Module 08: Living Things receptor in the retina; the rods that detect the
presence or absence of light and the cones that
and Their Environment
Your five senses are hard at work, as soon
as you get out of bed. The sunshine that comes in
through your window, the scent of coffee, the
sound of your mint. The products of your body,
sensory organs, and your brain are all these
moments. Sense organs are specialized organs for
perceiving the world around us. They're an
integral part of our lives and it's the sole way that
permits us to perceive the environment.
In response to a selected phenomenon,
sensory organs provide the data needed for
interpretation through different organs and a
network of nerves. These senses control our
relationship with and our contact with the
environment.
The capacity to listen, touch, see, taste,
and the smell is therefore hard-wired into your
body. And those five senses help you to find out
about the world around you and make decisions
about it.
Unit One: Human Sense Organs
Sense organs are responsible for the
perception of their surroundings in humans. Each
organ has its own distinct functions and
components. Let’s start researching the human
body’s five senses organs which allow us to react
to stimuli that make us more aware of our body
and our environment.
Sense Organs of the Human Body
1. The Eye
The eye is the organ of the sense that let us
see. It has receptors that receive lights from our
surroundings as a stimulus. Light enters the eye’s
cornea. Behind the cornea is a muscle ring, the
iris that expands in response to light or contracts.
The pupil changes size to control the amount of
light going into the eye.
When would a pupil become wide?
Light passes the pupil into the lens. Here,
the muscles of the lens change in shape and direct
light into the retina. There are two kinds of
detect color of objects that you see.
What receptors are active at night? How do you
identify images of objects around you?
The rods and cones are parts of the sensory
neuron that form the optic nerve. The optic nerve
connects to the brain. When light stimulates the
retina, the message is sent to the brain by the optic
nerve. The brain interprets and forms and image
that you see.
How do you take care of your eye?
Eyes should be used and taken cares of
properly.
 Eat Vitamin A rich food to make our eyes
healthy.
 Limit viewing time to television,
cellphones, tablets and other gadgets that
strain the eyes.
 Use eye glasses to reduce glare and present
dust from entering the eyes.
 Do not rub the eyes.
 Visit a doctor when your vision become
blurred.
 Have an eye check-up when necessary for
diagnosing eye detects like
nearsightedness and astigmatism.
 When given corrective lenses, use these as
directed by an ophthalmologist, eye
specialist.
2. The Ear
The ear lets us identify sounds around us.
It is the organ in the body that lets us hear. We
hear because the outer ear collects sound waves
which travel to the ear canal in the air. The
eardrum vibrates and pushes the middle ears
three small bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup).
From there, the sound receptors in the cochlea
filled with fluid produce vibration as the sound
waves pass through the inner ear. The nerve
transmits the stimulus and is interpreted into the
brain. We can then determine what we hear. The
ear also helps us maintain balance.
What are the ways by which we can take care of
our ears?
 Being deaf can be inherited but some
people are deaf due to illnesses and inadequate ear
care. We can prevent some forms of deafness.

3. The Nose
The nose makes us smell. There are
receptors in the nose that are stimulated by
perfume, coffee brew, decaying trash, burning
paper, or chicken stew.
How does odor reach your nose?
Odor or smell produced by perfume, for 5. The Skin
example, diffuses or moves in the air and once it
The skin is all over the human body. It
reaches the two openings of the nose or nostrils, it
protects the inner body parts from exposure to
stimulates the smell receptors along the nasal
harmful substances and even germs. The skin
cavity. The stimulus is carried to the brain by the
enables us to detect sensation. Temperature,
olfactory nerve and is interpreted.
pressure and pain. There are receptors in the skin
There are two body sense organs that have that detect stimuli. For example, when you are
special features. These are the tongue and the skin. wounded, you feel pain because the pain
The tongue is a muscular organ located inside the receptors react to the injury and feeling the pain
mouth. It is covered by moist pink tissue called will tell us that something has to be done with the
muscosa. All over the surface of the tongue are wound. Hot and cold air or water can be detected
tiny bumps called papillae where the taste buds by temperature receptors. Our skin is also
are located. sensitive to touch. A light comforting touch by
your mother makes you smile even when you sick.

4. The Tongue
Taste is usually associated with smell.
When you have stuffy nose, you say that the good
is of bad state. The taste receptors can detect
chemicals in substances just like the smell
receptors. The receptors are located in the taste
buds of the tongue. There are four primary types
of taste-sweet, bitter, sour, and salty. Some are
combinations of several primary tastes.
How can we taste food?
Food must first be dissolved by our saliva
when we eat. This will be detected by the taste
receptors and interpreted by our brain, then we
can distinguish one taste from another.
How do we take care our tongue?
Enumerate ways to care and protect our
tongue.
 Unit Two: Human Major Body Organs
The Human anatomy was studied as early
as the 16th century by physicians like Andreas
Vesalius. Knowledge of the human anatomy and
physiology is important in the treatments of
ailments that affect or body, and how to maintain
a healthy and strong body. The major body organs
are parts of the complex body system of a human
being. An organ is a group of two or more
different tissues that work together and perform a
certain function. In the study of sense organs, the
skin for example is composed of different tissues
to perform its function as a sense of touch.
Major Body Organs
1. The Human Brain
The brain is located in the head of our
body. The head is covered by hair and the brain is
protected by the skull. The brain is the control
center of the vital activities for survival including
responses to stimuli, emotions, learning abilities
and talents. The brain is divided into three parts:
the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
The cerebrum is the largest part and has
the brain centers that control though processes,
speech, motor, touch, pressure, smell, hearing,
vision, and facial recognition. Generally, the right
half of the cerebrum controls the left side of the
body while the left side of cerebrum controls the
right side of the body.
The second largest part of the brain, the
cerebellum controls muscles coordination,
balance, and normal body posture. When
mountain climbing, the cerebellum receives
signals that are transmitted to the cerebrum and
direct movements of the arms, hands, legs, and
other parts of the body.
The brainstem connects the brain to the
spinal cord. It has several parts: the midbrain,
pons and medulla oblongata. The midbrain
contains relay station of neurons and reflex
centers for involuntary actions. The hypothalamus
in the midbrain internal balance such as water and
blood pressure. The pons connects the who halves
of the cerebellum and links the cerebral cortex to
the medulla. Functions like heartbeat, breathing,
and sneezing are regulated by the medulla. We
can keep our brain healthy by eating balanced diet
and avoiding concussion from fall or blow in the
head. A blood clot or narrowing of blood vessels
may result in stroke. Brain parts may be damaged
resulting in Alzheimer’s disease, with symptoms
like losing memory.
2. The Heart
The heart is located at the center of the
chest cavity below the bone called sternum. It is
hollow muscular organ about the size of your fist,
yet a powerful part of your body in the circulation
of blood that carries nutrients from small
intestines to body cells as well as in the transport
and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. It is
an organ covered by a double walled sac called
the pericardium.
The heart has four chambers, the
ventricles are the lower chambers and the atria
(or auricles) are the upper chamber. The two side,
left and right are divided by a septum. A valve
separates so that there will be no backflow of the
blood. Blood vessels such as superior and
inferior vena cava, aorta, pulmonary artery
and pulmonary vein are connected to the heart
chambers. The right atrium receives blood from
the large blood vessels, the veins from the upper
parts of the body (superior vena cava) and from
the lower parts (inferior vena cava). The ventricles
are involved in pushing the blood to the lungs
through the pulmonary vein and other parts of the
body through the aorta.
 Remember that blood in the heart flows in
one-way direction only. One of the major causes
of death in modern times is heart attack. Avoiding
tobacco smoking and choosing food with good
cholesterol can help reduce cases of heart
disorders.

4. The Liver, Stomach and Small

3. The Lungs
The lungs are organs involved in breathing
which fill most of the chest cavity. The two lobes,
right and left are protected by the rib cage. The
bronchus that connects to the traches or windpipe
branches into each lobe of the lung. Inside each
love the bronchioles end in numerous tiny air
sacs, the alveoli. Inside the alveoli are tiny blood
vessels, the capillaries where actual exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide take place. An adult
lung can hold up to 6 liters of air but during quite
breathing only 0.5 liters is exchanged. During
strenuous exercise, more air is involving in the
exchange but the lungs always hold about a liter
of air keeping the lungs partially inflated. The
lungs do not have muscles to support its breathing
function. A sheet of muscle, the diaphragm
worked in breathing.
The lungs may be affects by severe
smoking, and germs such as those that cause
tuberculosis, and pneumonia among others. We
can take care our lungs by limiting exposure to
pollutants in the air by using face mask, avoiding
the area where there is smoking, and exercising
regularly to allow the lungs to work efficiently.
Intestines
The liver, stomach and small intestines are
important body organs in making foods that we
eat available to the different parts of the body.
These organs are found in our abdominal cavity.
The liver is a lobed, large internal body organ. Its
principal function is to produce bile that is
important in breaking fats into droplets. Bile is not
an enzyme. From the liver, the bile is stored in the
gall bladder before it is released in the small
intestine. The stomach is an enlarged, muscular
sac with thick walls that can expand when full or
contract when almost empty. Food chewed in the
mouth moves through esophagus and reaches the
stomach through contraction. When chewed food
enters the stomach, a valve closes to stop the
backward flow of food.
Muscles in the walls of the stomach
secrete gastric juices such as pepsin that acts on
protein and hydrochloric acid that provides an
acidic content. Mechanical and chemical digestion
occur for about four hours producing chime. The
small intestine is connected to the stomach and
chime is completely digested as it moves in the
long tube. The nutrients from the digested food
are absorbed by the inner fingerlike projections
called villi along the walls of the small intestine.
Capillaries or small blood vessels transport the
nutrients to different body parts.

5. Kidneys
We have a pair of kidneys, located at the
back of the body cavity above the hipbones. The
kidneys look like a pair of bean seeds on each side
of the body. Each kidney has millions of
nephrons, with highly coiled tubes and capillaries
that filters the blood and forms urine. Kidneys not
only excrete substances in oversupply but also
regulate the presence of substances in the blood.
Some disorders of kidneys are formed stones or
crystals of minerals that block the movement or
urine. Surgical removal of kidney stones may be
needed to allow the kidneys to function well.
Kidney failure results from unfiltered blood which
may require dialysis. Bacterial infection may
result swelling of the nephrons, a condition known
as nephritis.
6. The Bones and Muscles
Bones are part of our skeleton. The major
bones are the skull (bones or the head and face),
the backbones or the spinal column, the 12 pairs
of ribs, the hip bones, and bones in our arms
and legs. Bones have water, protein and minerals.
The living tissues if the bones are the bones cells,
blood vessels, cartilages, fatty tissues and nerves.
A person who slipped or fell from the
stairs may be asked by a doctor to have a bone x-
ray to make sure there are no fractures.
The white areas in the film are bones and
the doctor may be able to tell us if there was
damage on parts that hit the ground. Many people
suffer from bone damage due to accidents in
climbing, extreme running and even in sports. We
can make our bones strong by taking foods and
drinks rich in phosphorus, calcium, and Vitamin
D. Regular exercise, exposure to early morning
sunlight, and maintaining good posture make our
bones healthy.
Muscles either attached to the bones
(skeletal muscles), found in walls of many internal
organs (smooth), and muscles that makes up the
heart (cardiac). The muscles of the legs and arms
are voluntary muscles because you can control
their movements as when you swim, walk, write
or pick up things. However, your heart muscles
are involuntary, because the heart bets without
conscious effort. The major human muscles are
also those found in your face that moves the jaw,
muscles that allow you to rotate you thigh. Some
disorders of the muscles are the painful muscles
are the painful muscle cramps usually in the legs,
the reason why players have to warm up before
the game. Too much exercise or prolonged
swimming also bring pain. Athletes prevent
muscles injury by wearing proper shoes, clothes
and protective equipment. Muscles and bones
enable us to move from one place to another.
Unit Three: Human Reproductive
System
The reproductive system is a collection of
internal and external organs—in both males and
females—that work together for the purpose of
procreating. Due to its vital role in the survival of
the species, may scientists argue that the
reproductive system is among the most important
systems in the entire body.
All plants and animals need to reproduce
to keep kind going. But how does it happen in us
humans? The organ system of the human body
that is responsible for producing the young or
children is called the reproductive system.
Reproduction is the process by which living
things make new individuals of the same kind.
Humans reproduce through the reproductive
system, a system or organs working together. Both
male and female reproductive systems are
involved in producing new individuals.
Background Information on Human
Reproductive System
The Male Reproductive System

The Female Reproductive System

Unit Four: Human Organ System at

Work
The human organ system is complex.
You’ve learned that the human body consists of
trillions of cells, with various sizes, shapes, and
functions. A group of cells with similar structure
and function form tissues. Tissues comprise
organs, and several organs comprise the organ
systems.

Integumentary System
It is the first-line defense of the body
which is composed of the skin, hair, nails, sweat,
oil glands, and nerves. It has a major role in the
maintenance of the internal body conditions or
homeostasis but also performs the following
functions:
1. Protects the body against injury, infection
and fluids loss;
2. Acts as protective barrier, that keeps our
body free from the intrusion of foreign
materials, microorganisms;
3. Aids in temperature regulation; and
4. Helps in the elimination of waste products.
Bones are made up of dense connective
tissues which are important in the body’s
movement, protection of the various organs of the
body, production of red and white blood cells, are
storage of minerals. The ligament is the fibrous
tissue that connects bones with other bones. Bones
are supposed to last a lifetime but sometimes they
are injured like when we fall or slide causing bone
fracture or sprain ligaments and tendons. Arthritis
and osteoporosis are diseases that affect our
skeletal system among the elderly.

Skin is important in thermoregulation,

sensations, protection, and production of Vitamin
D. it is divided into three layers: epidermis,
dermis, and subcutaneous layer. The epidermis
is the outermost layer of the skin. Dermis lies
immediately after the epidermis consisting of
blood vessels, sweat glands, and hair roots. Sweat
glands collect water and waste products (sweat)
from the bloodstream.
The subcutaneous layer contains adipose
tissues that cushion the delicate organs beneath
the skin and maintains body temperature. Nails,
claws, and horns are called skin derivatives.
Sebaceous glands in the hair shaft secrete the oil Functions of Skeletal System
coating.
1. Provide points of attachment to many soft
tissues, muscles and ligaments in the body.
2. Provide support to the body.
3. Provide rigidity and body shape.
4. Protects the soft and delicate internal
organs of the body.
5. Provide protection for internal organs like
Skeletal System heart, brain, and lungs.
6. Body movement is possible because of
The skeletal system is composed of bones, joints (points where two bones meet or
cartilage and joints which serve as the framework where bones join a cartilage.)
of the body. It is divided into two groups; the
axial and appendicular. The axial skeleton is
consisting of the skull, backbone, ribs, and
sternum. The appendicular skeleton is consisting Muscular System
of pectoral girdles, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and Movement of an organism is due to the
lower limbs. contradiction and relaxation of muscles. Based on
the action, muscles are classified as either by saliva, sticky fluid that bins food particles
involuntary (function is not controlled) and together into a soft mass.
voluntary (under the control).
For us to use our arms, our skeletal
muscles contract to move a bone, and when the
muscle relaxes, the bones return to its original
position and the muscle spasms and progressive
weakening and frequent tiring of muscles. Regular
exercises, a healthy diet rich in minerals and
proteins, avoiding overstressing of muscles will
help us make our muscles healthy.

Functions
1. Movement and locomotion through its
direct connection with the skeletal system.
2. Maintenance of posture.
3. Cardiac muscle pumps blood.
4. Smooth muscles aids digestion.

The esophagus is a long narrow pipe that

Digestive System
It is a system responsible for breaking
down large organic molecules into smaller
particles that the body can use as a source of
energy. It is also responsible for the absorption of
digested food for distribution to the different cells.
Then the undigested food will be excreted by the
organs of the digestive system. The mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine make up the alimentary tract of the
digestive system. Accessory organs such as the
pancreas, liver, and the gall bladder help in
digestion. Mouth or oral cavity is a specialized
organ for receiving food where food is moistened
transport or pushes (peristalsis) the soft mass of
chewed food called bolus and liquid from the
mouth to the stomach. The stomach has a valve-
like ring of muscle surrounding its opening called
the cardiac sphincter which pushes the bolus into
the stomach. Layers of stomach muscle contract,
the bolus of food is mixed with gastric to form a
soupy liquid called chyme. The small intestine is
where the final digestion of all the nutrients take
place and also where all the nutrients from the
food are absorbed. It is divided into three sections:
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Its inner surface
contains numerous fingerlike projections called
villi. The large intestine is also known as the
colon where water from the undigested food is
absorbed. It is divided into sections ascending,
transverse, and descending. The last part of the
large intestine is a finger-like structure called an
appendix or cecum.
Our digestive system may be infected by
germs that cause diarrhea, vomiting, and cholera.
We must clean and cook properly the food that we
take. Washing hands with soap and water before
and after eating must be a habit. The water that we
drink must be free of germs and parasites. Do not
eat spoiled foods. Drink plenty of water.
Circulatory System
This system circulates blood and other
essential nutrients throughout the body. It
transports lymph, hormones, and gases. It also
transports the wastes products of metabolism to
the excretory organs. It has three main parts –
heart, blood, and blood. Blood is the circulating
fluid of the circulatory system. It has an iron-
containing protein molecule called hemoglobin,
which is responsible for the blood’s deep red color
and facilities transportation of oxygen and other
respiratory gases to tissues. Blood vessels are
tubular channels that transport blood throughout
the body.
Blood Vessels
1. Arteries are blood vessels that carry
oxygenated blood away from the heart to
the cells, tissues, and organs of the body
except for pulmonary arteries that carry
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the
lungs.
2. Veins are blood vessels that carry
deoxygenated blood toward the heart
except for pulmonary veins that carry
oxygen-rich blood from the lungs top the
left atrium of the heart.
3. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessel
that are responsible for the interchanges of
water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many
other nutrients and waste chemical
substances between the blood and
surrounding tissues.
One of the blood diseases is anemia, where too
little oxygen flows resulting in weakness.
Leukemia (cancer of the blood), results from the
release of immature cells by the bone marrow.
Cardiovascular diseases include hypertension and
atherosclerosis which are prevalent among the
elderly. There is a relationship between cardio-
respiratory high-risk factors such as smoking,
obesity, poor diet, lack of physical exercise,
stressful activities, drinking alcohol to poor health.
Habits that lead to healthy body systems are
regular exercise, eating a balanced diet, no
prohibited drugs, and smoking. Having regular
medical and dental check-ups is also necessary.
Nervous System
The nervous system regulates and
coordinate the body’s responses to changes in the
internal and external environment. It has two
major divisions: Central Nervous System (CNS)
and the Peripheral Nervous System. The CNS
collects information from the sensory receptors
and does the processing of the information. It has
two parts: the spinal cord and the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System sends
information processed in the CNS to the different
body parts. It consists of nerves connecting the
brain and spinal cord to the sensory organs,
muscles, and glands through the pathways. It is considered as the waste product of metabolism
divided into two divisions: a somatic nervous (exhalation). During inhalation, the diaphragm
system that controls both reflex and voluntary contract (the sheet of muscles that separates the
actions; and autonomic nervous system which thoracic cavity). During exhalation, the muscles
regulates the body’s internal environment, glands relax and the volume of the thoracic cavity
heart muscle, and smooth muscles. decreases thereby causing the air to rush out.
The brain is the command center of the
body which monitors all the conscious and
unconscious process of the body, coordinates
various organs of the body, and controls all the
voluntary movements in the body. It is divided
into three segments: forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain. The spinal cord is responsible for
relaying all the impulses, information, and
sensations.
The nervous system may be affected by
germs as in the case of meningitis, acute
inflammation of the meninges, or the covering of
the membranes of the brain and spinal cord. It
could result in loss of hearing, vision, and changes
in the child’s thinking and doing tasks. Upper Respiratory Tract
Poliomyelitis due to viral infection affecting the 1. Nose is the organ through air is inhaled
spinal cord may result in paralysis. A nerve may and exhaled. It filters, moistens, and heats up the
be inflamed due to injury. Migraine, a serve air that is inhaled before it passes to the pharynx.
headache is common when a person is under stress
or with hormonal imbalance during the menstrual 2. Pharynx is located behind the nasal and oral
period among women. Epilepsy brings about cavities which facilitate passage of air to the
seizures when one cannot control the muscles. trachea.
Among the elderly, Alzheimer’s disease brings
about progressive loss of memory and intellectual 3. Larynx connects trachea with laryngopharynx.
disabilities. Head injuries from accidents can It is made up of cartilage and also known as a
cause fracture of the skull, concussion, and sound box.
bleeding. Tumors may also originate in the brain
bringing disturbances in various functions. 4. Epiglottis is a part of the larynx, a flap-like
Wearing a seatbelt when in motor vehicles structure that covers the glottis. It is a cartilage
reduces the risk of injury to the body in case of that prevents food from entering the respiratory
accidents. Wearing a helmet for motorbike riders tract when swallowing.
must be followed, especially on national roads.
Avoiding prohibited drugs, tobacco, alcoholic
drinks and stress, washing hands properly, and
Lower Respiratory Tract
having vaccinations for poliomyelitis and eating a
balanced diet make us healthy. 1. Trachea or windpipe is a tube-like structure
with a tough covering that lies in the anterior of
the esophagus. It moistens the air and facilities its
Respiratory System passage. It branches into two tube-like structures
called bronchi.
It is responsible for the gaseous exchange
which involves the process of breathing. The gas 2. Bronchi are tubes that allow passage of airflow
exchange involves the absorption of oxygen gas into the lungs.
from the environment (inhalation) and the removal
of carbon dioxide from the body because it is
3. Lungs are a pair of conical organs found in the
pleural cavities which house the bronchi. They are
subdivided into numerous tubes called
bronchioles. Each bronchiole ends with numerous
air sacs called alveoli.

4. Alveoli are the basic functional units that

facilitate gaseous exchange.

5. Diaphragm plays an important role in

breathing: contraction results into an expansion of
the thoracic cavity allowing air to rush in; and
relaxation makes the thoracic cavity smaller
expelling the air out of the body.