of pump
= 10.28/0.8 = 12.85HP
Power required of pump for the second phase
I.e. from 2018 – 2028
The water horse power = QWH/75 , where Qmax = maximum flow rate at 2028 =
119l/sec
WHP = QWH/75 =119*10-3*1000*19.54/75 =31.00Hp
6.3.5 Determination of pipe size from clear water well to reservoir (phase I)
a) Diameter of suction pipe
Q = 39.44*10-3
V = 1.8m/s….............range between 0.8 to 1.8m/s
A =Q/V = 39.44*10-3/1.8 = 0.0219m2
4*A
d= = 0.167m =167mm


Therefore provide d =200mm (market available)

b) Diameter of delivery pipe

To determine economic diameter of pumping main we use lea formula
D = 0.97 to 1.22 Q Q
, take d = 1.00 =0.199m =199mm
Therefore provide D = 200mm (market available)
6.3.6 Determination of total lift of the pump from clear water well to service
reservoir (phase I)
Friction loss (hf) =flv2/2gd
Cast iron is selected for the rising of main length of pipe from clear water well to service
reservoir is 5km
L = 13888.88m=13.88Km
F = 0.02 (for cast iron)
V= Q/A= 0.03944/3.214 *0.22/4 =1.255m/s
i) Hf = flv2/2gd = 0.02*13888.88*1.2552/2*9.81*0.2= 111.49m
ii) entry loss(he) = v22(2g)+ 0.04m
iii) loss due to valve and pipe fitting hl = kv2/2g= 0.5*1.2552/2*9.81=0.04m HL
=hf+he+hl = 111.57+0.04+0.04= 40.22m
Static head against which the pump lift
Hs = elevation of service reservoir – elevation of clear water well+4.42m
= 1720 -1470 +4.42
= 254.42m
H is to prevent air entry
Total dynamic head = 254.42 +111.57 = 365.99m
Therefore from treatment to service reservoir two pumps is needed one as stand by each discharging
a capacity of 39.44l/s and the head of 365.99m is required for the second phase one additional pump
is required to deliver the head of 365.99m
6.3.7 Power requirement of pump from clear water well to service reservoir
The water horse power =QWH/75 = 39.44*10-3*1000*365.99/75
= 192.46Hp
The power input to the pump
Pp = WHP/Ep = 192.46/0.8 240.58Hp
Where, Ep = efficiency of pump
Power required for the second phase
The water horse power =QWH/75= 119*10-3*1000*365.99/75
= 580.7Hp

6.3.7.1 Selection of Suitable type of pump Criteria for the selection of type of pump
For proper selection of a pump it is necessary to brave certain essential data on the pump installation
The information should includes
1) Nature of liquid to be pumped
2) Capacity of pump
3) Suction condition
4) Discharge condition
5) Total head
6) Location of geometrical in doors ,outdoors ,elevation….etc
After having the idea of essential data on the pump installation the following points may be kept in
mind while selecting any pumping necessary for the water works.
1) Reliability of service – it should be reliable and should not fail suddenly and cause
trouble
2) Capacity – it should be capable of pumping required quantity of water
3) Cost –it should be cheap in initial cost
4) Power – The which issued for running pump should be available easly at low cost
5) Maintenance – the maintenance cost of running ump be as less as possible
6) Efficiency – pump should have high efficiency
7) Depreciation – pump should have long life and depreciation
8) Promptness – it sho0uld be prompt enough in service
Considering all the above factors, among the available type of pump we select centrifugal pump
out of the other type of pump, because centrifugal pump is used in most water supply system due to
its satisfactory and economical than the other type of pump and fulfils all the above criteria.
Generally from the above consideration for Assosa town water supply projects to lift water from
sump well to treatment plant one working and one stand by multistage centrifugal pump which has
a capacity to lift a head of 19.54m and a discharge of 0.03944m 3/s connected parallels should be
provided and also to lift a water from clear water well to service reservoir .for the second phase
two working and one stand by multistage

centrifugal pump is required which has a capacity to lift 365.99m from sump well to treatment plant
and a discharge of 0.119m3/s and which has a capacity of lift 19.54m from clear water well to
service reservoir and a discharge of 0.119m3/s connected parallel should be required

CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 WATER QUALITY AND TREATMENT
7.1. Objective of treatment
The objective treatment process is to remove all the undesirable impurities, to the extent where
they do not cause any trouble to human health and water is available to the consumers as per health
standards. Following may be the objects.
 To remove color, dissolved gasses, and murkiness of water.
 To remove objectionable taste and color.
 To kill the troublesome bacteria
 To estimate the corrosive properties of water .this treatment is essential from
pipes and pipe fittings safely point of view.
 To make safe for drinking and domestic purpose, and also for various industrial
purposes like brewing, dying, stream boilers etc.
7.2. Water quality analysis
The quality of raw water should be compared with the world health organization (WHO) drinking
water quality guide lines and treatment will be done for unacceptable parameters.
In order to remove suspended solids, biological and microbiological impurities, high turbidity due
to iron and floating or other non chemical pollution, color odor and taste an appropriate and sound
treatment must be carried out before supplying the water for the community.
7.3. Treatment process

Treatment process have been given here .it is not essential that all these process will have to be
employed at all places, but it depends up on the quality of raw water .in the case of raw water
,obtained from lakes, screening and sedimentation are not required
,because suspended and floating debris have already settled in the lake basin. But aeration is a
must because lake wastes have generally no treatment is required. Only disinfection may be done
and supplied to the consumers therefore, the character and

degree of treatment directly depends up on the nature of water or in other words on the source.
 Screening –used to exclude floating mater, it is done just at the intake.
 Aeration – employed where elements causing taste and odor have to be removed.
 Sedimentation and coagulation – in this process suspended impurities like silt, clay,
sand, and some bacteria are removed.
 Filtration – employed to remove very fine particles and colloidal matter which may have
escaped from sedimentation process ,micro-organisms are also removed largely.
 Other processes – used in specific cases ;
- removing hardiness if it is beyond permissible limits.
- Removing color taste and odor if any.
-Removing iron and manganese if present.
-maintain fluorides between 1to 1.5 p.p.m by adding if in deficiency and
removing if in excess.
7.4 Treatment plant location
Correct location of the plant plays a very important role in its success. A comparative study of
site involves a number of considerations such as
 All the processes should be located in such a sequence that water may be flowing
from one process to the other.
 Elevations of different processes should be such that no pumping is required and water
keeps on flowing from one plant to the other.
 All plants should be located in such a way that minimum area is covered by it
.adequate place for the future extension.
 Residual colony should be located by the side of the water works. This facilitates better
working and control on the working of different units.
 A well establishment laboratory should be located at the site so that the quality of water
may cheeked, before treatment and after treatment

 Physical characteristics of the site will affect construction. Flooding, foundation

conditions, ground water level and site preparation including clearing, grading
and drainage are factors which influence directly the cost of the plant.
 In the final analysis selection of a site will depend on analyses involving engineering and
operation costs and a judgment of the factors which can not be expressed in dollar values.
As mentioned above the site should be adequate for ultimate needs surplus land is
preferable.
Lay out of treatment plant
A complete water treatment plant consists of;
 Intake works including pumping pumping plant
 Sedimentation and coagulation
 Filtration
 Disinfection
 Pure water storage reservoir
 Pumping plant for pumping purified water from clear water storage reservoir to the
service reservoir
 If water is hard, sometimes, softening plant is used, before the filtration plant.
7.5 Treatment plant units

The most common treatment units used in the treatment of surface water are the. They are
selected based up on the quality of the raw water to be treated.
The order of various treatment plants is
1. balancing chamber
2. mixing chamber
3. flocculation
4. sedimentation
5. filtration
6. disinfection
7. clear water well

7.6. Design of treatment plant units

7.6.1. Balancing chamber
It is located above all the components so that gravity flow to the treatment is maintained. From
the intake structure the raw water is conveyed to the balancing chamber. The balancing chamber
is recommended to make the flow current free (stabilization of current) so that the work of the
treatment plant is not disturbed highly and continuous flow is attained.
Maximum day demand=0.055217 m3/sec
Detention time=15 min
Volume =0.055217*15*60=49.695≈50m3
Therefore provide 50m3balancing chamber in the first and second phase.
7.6.2. Mixing chamber
Flush mixer is used to provide rapid mixing so as to disperse the coagulants in the raw water.
A mechanical flush mixer is used because they have a reliable and continuous supply of power
and they are efficient.
Capacity of flush mixer = maximum day demand * detention time Assuming
detention period = 45sec
Capacity of flush mixer = 0.055217m3/sec*45sec=2.485m3
Therefore provide and 1.8m depth of mixing chamber.
7.6.3. Flocculation
The term flocculation is used to denote the process of floc formation. floc is a thick insoluble
gelatinous precipitate produced when coagulant is added to the water and thoroughly mixed. The
floc has the property of arresting the suspended impurities in water during its down ward
settlement to wards the bottom of the tank. In the flocculation chamber, after sever agitation,
mixer is kept slowly agitated for about 30min.during this period, coagulants get necessary contact
opportunity and develop floc after the development of floc, the mixture is still kept slowly
agitated to increase the number of collisions or contact with water. The slow agitation of mixture
after the vigorous agitation is called flocculation.

The two types of flocculators are mechanical flocculator and hydraulic flocculator.
In Mechanical flocculator the velocity gradient is created by mechanical power input. They also
require extensive maintenance and the system is complex.
In hydraulic flocculators hydraulic energy provides the necessary velocity gradient. However, due
to these difficulties with mechanical flocculation techniques, flocculators using hydraulic
energy are appropriate for water treatment plant in developing countries. The most widely used
hydraulic flocculator is the baffled channel flocculator (Schulz and Okun 1984) .it is widely used
in developing countries and performs efficiently over a wide range of flows. Baffled
channels can be classified in to horizontal flow and vertical flow flocculator. Horizontal flow
flocculator with around the end baffles are some times preferred over vertical flow flocculator
with over and under baffles because they are easier to drain &clean
7.6.3.1 Design of horizontal baffled channel flocculator

With a horizontal baffled channel flocculator, mixing is accomplished by the change in direction of
flow of water through channels this change creates head loss in the channels, which in turn creates
a velocity gradient for slow mixing.
 Guidelines for the design and construction of baffled channel flocculator horizontal.
 Distance between baffles should not be less than 45cm to permit cleaning.
 Clear distance between the end of each baffle and the wall is about 1.5times the distance
between baffles, should not be less than 1.0m.
 Depth of water should not be less than 1m.
 Avoid using the asbestos-cement baffle because they corrode at the PH of alum
coagulation.
 Decay resistance timber should be used for baffle; wood construction is preferred over
metal parts.
 Detention time varies from 15 to 30 min.
 The water velocity varies from 0.1to 0.3m/s.
 Velocity gradient should vary between10 to100sec -1

Hydraulic Eng ‘g Page
 loss of head is 15 to 60 cm
(source SCHULZ & OKUN)
The flocculator will be designed for a maximum day demand of the town and plus
treatment loss of around 5% of the maximum day demand.
The flocculator is divided in to three sections of equal volume, each section having
constant velocity gradient of 55, 40, 25sec-1 respectively.
Maximum day demand=0.055217m3/sec
Qmax = Q+5 %( Q)
= 0.055217+ (5/100)*0.055217m3/sec
=0.058m3/sec
Length of flocculator is taken as 5m
- Viscosity of water (µ) =1.14*10-3Kg/m-sec
-density of water (ρ) = 1000Kg/m3
-roughness coefficient of baffles (f) = 0.3
-detention time for the total section = 18min
Design of the first flocculation basin section
-detention time=6min
-velocity gradient=55sec-1
-water velocity=0.3m/sec
-depth of water=1.8m
-flocculation time=18min
Total volume of flocculation
V=Q*t
V=0.058*20*60=69.6m3
Top width of flocculator,W
W=V/A
= = =7.73m
Width of each section = 7.73/3 = 2.6m

Number of baffles in the first flocculation section is given by:

21 3
n   2 *  * t *  H * L * G  
 *(1.14  f ) Q
    
Where n = number of baffles in the basin H =

depth of water in the basin (m) L =
length of the basin (m)
G = velocity gradient (S-1)
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
t = detention time(s)
= density of water (kg/ms)
= dynamic viscosity (kg/ms)
f = coefficient of friction of the baffles
 2 *1.14 *103 * 6 * 1 3
60 1.8 * 5 * 55  2 
Therefore, n *   74
 1000 * (1.14  0.058 
0.3)  

L 5
Spacing between baffles, s   0.067m
n 74
Since 0.067m is below the minimum range of design criteria, we take the minimum
spacing between baffles as 0.45m
So, number of baffles (n) = 5

L =11.00
spacingbetweenbaffles = 0.45
Spacing between baffles and the walls is = 1.5*distance between baffles

=1.5*45cm =0.675cm
Head loss in the flocculation section
*t*G
2 1.14 *103 * 6 * 60 *
h 552
*g =
1000 * 9.81
= 0.126m

Design of second flocculation basin section

Detention time = 5min
Velocity gradient =40 sec-1
Number of baffles in the second flocculation section,
 2 *1.14 *103 * 6 *
21 3
60 1.8 * 5 * 40  
n *   32
 1000 * (1.14  0.058 
0.3)  

Spacing between baffles, s,
L 5
s 
n 32  0.156m  0.45m

L =11.00
Spacing between end of baffles and the walls is = 1.5*spacing between baffles
= 1.5*0.45m
= 0.675m
1.14 *103 * 6 * 60 *
Head loss h =
402
1000 * 9.81
h = 0.0669 (say 0.07m)
Design of third flocculation basin section
Detention time = 5min.
Velocity gradient = 25sec-1
Number of baffles in the third flocculation section
 2 *1.14 *103 * 6 * 1 3
60 1.8 * 5 * 25  2 
n * 
 1000 * (1.14  0.058  
 
0.3) 
n  23

Spacing between baffles, s

L
s  5
n  0..217m  0.45m
23


L =11.00
Spacing between baffles and the walls is = 1.5*spacing between baffles

= 1.4*0.45 =0.675m
Head loss = =0.02614m
Total head loss through the flocculation sections = 0.126+0.07+0.02614

= 0.22m-------(.15-.6m) ok!
The second phase to the year 2028; Three similar horizontal flocculators as standard above is to be
constructed.
7.6.4 SEDIMENTATION
The sedimentation process in water treatments provides for the settling and removal of flocculated
particles prior to filtration.
The removal efficiency in the sedimentation basin determines the subsequent loadings on the
filters and, accordingly has a marked influence on their capacity, the length on the filters and
quality of the filtered water.
The two major classifications for the design of sedimentation basins are:-
- Horizontal – flow unit
- Up flow unit
The design of such unit include:-
-Shape - Detention time
-Number of basins - Volume of sludge storage
-Dimensions - Method of sludge removal
-Velocity - Inlet and out let arrangements

-Direction of flow - characteristic of the in coming flocculated water

The horizontal – flow sedimentation basin is preferable and chosen for our treatment due to the
advantage of
 It is widely used in the world because of its efficiency and inherent simplicity.
 It is with out mechanical sludge removal, so that does not require no important
equipment and labor for cleaning.
 Constriction cost is low, permitting over sizing.
 Operational and maintenance are simple.

7.6.4.1 Design of horizontal flow sedimentation
For the design purpose, the horizontal flow sedimentation tank may be divided in to four zones.
 Inlet zone
 Settling zone
 Sludge zone and
 Outlet zone
The sedimentation tank is designed with the assumption that the flow remains steady and all the
suspended particles are uniformly distributed on the full cross section of the tank at right angles to
the flow for the full length of the settling zone.
The inlets and outlets are designed in such a manner that they cause minimum disturbance to the
flowing water in the tank. The flow is designed to meet the following requirements,
 The amount of water flowing out from the tank in 24 hours should at least be equal to the
daily demand.
 Velocity of flow should be so adjusted that suspended impurities of coarser nature are
removed.
The design of sedimentation tank is governed by;
-the quantity of water to be treated
-the selected detention period

-the selected surface loading rate (over flow rate)

Design of inlet zone
The velocity through the perforated baffle is about 0.2-0.3m/sec. The
head loss is estimated to be 1.7 times the velocity head.
Diameter of holes is 5cm; recommended range is 3-5cm.
-Taking a velocity of 0.25m/s
-Total area of opening =
= (0.058m3/s)/0.25m/s=0.232m2
-Area of each opening with a diameter of 50mm;
= =0.00196m2
-Number of baffle holes required= 0.232/0.00196 = 118
-Head loss=
Design of settling zone

As soon as a particle enters the settling zone, two forces act up on it. The flow of water imparts
horizontal force while gravitation force develops vertical component on the particle. The particle
moves under the influence of both this forces and traces a parabolic path. Before entering the
outlet zone, if a particle reaches the settling zone it is considered removed.
The assumptions for design of settling zone are

For installation planed with new technology and good operation the surface loading rate is taken
with in a range of (30-40m/day) [Okun, 1984].
- Surface loading rate=35m/day = 4.05*10-4m/sec
- Detention time = 2 hr (2-3hr)
-length to width ratio = 4 ( >3)

Volume of tank (V) = detention period*design flow

= 2hr*0.058m3/sec*3600sec/hr =417.6m3≈418m3
Surface loading rate =
35m/day=4.05*10-4m/sec= , where
L=4*W Therefore, W=6m and
L=24m
Depth (d) =
Check for detention period
T= (2-3hr)------ok!
Check for horizontal flow
v= (4-36m/hr)- - -ok!
Therefore provide a rectangular settling tank with,
Length= 24m
Width= 6m
Depth= 2.9m
The some standard and number of unit should be provided for the phase II.
Design of sludge zone

The sludge zone is designed to accommodate all the settled particles during the process of
sedimentation. It should be located at such a position that while cleaning the sludge, least
disturbance is caused to the settling water. Normally the bottom floors of the tanks are made to
wards one side or to wards the center of the tank. Cast iron pipes, fitted with gate valves are
provided at the lowest points of the floor, from where sludge is removed under hydrostatic
pressure. To facilitate drainage of the basin, the floor should be slope about 10% from the side
walls to the center line and 5-8% from the outlet end to the inlet end.
Provide depth of sludge zone =0.3m
Therefore total depth of sedimentation tank with a free board of 0.3m will be;

=depth of settling zone +depth of sludge zone+ free board

=2.9m+0.3m+0.3m =3.5m
Design of outlet Zone
Weir or perforated bounders are the most common structures for with drawing the effluent water
form the basin. Weir lengths should be selected to prevent high velocities of approach and
disturbance of the sludge layer.
The formula for acceptable weir length (adopted, from IRE, 1981)
0.2 Q
L  Where L = Combined weir length (m)
Hvs
Q = Flow rate (m3 / day) H
= Depth of tank (m)
Vs = Settling velocity (m/day)
For the phase I
0.2 * 4770.75  9.08 m  9m

L 
2.9 * 35
For the phase II
0.2 * 10257.41  19.53  20 m

L 
2.9 * 35
Provide width of each weir as 1.5m.
7.6.5 FILTRATION
Filtration is a physical, chemical and biological process for separating suspended impurities from
water by passage through a porous media.
Screening of water removes larger suspended solids from water and sedimentation following
chemical coagulation removes most of the residual suspended matter. However, there will still

remain suspended matter and some fine floc particles. Flirtation of water is

done to remove them and to produce still further positive bacterial content in the water. Filtration
is also done to ensure safe, clear, and attractive water.
Filtration process is the most important part of water purification. It consists of passing water
through a thick layer of sand. During its passage through sand, the following effects take place,
I.Fine suspended and colloidal matter which may be present in water is removed almost
completely.
II. Chemical characteristics of water get reduced.
III.The number of bacteria is considerably reduced.
These phenomena can be explained on the basis of four actions
 Mechanical string
 Sedimentation
 Biological metabolism
 Electrolytic changes
Performance of filter unit is predicted in terms of;
- The influent characteristics
- The characteristics of media
- The mode of operation of filter
Classification of filters
Filters may be classified under two heads
1. Pressure filters
2. Gravity filters
I. Slow sand filters and
II. Rapid sand filters
I. Slow sand filters
Consists of an enclose tank, under drainage system, base material or gravel, filter medium of
sand and other ancillary fixtures for the proper functioning of the filter. They installed in a water
tight tank made from stone masonry, brick masonry or cement concrete. The floor and sides are
all coated with water proofing agent. Generally slow sand filters;

- Requires large area for installation

- Coagulation is not required
- Construction is simple
- Cost of operation is low
- High initial cost of both land and material
- High efficient in the removal of bacteria but less efficient in the removal of color and
turbidity.
- Not flexible for meeting variation in demand.
- Skilled man power is not essential
- The filter can be constructed of local labor and material; it is suitable for small towns and
villages where land is cheaply available.
- Rate of filtration is low
II. Rapid sand filters
Consists a rectangular water-tight tank made from stone masonry or concrete. The tank is
rendered water-tight by applying a coat of water proofing material. Generally rapid sand
filters;
- Requires small area for its installation
- Construction is complex
- Cost of operation is high
- Low initial cost of both land and material
- Less efficient in removal of bacteria but it have high efficient in removal of color and
turbidity.
- Quit flexible for reasonable fluctuation of demand
- Method of cleaning is short and speedy.
- Skilled man power is essential
- It is suitable for big cities where land cost is high and variation in demand of water is
considerable.
- Rate of filtration is high

Based on the rate of filtration, rapid sand filter is preferable. In most cases, when population
growth is high and the town expands extensively, as for assosa town case, rapid sand filter is
recommended from economical point of view.
7.6.5.1. Design of rapid sand filter

Important purification effects in rapid sand filtration is adsorption of impurities having an
electronic charge of the filter bed material are supplemented by the electric kinetic charge
produced by the high rate of water.
The design consideration for rapid sand filter included
I. filter unit
II. Filter media
III. Under drains
IV. Back washing arrangement V
Filter control system
Filter Unit.
The size of a filter unit is determined by the required amount of water needed. It consists of two
or more units of sizes depending upon the capacity of the plant.
- Depth of tank ranges between (2.5-3.5m)
- Length to breadth ratio of between (1.25-1.33)
- Surface area of each filter ranges between (10-80m2)
- Rate of filtration is between (4000-5000l/m2/hr)
Based on the above recommendations
- Assume rate of filtration =5000l/m2/hr
- Total quantity of water to be treated = 0.055217m3/hr
=0.1988*106 l/hr
- Total area of filter bed required(A) =
= = 39.76m2 ≈40m2

- Number of filter units required,
N (Water Supply Eng ’g Santosh K. Garg 1995) Where;

Q = maximum day demand in million litters per day
= 24*0.1988*106l/day
= 4.7712*106l/day
N = 1.22* = 2.66 ≈ 3 units

At least one filter unit should be added for emergency or during repair work of any of the other.
Hence adopting four units is reasonable.
- Area of each filter unit = 40

=13.3 m2. ( 10-80 m2)-------ok!
3
- Assuming length to width as 1.3
A=L*W=13.3 m2 but L=1.30*W
13.3 m2 = 1.30W2
W= =3.2m
L = 1.3*3.2m = 4.2m
Therefore, provide four numbers of rapid sand filters with the size of each unit 3.2*4.2.one unit is
required for stand by or during repair work of any other units.
The same standard and number of filter units will be provided in the second phase.
Filter media
The choice of filter media is dictated by the durability required, the desired degree of purification
and the length of filter run and ease of backwash sought. Sand is the cheapest filter medium and
has been widely used. The ideal medium should have such a size and be of such a material that it
will provide a satisfactory effluent, retain a maximum quantity of solid, and be readily cleaned
with a minimum of wash water.
The sand used in rapid sand filters should be free from dirt, hard resistance, and preferably of
quartz or quartzite. Conventional rapid sand filter generally uses sand layer of effective size
varying from 0.45mm to 0.55mm having uniformity coefficient (D60/D10)

ranging from 1.2 to 1.7. The sand depth, when used alone ranges from 600mm to 700mm in most
applications.
In standard rapid sand filters the filter medium may be underlain by 400 to 600mm gravel which
serves to support the sand, permit the filtered water to remove freely to ward the under drain and
also allows the wash water to move more or less uniformly upward to the sand. It is placed in 5 or
6 with the finest size on top. It is also specified that it should be hard, rounded, and durable, weight
approximately 1600 Kg/m3, be free from flat, thin or long pieces and contain no loam, sand, clay,
shells or other foreign materials.
Table 7. .A common grading and layer thickness are as follows:-
sand gravel
Grading (mm) Thickness (mm) Grading (mm) Thickness(mm)
40 to 60 120 to 200 2.5 70
20 to 40 80 to 120 7.5 70
10 to 20 80 to 120 15 100
5 to 10 60 to 80 30 100
2.5 to 5 60 to 80 50 160
Total depth = 400 to 600 Total=500mm
Total depth of filter media :-
= (depth of and) + (depth of gravel)
= 700 mm + 500 mm
= 1200 mm
= 1.2 m
7.6.6. Under drain System

The under drain system of a filter is an important component in the design and operation. The
selection is based on the filter type and size, media characteristics, and the selected

method of back washing. The under drain contain a central manifold and lateral that are
perforated.
The selected under drain system,
- Collect the filtered water percolating down through the sand and gravel layers
- Durable, reliable, and cost effective
- Ensure uniform flow distribution of the back wash
Design guide line for the design of pipe under drain system (NWS and DB 1988)
1. Ratio of length of lateral to its diameter should not exceed 60.
2. Diameter of perforations is the lateral should be from 6-12mm
3. Spacing of perforations along the lateral may vary from 75mm for the smaller holes to
200mm for the larger.
4. Ratio of total area of perforations in the under drain system to total cross sectional area of
laterals should not exceed 0.5 for the larger holes and should decrease to
0.25 for the smaller.
5. Ratio of total area of perforation in the under drain system to the entire filter area may
be as low as 0.002.
6. Spacing of lateral may be as great as 300mm
7. Rate of washing may be varied from 0.15-0.9/min.
Design based on the guide lines
-Area of each filter = 3.2*4.2 =13.44m2 Total
area of perforation =0.3% of area of filter
=0.003*13.44 = 0.04m2
Total area of lateral= 2*area of perforation
=2*0.04 = 0.08m2
Assume diameter of lateral = 0.05m
Area of lateral = =0.002m2
Number of lateral =
= =40, (20 on each side of the lateral)

Area of manifold= (1.5-2)*total area of laterals

=1.5*0.08m2 = 0.12m2
Dmanifold = 0.4m
Spacing of laterals =
= = 0.21m (< 0.3m)------ok!
Length of lateral on each side of manifold=

Assume spacing of perforation=20cm c/c
Total area of perforation on one lateral=
= =0.001m2
Number of perforation per lateral=
= = 7. 5 (take 7)
Area of each perforation =
= =1.4286cm2≈1.43cm2
Therefore diameter of perforation = =1.349cm≈1.4cm

Check;
< 60
< 60...............ok!
Total number of perforation = number of perforation per lateral*number of laterals
= 7*40 = 280
Area of perforation =1.43cm2
..................
Total area of perforation = 1.43*280 = 400cm2 = 0.04m2 ok!
This is equal to the designed total area of perforation (0.04m2)

7.7. Back wash arrangements

A filter unit is washed when filtering medium has become so dirty. Due to this dirt, when the
water passes through the filter medium, it experiences frictional loss of resistance known as head
loss. When the head loss exceed 1.5-2.5m, the filter needs cleaning.
Washing is accomplished by reversing of water through the filter but using a much higher rate.
Back wash is provided from an elevated tank.
7.7.1. Wash water tank

The wash water tank is designed to store wash water at least for the two filters.
Assume amount of wash water as 4% of filtered water in one day
Assume rate of filtration 4m /hr
The time required for washing one filter unit is 15min
=0.25 hr is lost in one day for washing Quantity
of wash water = (4/100)*13.44*23.75*4m/hr
=50.534m3/unit
The tank should have storage capacity to store wash water for at least two units.
Therefore; capacity of wash water tank =50.534m3/unit*2unit
=101.1m3
Depth of storage tank for wash water should be between 2.3-3.5m. Taking
d=3m
For a circular tank of depth 3m, the diameter will be; V=A*d
D= = = 6.55m
There fore provide wash water tank of 6.55m diameter and 3m deep with free board of 0.3m.
7.7.2. Wash water supply main
Size of the down water pipe bringing the water to the filters for back washing be 40cm in
diameter. The time taken for washing is 10 min.

Velocity in the pipe while washing one filter unit.
=
=1.5m/sec < 3m/sec…........ok!
Therefore, provide a wash water supply main having a diameter of 40cm.
Wash water trough

Wash water troughs serve to collect and carry to the main gutter the dirty water resulting from
washing the filter.
Assume a wash water rate of 0.6m/min (0.6-0.9m/min)
Wash water discharge for one filter
=0.6*3.2*4.2
=8.064m3/min
=0.1344m3/sec
Assuming a spacing of 1.6m for wash water trough (recommended 1.5-2m), this will run parallel
to the longer dimension of the filter unit.
Number of trough =3.2/1.6 =2
Discharge per unit trough = (0.1344m3/sec)/2
=0.0672m3/sec
For the width of 0.4m the water depth of upper end is given by
h=1.73 (source Steel and GC Ghee 1979) Q=

1.376*b*h3/2
0.0672= 1.376*0.4*h3/2
h= 0.246m = 0.3m providing a free board of 0.1m (0.05-0.1m)
Provide 2 troughs of 0.4m wide and 0.3m deep in each filter.
7.7.3. Pump for lifting wash water

One pump with one stand by will provide for pumping water in to the tank which has to supply
it to two filter unit in 24 hrs.

Let the total quantity of water lifted in 8hr of one shift.
Total capacity of pump required= = 14.135m3/hr

Therefore provide one pump having 14.135m3/hr capacities including one pump set as stand by.
Assuming permissible velocity, v=1.3m/sec (0.6-1.55m/sec recommended) Area
of a rising pipe= Q/v = (14.135/3600)/1.3 =0.0302m2
Diameter of rising pipe, D= = 0.196m=200mm Assuming

the lift of water including friction losses to be 15m,
Therefore the horse power (HP) of the pump =
= = 1718.055h.p
Assuming efficiency of the motors and pumps as 80%and 70%, the B.H.P off the pumping sets.
B.H.P =1718.055/(0.8*0.7)
= 3067.955hp
7.8.Filter control system
It is essential to control the rate of filtration, because, a sudden increase in the rate will make water
to pass through the filter bed with out proper treatment or the dissolved gases may get released due
to sudden increase in the negative pressure. On the other hand a sudden reduction in filtration rate
will also release bubbles of gas present in the sand, making a hole through the filter bed.
Therefore, to obtain a constant rate of filtration, a rate controlling device is fitted to the filter.
There are two practical methods of operating filters and these differ primarily in the way that the
driving force is applied across the filter. These methods are referred to as constant rate filtration
and declining rate filtration.
In constant rate filtration, when water is taken out of service for back washing or returned to
service after back washing, the water level gradually rises or lowers in the operating filters until
sufficient head is achieved to handle the flow. Thus, the rate changes are made slowly and
smoothly without the abrupt changes associated with automatic or

manual equipment. The head loss for a particular filter is evidenced by the water level in the filter
box. When the water reaches a desired maximum level, back wash of that filter is required.
Declining rate filtration provides significantly better filter effluent quality than constant rate
filtration. Less available head loss is needed compared with that required for constant rate
operation because the flow rate through the filter decreases toward the end of the filter run. The
head loss in the under drain and effluent piping system, therefore, decrease and becomes available
to sustain the run for a longer period than would be possible under constant rate operation with the
same available head.
The water levels in the filters should be 1.2m above the filter media at the beginning of a filter run
and raise to full available depth of 3.2m before back washing becomes necessary.
7.9. Clear water well

Clear water well is constructed in connection with the filter, which is used to reserve storage and to
allow the plant to operate with out too frequent variation of its output rate. The size of the clear
water well mostly varies from ¼ to 1/3 of the daily capacity of the plant.
Quantity of water to be stored =

= 7329.309/4 = 1832.33
Provide a depth of 3m, the area of the tank required
=1832.33/3 = 610m3
Therefore, reservoir of plan area and depth m shall be provided with addition of free bored of
30cm
7.10. Coagulation
The single most important step in removal of very fine suspended solids from water is proper
coagulation. Once the coagulation step is performed properly, operation of the

plant is comparatively simple. Its main objective is to unit several colloidal particles together to
form bigger sized settle able flocs which may settle down easily.
The principle of coagulation may be explained from the following 2 aspects.
1- Floc formation – when coagulant is added to the water and thoroughly mixed, it
produces a thick insoluble gelatinous precipitate. This precipitate is called floc. The
floc has the property of removing fine and colloidal particles quickly.
2- Electrical charge – the floc ions are found to posses the positive electric charge
while all the colloidal particles have negative charge, therefore flocs attract the
colloidal particles and cause their removal by settlement at the bottom of tank.
The common chemicals generally used for coagulation are;
1. Aluminum sulphate
2. Sodium sulfate
3. Ferrous sulfate
4. Magnesium carbonate
5. Poly electrolyte
7.10.1. DOSAGE OF COAGULANTS
The dosage of coagulants which should be added in the water depends on the following factors;
- Kind of coagulants
- Turbidity of water
- Color of water
- PH-value of water
- Temperature of water
- Mixing and flocculation time

7.11. Disinfection
A safe water supply is the prime concern of any water supply project. Safty against disease is of
utmost importance in water supply, especially the water borne, water related, or water based
diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and many others. Even though a certain degree of disease
causing pathogen removal is achived in treatment process such as flocculation and filtration, there
still exist a significant number of pathogens that are not removed by these processes. This
necessitates subsequent treatment to remove pathogens, which are conventionally carried out by
disinfection. Disinfection is generally the final treatment process in water treatment train.
Disinfection is carried out through chemical means.
Requirements of a good disinfectant

The following are requirements of a good disinfectant:
 It should be economical and easily available in bulk.
 It should be able to destroy all the harmful bacteria and other organisms from
water and make it safe for the consumers.
 Disinfectant should immediately attack bacteria when mixed with water.
 After disinfection, the water should not become toxic and carry objectionable odor
and taste.
 Disinfectant should be such that their strength or concentration in the treated water
could be easily determined.
 Their dose should be such that there is always some residual concentration for
protection of water from contamination during storage, and conveyance, through
distribution system.
In water supply, chlorine is the disinfectant almost universally, since it is the final safe guard for
the quality the water, the necessity of the continuous and effective application of chlorine cannot
be over emphasized. The objective of chlorination is to destroy pathogens in water and provide
some additional protection against subsequent contamination.
Chlorine dissolves more readily in cold water. In the liquid form it has a yellow color and a
specific gravity of 1.4. Reaction rate increases with rise in temperature and lowering oof

PH value. The gas is toxic, and irritating to eyes, impairs respiration, and can cause death at high
dosages.
Chlorination can be achieved in two ways: direct solution feed, where chlorine gas is fed directly
into the treated water, or else using hypochlorite salts such as calcium hypochlorite and sodium
hypochlorite. Hypochlorite tablets are used for emergency disinfection in times of disaster, when
normal water treatment is not operating.
Factors affecting efficiency of chlorine are
1. Nature of pathogens to be destroyed
2. Type and concentration of disinfectant
3. Temperature of water
4. Time of contact
5. Physical and chemical properties of water to be treated
6. PH (alkalinity/acidity) of water

CHAPTER EIGHTH
DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIR
8.1 Service reservoir
Distribution reservoir is also called service reservoir. Service reservoirs are used for storing the
treated water with in or near to the demand (distribution) area, distributing the treated water to the
customers. They are also designed to meet the water demand during fire break, pumps failure,
repair, etc and used to balance the hourly fluctuation of water demand.
8.2 Types of reservoir
Distributions reservoirs are classified based on their support, shape, and material of construction.
A) Based on support of ground Distribution
reservoirs are of two general types:
1. Surface reservoirs
These reservoirs have little or no elevation above the ground and which are usually
constructed of earthen, masonry, or a combination of both, or reinforced cement concrete.
They can be circular or rectangular in shape.
2. Elevated reservoirs
These reservoirs built entirely above the ground such as stand pipes and elevated
Tanks. They help to reduce pumping cost by giving head for gravity flow
distribution. They are usually of steel reinforced concrete or wood. Many surface reservoirs
are built on hills and thus comprise elevated storage.
B) Based on geometry
 Circular reservoir
 Rectangular reservoirs

C) Based on material of construction

 Steel
 Reinforced concrete
 Masonry etc.
8.3 Purposes of reservoir
Distribution reservoirs serve a variety of purposes as described below:

A) With regard to water quantity
1. Storage for fluctuating demand:
Reservoirs are filling when the rate of pumping exceeds the demand rate and are emptying
when the reverse occurs. This action permits pumps to operate at constant rates throughout
any one day and thereby allows the use of pumps of
less capacity.
2. Fire storage
The immediate availability of large quantities of water within the water supply system
is required to safe guard the community against fire breakout.
3. Emergency / break down storage
The storage of sufficient amount of water with in the system gives protection against the
failure of the pump, power driving motors, or a supply conduit. This quantity of
water depends on the time taken during the repair work, and as such it is variable, therefore, it is
very difficult to estimate.
B) With regard to pressure distribution
1. Equalizing pressure in the system.
2. Raising pressures at remote points from pumping stations.
3. Equalizing heads on pumps if the reservoirs are nearly pumping plant station.

8.4 Location of distribution reservoir
Generally distribution reservoirs are located near the central portion of the distribution area. It is
always better to construct them on high ground of city or town at such place where it can be
constructed economically and also by considering the elevation of the highest building to be
supplied
The location of the proposed reservoir site selected should be to fully the gravity distribution
system because it reduces the cost of pumping and also to enable a good flow to be maintained
to those top most places
8.5 Accessories of reservoir
Following are the various accessories, which are commonly provided in the reservoirs
i. Inlet pipe for the entry of water.
ii. Outlet pipe for the withdrawal of water.
iii. Over flow pipe to prevent over flow of water.
iv. Float switch to stop the pump when the tank is full.
v. Float gauge to show the depth of water in the tank.
vi. Washout pipe for washing out the suspended impurities in the tank
vii. Manhole for providing entry into the tank.
viii. Access ladder to inspect the top & bottom of the tank.
ix. Ventilation for fresh air circulation in the tank.
x.Chlorinator incase when the water is directly pumped in the over head reservoir from the
tube wells
8.6 Determination of storage capacity of the reservoir
The required reservoir capacity is determined by using

1. Analytical method
2. Mass curve

3. Sequent peak algorithm

For the Assosa water supply scheme, the analytical and the mass curve methods are selected
for their simplicity of calculation and interpretation.
The long study of 24 hourly peak factors of the Assosa town
Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Hourly factor 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 1.1 2 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4
Time 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hourly factor 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3
When water is supplied for balancing the variable demand against a constant rate of pumping
for 24 hrs
The analysis of storage capacity can be calculated as follows.
Phase I (2008 – 2018)
Total demand of the town =3407.7m3/day
Total demand of the town in liters per day=34077
Hourly demand of the town = 141987.5 liters Pumping
hours=16

The calculation is as shown bellow in table

Table 8.1 the analytical calculation of storage capacity for phase I
Cumulative Cumulative Excess

Time Hourly Hourly Hourly hourly hourly
demand(liter supply(liters) demand(liters) supply demand(lit
(hr) Factor supply(liters)
(5) (6) (liters) (5) ers)
(1) (2) (3) s)
– (6) +ve (6) –
(4)
(7) (5) +ve
(8)
1 0.3 0 42596.3 0 42596.25 42596.3
2 0.3 0 42596.3 0 85192.5 85192.5
3 0.3 0 42596.3 0 127788.75 127789
4 0.3 0 42596.3 0 170385 170385
5 0.3 212981.25 42596.3 212981.25 212981.25
6 0.6 212981.25 85192.5 298173.75 127788.7
425962.5 5
7 1.1 212981.25 156186 454360 184583.7
638943.75 5
8 2 212981.25 283975 851925 738335 113590
9 1.8 212981.25 255578 1064906.25 993912.5 70993.75
10 1.6 212981.25 227180 1277887.5 1221092.5 56795
11 1.5 212981.25 212981 1490868.75 1434073.75 56795
12 1.4 212981.25 198783 1703850 1632856.25 70993.75
13 1.4 0 198783 1703850 1831638.75 127789
14 1.3 0 184584 1703850 2016222.5 312373
15 1.3 0 184584 1703850 2200806.25 496956
16 1.5 212981.25 212981 1916831.25 2413787.5 496956
17 1.6 212981.25 227180 2129812.5 2640967.5 511155
18 1.4 212981.25 198783 2342793.75 2839750 496956
19 1.2 212981.25 170385 2555775 3010135 454360
20 0.9 212981.25 127789 2768756.25 3137923.75 369168
21 0.7 212981.25 99391.3 2981737.5 3237315 255578
22 0.5 212981.25 70993.8 3194718.75 3308308.75 113590
23 0.4 212981.25 56795 3407700 3365103.75 42596.25
24 0.3 0 42596.3 3407700 3407700

Thus the reservoir capacity for phase I from the above table will be
 Maximum value of excess supply = 184583.75liters
 maximum value of excess demand = 511155liters
 capacity of reservoir = 184583.75+511155
=695738.75liters=695.739m3
 For fire requirement (10%) = 69.574m3
 Miscellaneous losses (3%) = 20.87217m3
 Total recommended reservoir capacity = 786.1852m3
Say=800m3 of standard reservoir capacity
Using mass curve method
mas curve diagram for phase one
3.5
cumulative supply and demand in miliun
2.5
2
cumulative supply
comulative demand
1.5
0.5
02468101214161820222
4
-0.5
time in (hrs)
Figure 8.1 mass curves for phase I

Phase II (2018-2028)
 Total demand of the town =7329.309m3/day
 Total demand of the town in liters per day=7329309Hourly demand of the town =
305387.875liters
 Pumping hours=20
 Pumping rate=366465.45liters/hour
Thus the reservoir capacity for phase I from the above table will be
 Maximum value of excess supply = 855086.05liters
 maximum value of excess demand = 977241.2liters
 capacity of reservoir = 855086.05+977241.2=1832327liters
=1832.327m3
 For fire requirement (10%) = 183.233m3
 Miscellaneous losses (3%) = 54.96982m3
 Total recommended reservoir capacity = 2070.53m3
Say=2100m3 of standard reservoir capacity
Provide additional two reservoirs with capacity of 500m3 and 800m3 for second phase

Table 8.2: the analytical calculation of storage capacity for phase II
Excess
Time Hourly Hourly Hourly Cumulative Cumulative
supply (liters) demand
(hr) Factor supply(liters) demand(liters) hourly hourly
supply (5) – (6) +ve (liters) – (5)
(1) (2) (3) (4) demand(liters)
value only +ve value
(liters) (6)
(7) only
(5)
(8)
1 0.3 0 91616.363 0 91616.3625 91616.363
2 0.3 0 91616.363 0 183232.725 183232.73
3 0.3 366465.5 91616.363 366465.45 274849.0875 91616.3625
4 0.3 366465.5 91616.363 732930.9 366465.45 366465.45
5 0.3 366465.5 91616.363 1099396.35 458081.8125 641314.538
6 0.6 366465.5 183232.73 1465861.8 641314.5375 824547.263
7 1.1 366465.5 335926.66 1832327.25 977241.2 855086.05
8 2 366465.5 610775.75 2198792.7 1588016.95 610775.75
9 1.8 366465.5 549698.18 2565258.15 2137715.125 427543.025
10 1.6 366465.5 488620.6 2931723.6 2626335.725 305387.875
11 1.5 366465.5 458081.81 3298189.05 3084417.538 213771.513
12 1.4 366465.5 427543.03 3664654.5 3511960.563 152693.938
13 1.4 0 427543.03 3664654.5 3939503.588 274849.09
14 1.3 0 397004.24 3664654.5 4336507.825 671853.32
15 1.3 366465.5 397004.24 4031119.95 4733512.063 702392.11
16 1.5 366465.5 458081.81 4397585.4 5191593.875 794008.47
17 1.6 366465.5 488620.6 4764050.85 5680214.475 916163.62
18 1.4 366465.5 427543.03 5130516.3 6107757.5 977241.2
19 1.2 366465.5 366465.45 5496981.75 6474222.95 977241.2
20 0.9 366465.5 274849.09 5863447.2 6749072.038 885624.84
21 0.7 366465.5 213771.51 6229912.65 6962843.55 732930.9
22 0.5 366465.5 152693.94 6596378.1 7115537.488 519159.39
23 0.4 366465.5 122155.15 6962843.55 7237692.638 274849.09
24 0.3 366465.5 91616.363 7329309 7329309 0 0

Using mass curve method
mass curve diagram
6
cumulative supply and demand in 10^6
4
cumulative supply
comuulative demannd
3
0 2 4 6 8 101214161820222 4
-1
time in(hrs)
Figure 8.2 mass curve diagrams for phase II

8.7 Depth and shape of service reservoir
8.7.1 Depth of service reservoir

For any given quantity of water either shallow reservoir having long walls and large floor are, or
alternatively a deep reservoir constructed with high retaining wall and smaller floor area.
Factors influencing a depth of a given storage are
 Depth at which suitable foundation conditions are encountered
 Depth at which out let main must laid
 Slope of ground, nature and types of backfill
 The slope and size of the land available
8.7.2 Shape of service reservoir

Circular reservoir is geometrically the most economical shape give, the least amount of walling for
a given volume and depth, it has the attraction of allowing of construction thin reinforce concrete.

8.9 Structural Design of service reservoir

8.9.1 Water Tank (reservoir) Design Consideration
The primary purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that the structure being
designed will not become unfit in any way for the use it is intended. To accommodate the required
amount of water and to ensure water tight structure, the reservoir must be designed using
reinforced cement concrete that accounts for tensile forces as well as those due to bending.
The different types of reservoirs depending on the geometry (Circular and Rectangular), supports
(resting on the ground, under ground and elevated), and end restraints (free sliding, hinged and
fixed at top and/or base) should be compared and selected based on their suitability and economic
condition during the design of water containing reservoirs.
For small capacities rectangular tanks are usually used. And for bigger capacities circular tanks are
generally used to ensure economical and efficient system of work.
The design of tank should also consider both full and empty conditions, and the assumptions
regarding the arrangement of loading conditions so as to cause the most critical effects. When the
structure is empty it must have strength to withstand the active pressure of any retained earth.
The possible resistance of the earth, never certain to act, is generally ignored when designing for
structure full of water.
Important considerations have to be given in limiting the size of crack (mostly with no cracks) so
that leakage does not take place. The design generally governed by the requirements of the elastic
design method, but stability considerations are particularly important. The design has to take
careful account of the construction methods to be used.
The requirements for the elastic design method are listed as follows.

Concrete grade class as C- 30 with a minimum cement content of 330 kg/m 3 and has maximum
water cement ration = 0.55, but the concert should not be more than the maximum cement
content to keep the shrinkage down.
 The maximum cracked width is limited to 0.2mm for all faces of liquid containing or
excluding structures, unless aesthetic appearance is critical, where 0.1mm is required to
avoid staining of concrete.
 Minimum cover = 40mm
 Maximum bar spacing = 300mm
 The allowable tensile stresses in concrete than control cracks in concrete grade of C-30
shall be 1.44 N/mm2 and 2.02 N/mm2 due to direct tension and bending respectively.
 The allowable tensile stresses in steel taken as 100 N/mm2 using deformed bars for
alternate wetting and drying exposure conditions.
 The maximum steel area in each of the two directions at right angle are 0.3% of the
concrete area (0.15% near each face) for deter med bars.
The operational processes with in the water and other industries dealing with fluids often require
circular structures to ensure their systems of work carried out efficiently and economically.
Hence circular tank is chosen for the design of Assosa town water supply project.
The primary stresses set up with in the structure are usually a result of the ring tension generated
by the contained liquid and the main reinforcement therefore consists of bond of circular steel
hops. The ability of the cylinder to increase in diameter is resisted, however at the base where
restraints occur. If out ward movement is prevented by a fixed joint the ring tension will be zero
and vertical bending movement and sheared force will occur.
Out of three types of base conditions i.e. free sliding, pined and fixed base, fixed base is the most
effective due to the above reasons i.e. the ring tension will be zero and only

vertical bending moment and shear force will occur. Therefore, due to its effectiveness, fixed
base type is selected for the design of the circular reservoir
8.9.2 Design of 800m3 circular reservoir

Type: Fixed base and free ends
At the top of the will, shear force and bending moments are zero, and at the base of the
wall, slope and deflection is zero.
F W *H
Figure 8.3 fixed base and free end reservoir
 Capacity of reservoir = 800m3

 Height of reservoir = 4m
 Assumed free board = 0.2m
 Total height of reservoir = 4m+0.2m =4.2m
 Diameter of reservoir =
4V 4 * 800
 D= = 3.1416 * 4 =16m
*H
 Assume top thickness of wall =200mm

 Assume bottom thickness of wall=250mm
 The average thickness of wall
200  250
 tavg= =-225mm
2

8.9.2.3 Design of reservoir wall

Internal force acting on the rank wall
For determining internal forces of the tank wall of fixed base and free top tank
,coefficients are available in standard tables for a given h2

d.t
H2
The value of =4.4444
D*
tavg
Then the corresponding value of moment and hoop tension coefficients is calculated as follows.
Table 8.3 Coefficients for vertical moments in circular reservoirs

0.1H 0.2H 0.3H 0.4H 0.5H 0.6H 0.7H 0.8H 0.9H 1H
H2
D * tavg
4 0.0003 0.0015 0.0028 0.0047 0.0.0066 0.0077 0.0069 0.0023 -0.0080 -0.0268
4.444 0.000212 0.001192 0.002272 0.00390 0.00572 0.003908 0.00646 0.002852 -0.007032 -0.02477
8
5 0.0001 0.0008 0.0016 0.0029 0.0046 0.0059 0.0059 0.0028 -0.0058 -0.022
Table 8.4 Coefficient for hoop tension

0H 0.1H 0.2H 0.3H 0.4H 0.5H 0.6H 0.7H 0.8H 0.9H
H2
D * tavg
4 0.067 0.16 0.256 0.339 0.403 0.429 0.409 0.334 0.210 0.073
4
4.444 0.0484 0.15 0.2511 0.3421 0.4171 0.4503 0.409 0.3624 0.2318 0.0814
2
5 0.025 0.13 0.245 0.346 0.428 0.477 0.409 0.398 0.259 0.092
7

Considering alternative exposure of wetting and drying the allowable stress based on BS: 5337
(elastic design method)
For strength design
 fs, allow= 100N/mm2 (direct tension)
 fc, allow=11N/mm2 (due to bending)
 n=15
For no crack design
 fct, allow=2.02N/mm2 (due to bending)
 fct, allow=1.444N/mm2 (due to direct tension)
8.9.2.4 Detail Reinforcement
a) Vertical section of the tank wall: -It is treated as tension member with cracked section i.e.
only reinforcement resists the maximum hoop tension. The maximum hoop tension occurs at 0.5H
with a coefficient 0.4503.
I. horizontal reinforcement
For the analysis purpose let divided wall into two pars
Case1:
For the top half of the wall, from 0.0H to 0.5H
 From the table above the minimum coefficients is 0.4503
 Hence the hoop tension can be calculated as
 TH = max.coeff *  w * H *
where r= D/2=16/2=8m
r
 =0.4503*9.81*4*8=141.3582KN per meter depth of wall

Therefore area of hoop tension steel required assuming concrete section is cracked
TH
As   141.3582 *103
fs, allow  1413.582mm2
100
As= 1413.582mm2  Asmin=

0.3 * b * t 0.3 *1000 * 225
100  100 =675mm2…
ok
Spacing of 14 ring bars required

b * as 1000 *153.86
s   108.844mm2  Smax=300mmor t=225mm
As 1413.582
Provided:
wall
14 ring bars at 70mm c/c in one layer placed on water face of for upper half
Check thickness of wall for no cracks
Thickness of wall is determined using requirement of resistance to crack; therefore
thickness of wall is determined by limiting tensile stress in the concrete to allowable stress value as
fct
TH 141.3582 *103
   0.5775N / mm2 fct ,allow  1.44N / mm2
Ac  (n  1) * As 1000 * 225  (15  1) 
*1413.582
It is ok. Therefore, thickness is adequate for no concrete crack

Case 2:
For hoop reinforcement applied on bottom half of the wall, hoop tension developed at
depth of (0.6H=2.4m) from top may be used as given below
TH  max.coeiff *  w * H * r  0.409 * 9.81* 4 * 8  128.3933KN / m
Area of reinforcement required the hoop for unit strip of wall

TH
As   128.3933 *103
fs, allow  1283.933mm2  As min  675mm2
100
Check thinness of wall for no crack
fct TH 128.39333 *103

   0.5284N / mm2  fc,allow  1.44N / mm2
Ac  (n  1) * As 1000 * 225  (15  1)
*1283.933
It is ok. Therefore trial thickness is adequate for crack
Spacing of ring bar using 14
as * b
S  S max 
300mm As or t=225mm

153.86 *1000
S  119.835mm
1283.933

Therefore, provide 14 ring bars @ 120mm c/c in one layer placed on water face for bottom
half of wall.
b) Horizontal section of the tank wall: -The internal forces in this section are (+ve) and (-
ve) moments with maximum coefficients of 0.006908 and -0.02477 respectively
i. Vertical reinforcement
The maximum positive and the maximum negative moment is calculated as follows
M max  max.coeiff *  * H 3
w
(+ve) max.coeff=0.006908 @0.8H (-

ve) max coeff=-0.02477@1H
Therefore, (+ve) moment =0.006908*9.81*43=4.3371KN-m per meter width (-ve)
moment =-0.02477*9.81*43=-6.4040KN-m per meter width
Take absolute value of the result, the maximum moment is therefore
M max   =6.404KN-m per meter width

6.404
Check thickness of wall for flexure

fs,allow=130N/mm2
fc,allow=11N/mm2
Design constant of balanced section are:

f s,allow
r f 130 n  15
c,allow   kb   0.539
n 15  11.82
11.82
11 r
jkb 1 
b
3  0.8136
Rb  0.5 * fc,allow * kb * jb  0.5 *11* 0.539 * 0.8136  2.5028N / mm2
Then the effective depth of section (dreq) is given by

dreq  
M max 6.4040 *106  50.5638mm
Rb * 2.5025 *1000

Thickness of wall taking 14 bars and 40mm cover
t treq  dreq  cov er   / 2  50.5638mm  40mm  14mm / 2  97.5638mm   225mm it is

tassu
ok . Then t(req) will be

treq  tassu  40mm 14mm / 2 
178mm
Vertical reinforcement to be placed on water face is obtained for maximum negative

moment
Then area of reinforcement
(ve) As M max 6.4040 *103  340.1551mm2  As min  675mm2

  130 * 0.8136
f s,allow * jb *
dreq *178
Hence take As=Asmin=675mm2
t=250 d=178

b=100

Figure 8.4 Transformed section or equivalent section
Taking a unit width of reservoir and 250mm bottom thickness of the centriods of section is
*Y
x i
A i
1000 * 250 *125  15 * 675 *178
 1000 * 250  15 * 675  127.063mm
A i
Moments of area of equivalent concrete sections
I ce  b * x3 b * (D 
 n * As * (d  x)2
3  x)
3
1000 *1273 1000 *(225  127)3

I ce    15 * 675 * (178  127)2
3 3
=1022860124mm4=1022.860*106mm4
fct  M max*(D  x)  6.404 *10 *(250 

6
 0.77008N / mm2 f  2.02N / mm2
Ice 127) ct ,
1022.860124 *106  allow
Therefore the thickness is adequate for no crack

Spacing of 14
bars
as * b 153.86 *1000
S   228.056mm Smax=300mm or t=225mm

As 675
Therefore provide: 14 bars at 225mm c/c vertically in the inner face.
Vertically reinforcement on outer

(+ve)Mmax=4.337KN-m per meter width
Using t=225mm, 14
bars
D= 225-14/2-40=178mm
Hence
(ve)M max 4.337 *106
(+ve)As=   230.369mm2  As min  675mm2
f s,allow * jb * 130 * 0.8136
d *178

Therefore As=675mm2 should be taken

Spacing of 14 bars

as * b 153.86 *1000
S   228mm  Smax=300m or t=225mm
As 4 * 675
Therefore spacing S= 225mm should be taken. Provide
14 bars at 225mm c/c in the outer face
8.10 Design of roof slab

Cover slab of service tank (reservoir) is treated as roof slab, which is simply supported by the
circular wall.
Consider cover slab as freely supported at edges and load uniformly Using
strength limit design state
For C-300MPa, 0.67 * 30

fcd  0.67 fcu   13.4MPa
 1.5
300
For S-300MPa f yd f   260.87MPa

y 1.15
m
Where
w  fcu=300MPa fy=300MPa
1.5
For S-300MPa maximum design constant for single reinforcement according to ACI
max  0.437, max  0.34, max  0.75b
Dead load (own weight) = t*  c , where
t=thickness of slab=200mm
=0.2*25=5 Kn/m2
Live load (LL) =0.5 KN/m2 (based on EBCS; 1995)

Therefore the design load on the slab
qd= 20 =1.3DL+1.6LL=1.3*5+1.6*0.5=7.3 KN/m2
qd= 7.3KN/m2
D=16m
Figure 8.4 load on roof slab
Design load on the base slab

1 Design moment at the center of slab
3*W * x 2 3 * 7.3 * 8.152
M r  M  d
  90.916KN.M
16 16
2 At the edge of the slab
w 2 7.3 * 8.152
M r  0, M   x 
d
 60.611KN  M
8 8
Check thickness for flexure
b 
0.0028 0.0028
f  0.0035   0.5828
yd 260.87
0.0035 
Es 2 *103
Balanced mechanical reinforcement ratio

max  0.75 *  b  0.75 * 0.5828  0.437
Then effective depth of section (dreq) is given by
4 M max 90.916 *106

13.4 * 0.3145 *1000 dreq  
fcd *  max * b
Using 1 bars and cover of 40 mm

 1 40.952mm
Treq  dreq  cov er   / 2

=140.952+40+14/2=187.952mm
Treq  187.952mm  tassum  225mm
And
d  tassum  40   / 2
=(200-40-14/2)mm=153m
Reinforcement
a) At the center of slab
M r  M   90.916kn  m

fcd M  90.916 *106  0.290
*b*d  13.4 *100 *1532
2
Then
 1 1  0.352

(1  2) (1  2 * 0.290)
 * fcd * b * 0.352 *13.4 *1000 *153

As
d    2766.4mm2  As min 
f yd 293.25mm2 260.87
Spacing using
14 bars
as * b 153.938 *1000
SS    55.646   300mmor400mm
max
As 2766.4mm 2
Therefore, provide 14 bars at 55mmc/c in the form of mesh at the center of slab
b) At the edge of the slab

M
 M r  60.611KN  M

fcd M  60.611*106  0.193
* b * d  13.4 *1000
2 *1532

Then  1 1  0.216

(1  2) (1  2 * 0.193)

Therefore
 * fcd * b * d 0.216 *13.4 *1000 *153 0.5 * b
*Asd    1692.563mm2  As min   225mm2

fy 260.87 f yk
Spacing of bars using 14 bars

as * b 153.938 *1000
S  90.682
As 1697.563mm2 
Therefore provide
14 bars at 90mm c/c in the form of ring at the edge of slab just above
mesh reinforcement.
Check thickness for shear
vmax  0.5 * wd * x  0.5 * 7.3 * 8.15  29.748KN
Shear capacity of the slab, Vc

vc  0.4 * fctd *(1  50 ) * b * d
fctd
0.35 * fctk 0.35 * 30  1.278N / mm2
 1.5  1.5
As
 b* 1697.563  0.011
d  1000
*153
0.011
/2  0.005
2
vc  0.4 *1.278 * (1  50 * 0.0053) *1000 *153  97.767KN  Vmax  29.748kn
Therefore thickness is adequate for shear.
8.11 Design of circular base –slab

Section of base slab design considering simply supported at edge by ring beam and monolithic
with the wall of the tank supported uniform load due to own weight, roof slab, and weight of
water when the tank is full of water i.e

qd =wt. of base slab + wt. of water +wt. of roof slab

Considering exposure condition for base slab continuous liquid contact thus the allowable stress
used for design are
fs,allow=130N/mm2, fc,allow=11N/mm2, and n=15
Design constant of balanced section for flexural member
f s,allow
r f 130 n  15
c,allow   kb   0.539
n 15  11.82
11.82
11 r
j kb 1 
b
3  0.8136
Rb  0.5 * fc,allow * kb * jb  0.5 *11* 0.539 * 0.8136  2.5028N / mm2
Shear at the base of wall = direct tension developed in the base slab
H2
Thus, the coefficients of  4.444 from table is 0.12999
D*
t
Therefore direct tension developed in the base of slab is calculated as follow
T  0.1299 *  * H 2  0.1299 * 9.81* 42  Per meter

H W
20.3885KN
width of the slab
Section of base slab monolithic with the wall of the tank is designed for combined action of
direct tension caused by water pressure on the wall. Maximum moment of slab caused by uniform
load on the base slab and restraints moments of the wall caused by water pressure
Consider thickness of wall t= 400mm
Effective depth of slab considering 16
bar and 40mm cover
 D=t- cover- / 2 =400-40-8=352mm
 Wt. of base slab =0.352m*25KN/m3=8.8KM/m2

 Wt. of roof slab= =7.3KN/m2
 Wt. of water =4m*9.81KN/m3=39.24KN/m2

 Total load =qd=8.8+7.3+39.34=55.34KN/m2

For simply supported circular slab (with radius =4m) the maximum radial and
circumferential moments are obtained by
3 * q * a 2 3 * 55.34 * 42
Mr  M  d
  166.020KN  at the center of the slab
16 16 m
Msupport= (-ve) Mbase,wall=6.4040KN-m …. Restraint moment at the base of
wall
Reinforcement of base of slab
Minimum area of reinforcement for base of slab of unit width (BS: 5337)
0.3 * b * t 0.3 *1000 * 400
Asmim=   1200mm2
100 100
At the center of the slab design for combined action of TR= 20.3855KN and M=166.02KN-
m
Therefore the required reinforcement is determined by
(+ve)As=
M  TR 166.02 *106 20.3885 *103
 4616.1014mm2
fs* j*  130 * 0.8136 * 352 130
d fs
Spacing of 20 bar
b * as 1000 * 314.16
S   68.057mm  Smax=300mm
As 4616.1014
Provided: 20 bars at 65 mm c/c in the form of mesh placed at the bottom of slab At the
support:
Design for combined action of T=20.3885KN and M=-6.4040KN-m Therefore required reinforcement is
determined by
(-ve)As= M 20.3885 *103

6.404 *106  328.845mm2  Asmin =1200mm2
f s * j * 130 * 0.8136 * 352 130
d
There fore take As=1200mm2
Therefore extra bars are required in addition to vertical bars of wall.
Check trail thickness of slab for no crack due negative moment & direct tension Location of
neutral axis of equivalent un-crack concrete section of wall

Y
 ( A *Y )  400 *1000 * 200  15 *1200 * 352  206.5455mm
A 400 *1000  15 *1200
Moments of inertial and area of equivalent un-cracked concrete section of wall
3
I ce b * y b *(D  y)3  n * Ast *(d  y) 2

 3  3
1000 * 206.54453 (400  206.5445)3

I ce   1000  15 *1200 *(352  206.5445)2
3 * 3
I  5731296970mm4
c
Then tensile stress due to moment and direct tension
fctb 
M *(D  Y 6.404 *106 *(400   0.2162N / mm2
) 
206.5445)
I ce 5731296970
TR
20.3885
ct
f  Ace   0.05097
*103
400 *1000
Then check tensile stress interaction equation for no concrete crack
fctb fct 0.2162 0.05097

    0.14245  1….. Ok
fctb,allow fct ,allow 2.02 1.44
Therefore trial thickness of wall is adequate for no concrete crack!

The design of 500m3 is done in a similar fashion of design of 800m3. For the calculation of bill of
quantities we considered proportional amount as their volume.

CHAPTER NINE
Distribution system
9.1 General
After the water has reached to the service reservoir, it becomes necessary to distribute it to a
number of houses, industries and public places by means of network of distribution system. The
distribution systems, the distribution systems consist of pipes of various sizes, valves, meters,
distribution reservoirs, pumps, hydrants etc. the pipe lines carry water to each and every street and
road. Valves control the flow of water through the pipes. Meters are provided to measure the
quantity of water consumed by the individual as well as by the town. Hydrants are provided to
connect the water to the fire fighting equipment during fine accident. Service connection is done to
connect the individual building with the water line passing through the streets. Pumps are provided
to pump the water to the elevated service reservoir or directly in the water mains to obtain the
required pressure in the pipe lines. The layout of the roads and the elevation of the town also
considered to select the layout of the distribution systems respectively the following are the
requirement of a good distribution system
 It should convey the reacted water to the consumers with the same degree of purity.
 The water should reach to every consumer with the required pressure head.
 Sufficient quantity of reacted water should reach for the domestic and industrial use.
 The distribution system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate.
 It should be able to transport sufficient quantity of water during emergency shuch as
fire fighting.
 During repair work, it should not cause obstruction to the traffic.
 It should be safe against any future pollution. The pipe lines as much as possible should
not be laind below the sewer lines.
 The quality of the pipe should be good and it should not burst.
 It should be water-tightt and the water losses dur to leakage should be bare
minimum as much as possible.
 For efficient distribution it is required that water should each to every consumers with
required rate of flow. There fore, some pressure in pipe lines is necessary
which should force the water to reach at every place.

9.2 Methods of distribution

For efficient distribution it is required that water should reach to every consumer with required
rate of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipelines is necessary to force the water to reach at every
node. This can be done by one of the following methods, as local conditions or other
considerations may dictate.
I gravity distribution system

This is possible when the source of the supply is at some elevation above the city so that sufficient
pressure can be maintained in the mains for domestic and fire service. This is the most reliable
method if the conduit leading from source to city is adequate in size and well safe guarded against
accidental breaks.
II pumping system with out storage

In this system water is directly pumped in mains. Since the pumps have to work at different rates
in a day, the maintenance const increases. It is preferred to have number of pumps and only the
required numbers may work at various times to meet the varying demand, in place of proving
pump of variable speed. High lift pumps are required and their operations are continuously
watched.
If the power fails, the whole supply of town will be stopped. Therefore, it is better to have a
diesel pumps in addition to the electric pumps as standby. During fires, the water dan be
pumped in the required quantity by the stand by units also.
III combined gravity and pumping system (dual system)

In this system the pump is connected to the mains as well as to an elevated reservoir. At the
beginning when the demand is small the water is stored in the elevated reservoir, when the demand
increases the flow in the distribution system comes from both the pumping station as well as
elevated reservoir. In this system water comes from two sources from reservoir and for pumping
station, which is called dual system this system is more reliable and economical because it requires
uniform rate of pumping but meets low as well as maximum demand, the water stored in elevated
reservoir meets the requirements of demand during breakdown of pumps and for fire fighting.
Following are the main advantages of this system:-

i) The balance reserve in the storage reservoir will be utilized during fire. In case of fire
demand is more and if required the water supply of few localities may be closed.
ii) This system is the overall best system. It is economical efficient and reliable.

iii) This system has the advantages that during power failure, the balance water
stored in the reservoir will be supplied to the town.
iv) The pumps have to work at constant speed with out any variation in their speed. In
Assosa town the water is distributed to the community by the gravity system because
the service reservoir is located at high elevation of the town. So the water reaches to
every consumer in sufficient quantity.
9.3 layout of distribution system

Depending upon their layout direction of supply, they are classified as follows:-
i. Dead end or three system:- it is suitable for irregular developed towns or cities. In this system one
man starts from service reservoir along the main road. Sub mains are connected to the main in both
the direction along other roads, which meet the roads carrying sub-mains, branches and minor
distributors are laid and are connected to sub mains. From these branches service connections are
made to individual houses. the advantage of these system are cheap in initial cost and easy
determination of pipe diameter, value size etc. but the main disadvantage of f this system is
formation of dead ends and if pipe breaks down or is closed for repair, the whole locality beyond
the point grows without water. Since the water is reaching at each point from one side only it can
not meet the fire demand.
ii. Grid-iror system: - this system is most convenient for towns having rectangular layout of roads.
Actually, this system is an improvement over dead end system. All the dead ends ae interconnected
with each other and water circulated freely through out the system. In this system mainline is laid
along the main road. Sub-mains are taken in both directions along other minor roads and streets.
From these sub-mains branches are taken out and are interconnected to each other and water
circulates freely through out the system. This system removes all the disadvantages of dead end
system.
Following are main advantages of this system

i. As the water is supplied from both the sides to every point, very small area will be
affected during repair.
ii. Since the water reaches every point form more than one route, the friction losses and the
sizes of the pipes are reduced.
iii. All the dad ends are completely eliminated, therefore the water remains in continuous flow
and there is no stagnation and chance of pollution is reduced to minimum.
iv. In case of fire, more quantity of water can be diverted towards the affected area, by closing
the valves of near by localities.
As this system has many advantages it also has some disadvantages:-
i. More number of valves and longer length of pipe is required in this system, there by
increasing the overall cost.

ii. If one section is to be repaired more number of valves are required to be closed. iii.The
design is difficult and costlier.
Considering the above advantage and layout of roads of Assosa town this method is adopted.
III circular or ring system:- this system is adopted only in well planned locality of cities. In this
system each locality is divided into square and the water main are laid around all the four sides of
the square. All the sub-mains and branches ae taken off from the boundary mains and are are inter
connected. This system is the best of the other system but it requires many valves and more pipe
length. The ring system is most suitable for towns and cities having well planned road.
iv.Radial system:- actually this is the reverse of ring system and water flows towards outer periphery
from one point. The entire district is divided in to various zones and one reservoir is placed for
each zone which is placed at the center of the zone. The water lines are laid radically from it.
9.4 design procedure of the distribution system

First of all the layouts of the distribution pipes are prepared and the position of valves, fire
hydrants etc, are also marked on it. The reduced levels of the town at various points are also
marked on it. The reduced levels of the town at various point are also marked on the plan. Now the
total population to be served at each node is also marked on the plan. After this the minimum water
pressure required at the tail end and near the highest building of the city are also determined and
noted on the plan. After completing the above work, the main work is to determine the sizes of
distribution popes, which would be capable to carry the required quantity of water at the desired
pressure.
9.5 selections of pipe materials

The types of pipe used for distributing water under pressure includes: ductile iron, cast iron,
asbestos, cement concrete, steel and PVC. Small diameter pipes for house connection are usually
plastic. For use in transmission and distribution system pipe materials must have the following
characteristics.
 Adequate tensile and bending strength to with stand external loads that result from trench
back fill and earth movement caused by freezing, thawing or unstable soil condition
 Ability to resist impact loads encountered in transportation, handling and installation.
 Smooth, non corrosive interior surface for minimum resistance to water flow.
 Pipe materials that can be provided with tight joints and easy to tap for making connections.

Among different types of pipes, existing on the market PVC pipes are selected for the
distribution system. This is because PVC pipes are light in weight, cheap, easy to
join and install durable, good electric insulators and free from corrosion. Additionally, DCI
pipes are extended from borehole to service reservoir due to its strength and
resistance to corrosion.
9.6 design of pipelines

Till date no direct methods are available for the design of distribution pipes. While doing the
design first of all the diameters of pipes are assumed, the terminal pressure heads which could be
made available at the end of each pipe section after allowing for the loss of pressure head in the
pipe section when full peak flow discharge is flowing are then determined. The determination of
the friction loss in each pipe section is done. The total discharge flowing through main pipe is to
be determined in advance. While design of pipes the following points should be kept in mind:-
 The main lines should be designed to carry and times the average demand of the city.
 The water demand at various pints in the city should be noted.
 The velocity in pipelines should be less than 2m/sec.
 In the distribution system the minimum size of distribution pipe is as 50mm and
service pipe of 20mm is used for giving house connection.
9.7 pressure in distribution

When the water enters in the distribution main the water head continuously is lost due to friction in
pipes, at entrance of reduces, due to valves, bends, meters etc till it reaches consumers tap. The net
available head at the consumers tap is the head at the entrance of the water minus all the losses in
the way. The effective head available at the service connection to the building is very important
because, the height up to which the water can rise in the building will depend on this available
head only. The greater the geed the more will be the height up to which it will rise.
If adequate head is not available at the connection to the building, the water will not reach the
upper storey, to overcome this difficulty the required effective head is maintained lithe street pipe
lines.
The water should reach for each and every consumer. Therefore it should reach on the upper most
storeys. The pressure which is required to be maintained in the distribution system depends up on
the following factors:-
 The height of the highest building up to which water should reach without boosting.
 The distance of the locality form the distribution reservoir

 Supply is to be metered or not, higher pressure will be required to compensate for the high
loss of head in meters.
 How much pressure will be required for fie hydrants.
 The funds available for the project work.
9.8 nodal demand computation

The average consumption in the odes can be determined in two ways
1. From the geographical map, by dividing the system in to a number of areas
assumed to be supplied from the corresponding node.
2. By calculating the average number of consumers per meter of pipe in each loop. Even
dispersion of house connections through the system is assumed in both cases. Location of
the source connections to the system will depend on the route
of secondary mains, more over;
 They should be concentrated towards the areas of higher demand

 The pipe route should be as short as possible.
 The pipe should be easily accessible; passing underneath the building should be
avoided.
9.9 computer analysis of distribution system

The distribution network is simulated using Epanet 2.0. The simulation was carried out for
extended period analysis by taking in to consideration the hourly demand variation pattern on
maximum and average day. The analysis began by feeding assumed diameter in the computer; and
the pressure, velocity and headless are checked for peak and average flow. As the result of Epanet
2.0 analysis is shown in the appendix.
.
9.10 appurtenances
The different device required for controlling the flow of water for preventing leakage and other
similar purposes in water distribution network is called appurtenances. In this network the
following appurtenance are used:-
1. Valves: - in distribution network it is used to control flow of water, regulates pressure,
releases and admits air, prevents flow of water in opposite direction and so on. Valves
such as check valves, pressure valves, gate valves, air relief valves and drain valves are to
be provided where they are needed.
2. Pipe fittings:- the various pipe fittings such as beds, crosses, tees, elbows, caps, ripples,
plugs, flanges are to be provided during the laying of the distribution.
3. Manholes: - for inspection and maintenance purpose manholes are to be provided at every
junction of pipes and at places where valves are to be installed and when t here is a change
in direction of pipes.

CHAPTER TEN
Environmental Impact and Assessment
10.1 General
When we implement the water supply project, there are impacts that imposed on the environment at
the designing process of the project. We should consider the impacts during construction and
resulted from operation and maintenance of the system. Therefore, we have tried to discuss the
possible positive and negative impacts and their corresponding mitigation process.
The most common adverse impacts on the environment due to water resource development projects
are
 Water borne diseases
 Land subsidence
 Deforestation in the u/s area of the project(storage area)
 Sedimentation of reservoir(cause flooding)
 Bird mitigation, wild life destruction
 Displacement of people
10.2 Description of possible impact

Negative Impacts of the Project
The adverse effects could possibly occur due to the implementation of this project
 Flow reduction for irrigation
 Adverse effect on d/s habitats(fish)
 Obstacle for traffic during construction
 Pollution of fresh quality water
 Flora fauna
 Public disturbance and safety
 Air pollution and public health wizard

-Loss of land due to the project

Large portion of land is lost due to this project due to construction of reservoirs, treatment plant,
pumping station, well field and other parts of the land which are part of the system. If the land
were free of all this structures; it could serve for crop production as well as grazing land for
live stocks.
-Flow Reduction for Irrigation

When we divert the river water form the water supply purpose the farmers which are found at the
d/s side face the shortage of water for their irrigated land.
-Adverse effects on the d/s Habitat and Fish

Different aquatic habitat including fish will disappear due to the reduction inflow which is caused
by diverting of the river for water supply purpose.
-Pollution of Fresh Quality water

The land that is excavated for the project is exposed for soil erosion and becomes the cause of
detachment, transportation and deposition of sediment in fresh stream water; large volume of
deposited sediment in surface water is the main cause for the pollution of fresh water.
-Destruction of Flora and Fauna

Natural feature of the surrounding area of Assosa has pleasant appearance. But some part of this
pleasant nature will be lost due to construction of project.
-Public Disturbance and Health
To perform the project development work certain area is required for water storage, service
reservoir construction, transmission pipeline etc. This may affect residential buildings and may
cause property damage. The sound and vibration of machinery service

for construction, loading /unloading purpose; vehicles serve for project work and materials serves
for construction affect the comfort of dwellers of area.
*some Negative impacts due to poor sanitation condition
There is a well established sewerage system. The waste released from each house may normal
living facility of town. The flood during rainy season stored on the road, due to lack of proper
drainage system, damages the road causes traffic problems.
10.2.1 Positive Impacts of Project

-General improvement of water supply situation and living standard of population
-Solves shortage of water supply in town
-Assuming an adequate supply of water in quality as well as in quantity for population. Control the
problem of water related diseases.
-It saves time energy in collection of drilling water.
-For conveyance of new industries and factories
10.3 Mitigation of Impacts

When such a project is implemented for the benefit of the community it could also have adverse
effects. It should be assessed and measures have to be taken. Now some of the adverse effects and
their corresponding mitigation measures are suggested.
10.4 Possible Adverse impacts

-loss of agricultural and grazing land due to project
-Reduction of flow for irrigation
-obstacle of traffic due to construction
10.5 Mitigation measures
-provides another plot of land to compensate the losses
-Try to use the GW as an alternative source
-Proper scheduling of project



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Assosa Water Supply Project Final Year Project, June 2008

Arba Minch University

1.5 Urban Infrastructure and social services

1.6 Existing Water supply and sanitation

Arba Minch University

Arba Minch University

Arba Minch University

2.2 Population Forecasting

2.2.1 Methods of forecasting population

a. Arithmetic increase Method

b. Geometric increase method

Pn=Po (1+k) n, where Po= initial population

Arba Minch University

k=percentage (geometric) increase This

c. Incremental increase method

d. Decrease Rate of Growth Method

e. simple graphical method

f. Ratio and Correlation method

g. The Master Plan Method

Arba Minch University

h. Logistic Curve Method

I. Method by Using Ethiopian Statistical Authority

Pn=Poekn Where; Pn=population of n decade or year

2.2.2 POPULATION FORCASTING USING DIFFERENT METHOD

Arba Minch University

Year population stage

Arba Minch University

2. Geometric increase method

88303 =15041 –stage 1

283876 =434058 –stage 2

Year population stage

Arba Minch University

3. Method used by Ethiopian Statistics Authority

, where the value of k obtained from table below P

283876 =54582 –stage 2

Year K (%) population

Arba Minch University

Stage 1 – up to 2018= 35791

Arba Minch University

3.2 Domestic water demand

Arba Minch University

3.2.1 Per capita Domestic water Demand

Arba Minch University

3.3 Non-domestic water demand

3.3.1 Institutional water demand

3.3.2 Commercial water demands

3.3.3 Industrial water demands

3.3.4 Fire fighting water demand

Arba Minch University

3.3.5 Loss and waste

3.4 Water demand projection (calculation)

year 2008 2018 2028

3.4.1 Domestic demand by mode of services

Mode of service Year

Arba Minch University

Arba Minch University

Activity Year 2008 Year 2018 Year 2028

Arba Minch University

Year Demand (l/c/d)

PHC2025  PHC2015 =0.95

Arba Minch University

Table 3.6 projection of the percentage of population by modes of services

Connection type Year