P H I L O S O PH Y OF AU GU S TE CO MT E

L . L E VY B RU H L -

m’
a i tre (le C onfef enees P I z z losop/z z e 62 la F des L etlres
’ H

M ae a cu lté

de l U n z o ersz te de P
H '
’
a ris,

d lE
'

P f co /e lz ore des S ciences polz tz g u es

'
’ ‘
'

ro esse zer ,

A U T H O RI S E D T RA NS L A T] O N

TO WH IC H IS P RE F I ! E D

A N I NT R O DU C T I O N
BY

F RE DE R I C H A RRIS O N , M A . .

H o n o rary F ellow o f Wa d/m m C o lleg e , O xfo rd

fio nl wn
S WA N '

SO NNE NS C H EI N CO . L IM .

PA T E RNO S T E R S QU A RE
1 90 3
 MR . F RE DE R I C H A RRIS O N

TH u b lic at io n in of P r o fe sso r L ev y B ruhl s

’
E p 1 900 -

v o l u m e T /z e P /z z losopfiy of A ug uste C om te was an

'

e v e n t in t h e h ist o ry o f t h e P o s it iv e m o v e m e n t T he .

e m in e n t p o s it io n in t h e U n iv e r s ity o f P a r is and in
r e c e nt p h il o so p h ic al h ist o r y t h at is h e l d b y P r o f L evy .

B r uh l g a v e g r e at in t e r e st an d im p o r t an c e to a
s y s t e m a t ic j u dg m e n t fr o m h is pe n su c h a s t h e p r e s e n t

w o rk . T h e c o m m e m o ra t iv e fe st iv al o f C o m t e h e l d
t h is y e a r w h e n t h e s t at u e in t h e P l a c e de la S o rb o nn e
,

was u n v e ile d b y th e M inis t e r o f War in p r e se n c e o f ,

a n in t e r nat io nal g at h e r ing o f de l e g a t e s fr o m th e

c iv il ise d w o rl d h as c al l e d fr e sh a tt e nt io n to th e l ife
,

w o rk o f th e p h il o so p h e r wh o die d 4 5 ye ar s ag o A c .

c o rding ly a t r a nsl a t io n o fP r o fe sso r L evy B ru hl s b o o k

’
-
,

was u r g e n t l y de m an de d Wh e n I was in v it e d to add

.

t o t h is tr a n s l a t io n w h ic h I c an c o nfide n t l y r e c o m m e n d
,

t o st u de n t s o f p h il o s o p h y a sl ig h t in t r o du c t o r y e ssay
, ,

I p ro p o se d to u se a p ie c e w h ic h I wr o t e o n t h e
p ub l ic at io n o fth e F r e n c h w o rk I t app e a r e d in T h e “
'

S p e a k e r (1 4 A p r il 1 9 00
, , a n d a s I se e no r e a so n t o
,

m o dify m y o p inio n o f t h is m ast e rl y b o o k I l e a v e it ,

 Note 53 1 F re de r ic H a rr i son

ne a rl y as t h e n wr itt e n I m ay add th at th e l e ar ne d
.

P r o fe sso r was a m e m b e r o fth e I n t e r nat io nal C o m m itt e e

w ith m any e m in e n t r e p r e se n tat iv e s o fth e g o v e r n m e nt
o f F r an c e an d o f th e U n i v e r sit ie s o f th e O ld and Ne w

Wo rl d w h ic h in M ay l ast raise d th e m o nu m e n t to
,

A ug ust e C o m t e in P ar is .

P r o fe sso r L evy B r uh l fo l l o w e d u p h is H istory of

-

M ode r n P /z ilosofifiy i n F ra nce b y a s ub st ant ial w o rk

o n th e p h il o so p h y o f A u u st e C o m te I t f orms a
g .

vo l um e o f th e B i o/iot/ i i loso / ie C ontem

’
z e ue ae P /
g p i

ro in o; w h ic h h as a l r e ady de v o t e d f r t h r w rk
p o o u o e o s

to t h e P o sit iv e P h il o so p h y I t is as w e l l t o p r e m ise
.

t h at t h is t r e at is e de al t s o l e l y w ith th e p/z ilosopéy n o t ,

w ith th e p o l ity o r any p a r t o f th e r e l ig io u s s c h e m e o f

,

C o m te . P r o fe sso r L evy B r uh l wr it e s as a st ude n t

-
,

b u t n o t as an adh e r e n t o f A ug us t e C o m t e H is .

e n t ir e w o rk is r at h e r an e xpo sit io n n o t a r e fu t a ,

t io n o r a cr it ic is m o r an adv o c ac y o f C o m t e s
, ,
’

p h il o so p h ic al sy st e m B ut it m ay b e said at o n c e t h at
.

n o o n e ab r o ad o r a t h o m e c e r t a in l y ne it h e r M ill n o r
, ,

L e w e s n o r S p e n c e r n o r C a ir d h as so t r u l y g r asp e d
, , ,

a n d a s s im il a t e d C o m t e s ide as as M L evy B r uh l h as
’
-
.

do ne .

I n h is I n trodu ct ion M . L evy

B r uh l v e r y cl e a rl y
-

s t at e s th e s c o p e o f h is w o rk a nd h is o wn g e ner a l
,

a tt it u de H e t r a c e s th e o r ig in o f C o m t e s p h il o so p h y
’
.

in t h e m e n t al e ffe r v e s c e n c e o f t h e fir s t g e ne r at io n o f
t h e p r e se nt c e n t u r y t o w a r ds a r e o r a n isa t io n o fs o c ie ty
g ,
 Note by F reder ci H a r r iso n v ii

a ft e r th e up he a v al le ft b y th e R e vo l ut io n and its
c o nse q ue n c e s H e c o rr e c t l y s t at e s th e r e l at io n o f S t
. .

S im o n t o C o m t e as b e ing t h at o fan init ial s t im u l u s .

T h e c ar dinal diffe r e nc e b e t w e e n C o m t e and all th e

so c ial ist s and f o u n de r s o f so c ial and r e l i io us U t o p ias
g
c o nsist e d in t h is t h at C o m t e saw th e ne c e ssity o f a
,

n e w s y st e m o f ph il o so p h y a s th e indispe nsab l e pre

l im inar y to any r e o rg anisat io n o fso c ie ty I n 1 8 2 4 at .

,

th e ag e o f t w e n ty six C o m t e wr o t e -
, Dis c ussio ns
ab o u t inst it u t io ns are pu r e f o l l y u n t il th e s ir it u a l re
p
”
c o nst it u t io n o f so c ie ty is e ffe c t e d o r m u c h adv an c e d .

T h e c o ns t r u c t io n o f an in t e l l e c t u al r e o rg an isat io n ,

b e fo r e any so c ial r e st o r a t io n was po ssib l e o cc upie d ,

t w e n ty o r t h ir ty y e ar s o f C o m t e s l ife A nd wh e n h e ’
.

O p e ne d h is P olity o r so c ial and r e l ig io us s c h e m e th e

“

, ,

c o ndit io ns h ad m u c h c h ang e d : th e p u b l ic and i ts

in t e r e st s w e r e n o l o ng e r w h at t h e y h ad b e e n in
1 82 0- 30 .

M L evy B r uh l
. c t iv e l y disp o se s o f th e o bj e c t io n
-
ef
fe
o f L itt r é t o w h ic h M ill g a v e c o u n t e nan c e
,
t h a t th e ,

P olity w it h t h e w h o l e o f C o m t e s se c o n d o r s o c ia l
’

sy s t e m was in c o n t r adic t io n w it h h is fir s t and

,

p h il o so p h ic sy s t e m as p r o p o u nde d in th e P /z ilosop/zy .

A s M L ev y B r uh l p r o v e s t h e s ix Op uscules dat ing

.
-
,

fr o m 1 8 1 9 t o 1 8 2 6 so m e y e a rs b e fo r e th e C ou rs w h ic h
, ,

o n l y b e g an in 1 8 3 0 a n d o c c u ie d t w e l v e y e ar s c o n t ain
'

p ,

in g e r m th e s c h e m e u l t im at e l y e l ab o r at e d in th e
P olitiq u e fr o m 1 8 5 1 t o 1 8 54
, B e side s t h is th e .
,
 Note o
y F re a e r c
’
i H a rrison

L ette rs to M ill , w h ic h M . L evy -

B r uh l e di e dt in 1 8 99,
and th e L etters to Va lat wh ic h are l ong ant e c e de nt
,

t o th e P olitique s h o w t h e sa m e o v e r n in d i n
, g g e s
g .

T o th e u nity o f C o m t e s do c t r ine M L evy B r uh l

’
-
. .

b e a r s e m p h at ic t e s t im o n y:
H is w h o l e l ife was th e m e t h o dic al e xe c ut io n o f
his p r o g r a m m e H e had b ut o ne
sy s t e m ,
no t t wo F ro m th e
. Op uscu les o f h is .

t w e n t ie t h y e a r to th e S yn t/z ese o fh is l ast y e ar it is

, ,

th e de v e l o p m e n t o f o ne a nd t h e sa m e c o n c e pt io n .

M L evy B r uh l t h e n e xpl ains t h at w h il st re c o g nis

.
-
,

ing th e e nt ir e c o h e r e n c e o f C o m t e s c o l l e c t iv e l ab o u r s
’

h e pr o p o se s to c o nfine h is p r e se n t s t udy t o th e e arl ie r

a nd p r in c ip a l w o rk th e P n ilosop/zy w h ic h in M L ev y
, , .

B ruh l s o p in io n is th e do m inan t a n d m o r e fr u it fu l
’

c o m p o sit io n .

T h is h e r e g a r ds as th e r e p r e se nt at iv e w o rk o f t h e
n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y as sh o w n b y th e int e l l e c t ual h is t o r y
,

o f th e p e r io d .H e p o in t s t o it s in flue n c e o n t h o ug h t
in E ng l an d in E u r o p e an d in A m e r ic a
, , I t w il l su r .

p r ise m a n y p e r so n s t o l e a r n t h a t in M L e v y B ruh l s .
-
’

O p in io n t wo e m ine nt F re n c h wr it e r s wh o assu r e dl y ,

ne it h e r w e r e n o r w e r e su p o se d t o b e
, p P o sit iv is t s , ,

“
h av e do ne m o r e fo r th e diffusio n o f th e ide as and
m e th o d of C o m te t ha n L itt r é an d all th e o t h e r
”
P o sit iv ist s t o g e t h e r T h e s e t wo a re T aine and R e nan
.
,

m u c h as th e dif f d fr m C m t c t l c h m ’
d
'

y e re o o e s a u a s e e a n

do c t r ine s . R e nan inde e d s po k e o f C o m t e as de st in e d

 Note by F re de r ic H a r r iso n ix

to p ro v e o ne o f th e typ ic al na m e s o fth e c e n t u r y T h e .

r e s e n t wr it e r r e m e m be r s R e na n say in t h i w it h
p g o m a

m o s t g e nial w e l c o m e I t o o a m a b e l ie v e r in t h e
,

r e l ig io n o fh u m an ity H ist o r y r o m an c e p o e t r y say s

.
, , ,

M L evy B r u h l h a v e all r e fle c t e d th e p o sit iv e s p ir it

.
-
,

C t m po ra ry so c io l o gy is th e cr e a t io n o fC o m t e ;
on e

s c ient ific p sy c h o l o y in a c e r t ain de r e e h as s p r u n

g g
, g
fr o m h im I t is no t rash t o c o ncl ude t h a t th e
.

P o sit iv ist P h il o so ph y e xp r e sse s so m e o f th e m o s t

c h arac t e r ist ic t e nde n c ie s o fth e ag e .

I t is cl e ar t h at if M L evy B r uh l is in n
, . o s e nse a n
-

adh e r e n t o f C o m t e h e is a m o s t s y m p a t h e t ic and dis

,

c e r ning m ast e r o fth e p o sit iv e sy st e m .

M L evy B r uh l o p e ns h is ana l y s is o f C o m t e s
’
-
.

p h il o s o p h y b y e xa m in ing h is m ain c o n c e pt io n s

aw o f th e t h r e e st a t e s
()1 T h e l t h e o l o
g ic a l m e t
,
a ,

p h y s ic al an d p o sit iv e t h r o u h w h ic h all h u m an ide as

,
g ,

p a s s ;
()
2 t h e C l assific a t io n o f t h e S c ie n c e s ;
(3 ) t h e

s c h e m e o f e ac h s c ie n c e in t u r n A n d h e cl o se s w it h
.

an e xpl anat io n o f th e g e ne r al do c t r in e s o f H u m an ity ,

as t h e c e n t r e o fh u m a n t h o ug h t f e e l ing a nd a c t i v ity
, ,

T h e law o f th e t h r e e s t at e s a nno u n c e d by C o m t e in
182 2 , is t h o r o ug h l y e xp l aine d and e nt ir e l y assim il at e d
b y M L evy B ruh l
.
-
I ts de m o nst rat io n h e t h in k s is
.
, ,

c o m p l e t e wh e n we r e c o g n ise t h at al t h o ug h m any ,

o r de r s o f ide as h a v e no t final l y r e a c h e d t h e ir p o sit i v e

s ta t e all o f t h e m e x h ib it t h e t e nde n c y t o th e
,
sa m e
x Note by F
’
r e ae rz c H a r r ison

e v o l u t io n t h e r e is no s ing l e instanc e o f a c o nc e p
, and

t io n o f a p o sit iv e sc ie n c e e v e r r e t r o g rading int o u n

v e r ifie d fig m e n t O f c o u r se th e t e r m s tneolog i cal an d
.

m e ta n sical h a v e b u nde r s t o o d in th e
py t o e s e n se

a do pt e d b
y C o m te — i e
“
a n t h r o p o m o r p h ic
. . and
“
h y p o
”

”
t h e t ic al a b ar e h yp o t h e sis w e a r ing a s c ie nt ific fo r m
, .

M L evy B r uh l h im s e l f r e g a r ds t h e law as irr e fu t ab l e

.
-

“
a nd o f c a p it a l i m p o r t an c e t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f th e
,

”
p o sit iv e syst e m .

O u r p r o fe sso r is e q u al l y c o n cl u siv e in h is e st i m at e
o f C o m t e s c l assific a t io n o f t h e s c ie n c e s H e q u it e
’
.

de m o l ish e s th e o bj e c t io ns m ade t o it b y M r H e r b e r t .

S p e n c e r in h is e ssay w it h t h at t it l e M L evy B r uh l . .
-

r e p e at s th e c r it ic is m s t o w h ic h S p e n c e r h as b e e n
e xp o s e d in t h is c o u n t r y a n d ab r o ad b y L itt r é L e w e s , ,

M ill and o t h e r s A n d h e h as n o diffic u l ty in sh o w ing

,
.

t h at M r S p e n c e r s o bj e c t io ns are due to h is v e r y sl ig h t
.
’

a c u ain t an c e w it h C o m t e s t e x t a n d h is o wn s u p e r fic ial
’

q ,

s t u dy o f t h e E ng l ish ab r idg m e nt s I n p r o p o sing a

.

cl assific at io n o f th e concrete s c ie n c e s M r S p e n c e r , .

e n t e r s o n a t as k w h ic h C o m t e dis t in c t l y r e p u dia t e s ,

a n d w h ic h o n o d r o u nds h e t r e at s as p h il o so p h ic al l y
g o g
i m p ra c t ic ab l e fo r p u r p o se s o f e v o l u t io na r y se q u e n c e ,

C o m t e s st r ic t l y r e la tive t h e o r y e x cl u de s s uc h a s c al e
’

o f conc re te s c ie n c e w h il s t S p e n c e r s absolu te th e o r y o f
’

th e u n iv e r s e fo rc e s h im t o a tt e m p t it in v a in I f it b e .

o bj e c t e d t h at C o m t e s a s c e n din s c a l e o f th e s c ie n c e s
’

g
is an t h r o p o c e n t r ic t h e answe r is t h a t w h e n r e aso n
, ,
 Note by F re der ic H a rri son xi

ab l y unde rst o o d a s a p h il o so p h ic de vic e fo r so r t ing

h u m an ide as no t as a s t at e m e n t o f absolu te t r u t h th e
, ,

“ ”
a n t h r o p o c e n t r ic a rr ang e m e n t o f h u m a n k n o wl e d e
g
is th e o n l y o n e w h ic h is at o n c e p o s sib l e and u se ful .

I t w o u l d n e e d a l o ng e ssay e v e n t o s k e t c h M L evy .

B ruh l s anal y s is o f C o m t e s c o n c e pt io n o f sc ie nce o f

’ ’

law and o f t h e s ix do m inan t s c ie n c e s;

, H e h as
t h o r o ug h l y ass im il at e d th e p o sit iv e s p ir it t h a t sc ien ce ,
‘

im p l ie s a c o o r dinat io n o f laws no t an e n c y cl o p ae dia

-
,

o ff a c t s t h at it is relat ive t o o u r p o w e r s o f o b s e r v a t io n
,

a nd r e aso n in a n d n o t a n a bso lu te e xp l a n a t io n o f t h e
g
u n iv e r s e in it se l f H e g o e s t h r o ug h th e s c ie n c e s
.
,

p h y s ic al so c ia l a nd m o ral in t u r n a s t r e a t e d b y
, , , ,

C o m t e a nd j u st ly e xp l ains t h at C o m t e n e v e r a tt e m pt e d
,

o r c o n c e iv e d a vaa e m e c u i n o r h an db o o k o f c o n t e m
’
-

p o rar
y s c ie n t ific k no wl e d e b ut a s c h e m e f
g , o r th e c o

o r dina t io n o f g e ne r a l ide as o f s c ie n c e A r e al .

“
p h il o so p h y o f th e s c ie n c e s is so m e t h ing w h o l l y
dis t in c t fr o m a c o m p e n diu m o fall th e s c ie n c e s— a t h ing
w h ic h in 1 8 4 0 was fa r l e ss p o ssib l e t h an it m ig h t b e
no w . C o n t r o v e r s ial ist s h a v e r e p r o a c h e d C o m t e w it h
t h e o b v io u s fa c t t h a t h is c o n cr e t e s c ie n c e is n o w s ixty

e a r s o ld I n de a l ing w it h t h e s e sh al l o w c r it ic is m s
y .
,

M L ev y B r uh l h as sh o w n h o w l itt l e able is a ny
'

-
.

n arr o w s p e c ia l is t t o u n de r s t and t h e ab s t r ac t c o nce

p
t io n s o fa r e a l p h il o so p h e r .

O n e o f th e m o s t c o m m o n o f t h e s e m is c o n c e p t io ns
“
is th e ig no r an t c h ar g e t h at C o m t e r e p u dia t e d p sy c h o
xii Note by F re de r ic H a r rison

l o g y in t h e se nse o f th e l aw s o fm an s int e l l e c t ual and

‘
’

”
m o r a l na t u r e “
P sycb olog ie as M L evy B r uh l sh o w s
.
, .
-
,

w h e n C o m t e wr o t e m e an t C o u s in s fut il e in t r o sp e c t io n
’

o f t h e eg o C o m t e c e r t ain l y r ej e c t e d t h a t as idl e as
.
,

do all c o m p e t e n t p sy c h o l o g ist s o f o u r t im e P sy c h o .

l o g y m e an ing th e l aw s o f m ind an d w ill was no t o nl y

, ,

a n in dis p e n sa b l e b as is o f C o m t e s s y s t e m b u t it s ra
’

t io nal s ys t e m at ic fo u ndat io n dat e s fr o m C o m t e s s ug

‘ ’

g e s t io n s H. is s ig n a l c o n t r ib u t io n t o p s y c h o l o
g y l ie s ,

n o t in h is do c t r in e o f it s p h y s io l o ic a l b as is b u t in h is
g ,

r e fe rr ing it t o so c io l o g y as its g u ide and insp ir at io n .

M L ev y B r uh l c o n cl ude s h is s t udy w it h a c o
.
-

o r dinat e t a b l e o f t w e l v e c o n t r ast e d p r o p o s it io n s o f th e

m e t ap hy s ic al a nd o fth e p o s itiv e s y st e m s r e s p e c t iv e l y .

T h e s e sh o w h o w sim p l e a n d ra t io na l a t r an s it io n is
t h at b e t w e e n P o sit iv is m and th e o l de r th e o l o g ic al and
m e t ap h y sic al h yp o t h e se s o f th e u n iv e rse and o f M an .

We w e l c o m e a b o o k w h ic h all p o sit iv is t s w il l r e g a rd
as fa ir l e a r n e d an d inst r u c t iv e a n d w h ic h all s t u de n t s
, , ,

o f p h il o so p h y m u s t r e a r d as a m as t e rl y s t u dy o f a
g
c o m p r e h e nsiv e s u bj e c t .

4 stb A n n ive rsary cle a tn o

f
o tb e
f C om te ,

(sth SE PTEM B E R, 1
 T RA NS L A T O RS
’
P RE F A C E

F IFT Y ye a rs h a v e no w e l ap se d s in c e A ug u st e C o m t e s ’

m o nu m e nt al w o rk th e C o u rs a o P /z ilosop/z ie P ositive
,
’
,

was fir s t in t r o du c e d t o E ng l ish r e ade r s b y M is s

H a rr ie t M a r t ine au B u t h e r w o rk was m u c h m o r e
.

t h an a t r an sl at io n I t wa s a c o n de n se d e xp o sit io n o f
.

C o m t e s do c t r ine s do ne w it h su c h m ast e r y t h at it
’

o b t a ine d t h e e m p h at ic a pp r o v a l o f C o m t e h i m se l f wh o ,

i n su c h m a tt e r s was n o t v e r y e a s il y s a t isfie d
, .

I n H arr ie t M art in e au s c as e b o t h th e s ub st an c e o f
’ '

t h e b o o k a n d t h e E ng l ish fo r m in w h ic h it wa s o f fe r e d
t o th e p u b l ic w e r e h e r w o rk I n t h e c a se o f t h e
‘

.
,

p r e s e n t v o l u m e W h il e a w o m an is o n c e m o r e re spo n
,

s ib l e f o r t h e t ra n sl a t io n t h e s u b s t a n c e o f th e b o o k
, ,

t h at is th e c o m p r e h e ns iv e e xp o s it io n o f C o m t e s ’

s y s te m in t h e l i h t o f all h is p u b l is h e d w o rk s is fr o m
g ,

t h e pe n o f P r o f e sso r L evy B r u h l a n d r e a de r s wh o
-
,

a re a c u ain t e d w it h H a rr ie t M a rt in e au s b o o k w il l b e
’

q
a ll t h e m o r e in a o s it io n t o a p p r e c ia t e th e im p o r t a n c e
p
o f t h is fr e sh c o n t r ib u t io n t o th e e l u c idat io n o f th e
t h o ug h t o f A ug u st e C o m t e .

We fe a r t h a t th e cl e arn e ss o f sty l e th e r ic h ne ss o f ,

e xp r e ss io n , th e p o w e r o f c o n de n se d t h o u g h t w h ic h
c h a r ac t e r ise o u r au th o r w il l b e fo u n d to h a v e b e e n
o ft e n w e a k e n e d ifn o t s o m e t i m e s al t o e t h e r o b l it e r at e d
, g ,

in t h is t r an s l a t io n T h e s t r ik ing s im pl ic ity o f t h e t e xt
.

a t fir s t de c e i v e d m e in t o t h e b e l ie f t h a t I c o u l d do

j u s t ic e t o I t I was o ft e n t e m pt e d to sa cr ific e t h e
.

l it e ral s e n se in o r de r t o p r e se r v e so m e o f th e g ra c e s
o f t h e o r i ina l
g Y. e t I h o p e to be f o r g i v e n fo r h a v ing

u n ifo r m l y p r e fe rr e d t o e rr t h r o u h t o o m u c h fa it h fu l
g
n e s s t o t h e l e tt e r M y s o l e o bj e c t h as b e e n t o e na b l e
‘

t h e E ng l ish r e a de r t o g e t a t t h e m e a n ing o f t h e t e xt .

B u t w h il e I h a v e o n l y t o o m u c h r e aso n t o s o l ic it
'

,
 f
’

x iv Tra nslator s P re a ce

t h e i n du l g e n c e o f m y r e ade r s c o ns c io u s a s I a m , o f
th e m any de f e c t s o f t h is t r an sl a t io n I fe e l t h a t n o ,

a p o l o y is n e e de d f o r b r ing ing t h a t o f w h ic h it is a
g
t ransl at io n w it h in th e r e a c h o f th e E ng l ish s p e ak ing -

p ub l ic .

We l iv e in t im e s wh e n th e in t im at e re l at io n b e t w e e n
t h e na t u r a l s c ie n c e s an d s o c ia l q u e s t io ns is in cr e as ing l y
fe l t O ld l andm ark s are disapp e ar ing ne w fo u nda
.
,

t io ns are b e ing l aid ne w p r o b l e m s are c o nst an t l y

,

a r isin e ne r at in d o u b t s a n d p e r p l e x it ie s fo r w h ic h
g g , g
t h e s o l u t io ns o fo t h e r da y s s u p p l y n o a de q u a t e a n sw e r .

M e an w h il e as th e fa c t s o f s c ie n c e r e v e al t o u s m o r e
,

o f th e c o n dit io n s o f h u m a n l ife we g iv e m o r e o r l e ss , ,

c o ns c io usl y a l arg e r p l ac e to so c io l o g y in o u r m e nt al
,

p r e o c c u p at io ns T h us r e n e w e d in t e r e st is b e ing fe l t
.

in th e wr it ing s o f th e F o u nde r o f th e S c ie n c e o f
S o c io l o g y T h e m o st c o n flic t ing s c h o o l s o f t h o ug h t
.

s t udy t h e w o rk s o f A u ust e C o m t e an d m an y a sk
g
wh o is t h a t m an w h o se ide as a pp e a r to c o n t ain a
cl e ar e r m e ssag e to o ur g e n e rat io n t h a n t h e y did t o h is
w ? F o r s u c h inq u ir e r s P r o fe s so r L evy B ruh l s
’
o n -

b o o k sh o u l d p r o v e s ing u l arl y us e fu l a nd t im e l y It .

is a p l a in inde p e nde n t a cc o u n t o f w h at C o m t e r e al l y
,

t aug h t wr itt e n b y o ne p o sse sse d o f t h e fu l l e s t q ual i

,

fic at io n s fo r su c h a t as k and no w o rk o f r e c e n t dat e ,

w ill e nab l e s t u de n t s t o u nde r s t and so cl e arl y th e

s o l u t io n i v e n b y th e F r e n c h p h il o s o p h e r t o t h e
g p e r

p le xin
g m o r al s o c ia l, an d r e l i io u s p r o b l e m s o f o u r
g ,

tim e .

H r
e e , as w h e r e il sag it de t o u t c o m p r e ndr e
l
e se
“ ’

n o n de t o u t a dm ir e r a n d P r o fe sso r L evy B r u h l is
,
-

h im se l f t o o m u c h o f a p h il o so p h e r t o fo rg e t t h a t
‘

o l de n r ul e b ut n e v e r t h e l e ss b h is fr e e in de p e n de n t
g ,y , ,

j u dg m e n t o f C o m t e s t e ach ing h e h e l p s u s t o r e al is e
’

t o w h at a n e xt e n t in t h e se day s C o m t e is ins p ir in g
, ,

m an y wh o are n o t p e rh a p s c o n sc io u s o f fo ll o w ing h im .

KA T H L EE N DE B EA U M O N T KL E I N
-
.
 C O NT E NT S

N o te by M r Fr e d e ric H ar ris o n
.

Transl at o r s Pr e fac e
’

I ntro du c ti o n by Pro fes s o r L evy Bruhl

-

B OOK I
.

C H A PTER ® —T h e Phil o s o phic al Pro bl e m

—T h e L aw o f th e Thre e S t ate s
I I I —T h e Cl assifi c ati o n o f th e S c i e nc e s
.

I V Sci e n c e
.
-

V — S c i e n ce (c o nti n u e d ) Ph e no m e na and L aws

.

V I —Sci e nc e (c o nti nu e d ) P o sitive L o gic

.

B OOK II .

I N T RO D U C TI O N—T h e Phil o s o phy o f th e S c i e nc e s

C H A P T E R I —M ath e m atics
.

I I —Astr o no my
'

I I I —Sc ie nc e s o f th e I no rg anic W o rld

.

I V —Bi o l o g y
.

V —Psych o l o gy
.

B OOK III .

C H APTER ® Transiti o n fro m A n im ality t o H u m anity

Art and L angu age
I I —G e ne ral C o nsid e r ati o n s o n S o ci al S c i e nc e
.

I I I —S o ci a1 St ati c s
.

I V —S o ci a1 Dy namics
—
.

V .T h e Phil o s o phy o f H ist o ry

 Vl
C on te n ts

B OOK IV .

C HAPTER I . T he Pri nc ipl e s o f Ethi c s

II . S o ci al Ethics
III . T h e Id e a o f H um an ity

C O N C LU S I ON
TH E PH I LOSOPHY OF A UGUSTE C OMTE .

I N TR O D U CT I O N .

I .

E E
V RY ne w syst e m o f phi l o s o phy h o w e ve r o rigi nal in
,

app e aran c e is m o r e o r l e s s dir e c tly re l at e d t o th e d o c tri ne s

,

whi c h h ave pre c e d e d it . But it is al s o c o nne c t e d with

m o re ge ne ral c o nditi o ns in a m an ne r n o l e s s cl o s e if no t ,

so imm e di at e ly o bvi o us . I t d e p e nds up o n a wh o l e se t o f

s o ci al c o nditi o ns T h e i nflu e n c e o f th e r e ligi o us p o liti c al
.
, ,

e c o no mic al,
i nt e ll e ctu al phe no m e na in a w o rd o f t h e co n
,

t e mp o rary m ilieu up o n thi s syste m is as i ndispu tabl e as its

o wn i n fl u e n c e up o n th e m ilieu . I t is the re fo re no t e no ugh t o
st udy it as a s e l f suffic ie nt wh o l e This wh o l e which is in
-
.
,

its e l f but a p art must b e re st o r e d to its pl ac e withi n th e

,

gre at e r wh o l e which al o ne e xpl ai n s its e ss e nti al ch arac t e ristics .

This rul e o f hist o ric al m e th o d which C o mt e lik e s to re c all

, ,

appli e s v e ry w e ll t o his o wn syst e m I n o rd e r to r e ach as

.

c o mpl e te an u nd e rst an di ng as p o ssibl e o f his d o ctri ne to ,

appr e ci at e e x actly its g e ne r al o ri e n t ati o n t o u n d e r st an d th e

,

imp o rtanc e which th e auth o r attach e s in it to thi s o r th at

p art th e study o f th e te xt wil l no t su ffi c e We must
, .
2 T /z e P b ilosopn
y f
o A ug u ste C om te

furth e r t ak e i nt o a cc o u nt th e histo ric al circumst an c e s in whi c h

t h e d o ctri n e fo u nd its birth t h e g e n e r al m o v e m e n t o f c o n
,

t e mp o r a ry id e a s and t h e m an ifo l d i n fl u e n c e s which h av e

,

r e acte d up o n th e mi n d o f th e phil o s o ph e r .

No w o ne gre at fact ab o ve all o th e rs d o mi nate s th e p e ri o d

, ,

i n which th e p o sitiv e phil o s o phy app e are d I t is t h e Fr e nch .

R e vo luti o n as C o mt e e xpre ssly st at e s : with o ut it ne ith e r th e

, ,

th e o ry o f pr o gr e ss no r c o n s e qu e ntly s o ci al sci e n c e n o r c o nse

, ,

qu e nt l y ag ai n p o sitiv e phil o s o phy w o uld h av e b e e n p o ssib l e .

Was it n o t m o r e o ve r i ne vit abl e th at this e xtr ao rdi nary s o ci al

, ,

uph e aval sh o uld by re fl e x acti o n h av e d e t e rmi ne d a v ast and

pro l o nge d m o v e m e n t in phil o s o phic al and p o litic al sp e c ul a
ti o n ? T h e e ffe c ts o f this re fl e x acti o n v ari e d acc o rd
ing to th e v alu e an d t h e o rigi n ality o f th e mi n ds which
e xp e ri e n c e d th e m .But in th e gr e at e st as in th e m o st
m e di o cre we r e c o g n is e i nfallibly c e rt ai n c o mm o n fe at ure s .

F o r i n st an c e m e n an d w o m e n in th e risi n g ge ne rati o n at th e
, ,

b e gi nn i n g o f th e ! I ! c e n tury n e ve r fail to put th e s am e

.
,

q ue sti o n t o th e ms e lve s Wh at s o ci al i nstituti o n s sh o uld b e

e st ab l ish e d aft e r t h e Re v o luti o n ? a n d by this all u nd e rst an d
,

n o t o n ly th e p o litic al fo rm o f g o v e r n m e n t but th e v e ry p r i n ,

c i le s o f s o ci al o rd e r : a pr o bl e m which app e ar e d as urg e n t

p
fro m th e prac tic al p o i n t o f V i e w as it was supre m e fro m th e ,

th e o re tic al p o i nt o f vi e w I t is t his pro bl e m in v a ri o us fo r m s

.

wh ic h pr e o c c upi e s Ch ate aubri an d a s w e ll as F o uri e r and

S ai nt Sim o n and J o s e ph de M aistre as w e ll as C o usi n and
-
,

C o mte .

A ll agr e e up o n th e first p o i nt We must r e c o n stru c t . .

o rg an ic p e ri o d must suc c e e d th e critic al p e rio d

“ ”
A n
w hich h as j ust c o m e to an e nd Acc ordi ng to S ai n t Sim o n s ’
.

striki ng e xpre ssi o n hum an ity is no t m ad e to i nh abit r ui ns

,
.

T h e r e v o luti o nary st o rm h ad b e e n so fo rmid abl e th e din so ,

d e afe n i ng th e so ci al b ack w ash so vi o l e nt th at no o ne e x actly

,
-
,

m e asur e d th e e f fe ct which h ad b e e n pro duc e d M any institu .

 I ntrodu ction
3

t io n s which h ad o n ly b ee n sh ak e n s e e m e d to b e o ve rthro w n .

A go o d p art o f th e o ld régim e h ad e ve n go ne thro ugh th e

c risis with o ut b e i n g t o o gr e atly d a m age d and h ad surviv e d , .

B ut this fact which was ve ry w e ll appre ci ate d by th e m e n o f

,

1 8 5 0 c o uld n o t ye t b e disc o v e r e d by th e first g e n e r ati o n o f

,

t h e c e n tury I t c o n sci e n ti o usly b e li e ve d th at th e o ld régim e

.

h ad crumbl e d al to ge th e r and th at th e task e ith e r o f r e st o ri n g

,

it o r o f ag ai n l ayi n g d o w n th e ve ry b as e s o f s o ci e ty b e l o nge d
,

t o it . I n t his t h e fir st g e ne r ati o n r e m ai ne d faithfu l t o th e spirit

o f th e R e v o l uti o n whi c h h ad c o n sid e r e d its e lf a s a n e ff
,
o rt to

i nstitute an e ntire ly ne w s o ci al and p o litic al syste m a th o ught ,

.

i n which th e civilis e d w o rld h ad sh ar e d No w in spit e o f .

,

t h e l ab o u r s o f th e r e v o luti o n a ry ass e mbli e s in spi te o f t h e ,

p o w e r a n d o f t h e gr e a t t al e n t which t h e C o n v e n ti o n h ad at its

c o mm an d this a mbiti o us h o p e h ad n o t b e e n r e alis e d

,
T he .

q u e sti o n r e m ai n e d Op e n a ft e r t h e Dire ct o ire an d aft e r th e

Empire Wh e n th e o ld régim e was supp o s e d to h ave b e e n
.

d e str o y e d h o w was s o c i e ty t o b e r e o rg an is e d
,

Thu s at th e o p e n i n g o f th e ! I ! c e ntury phil o s o phi c al

,
.
,

s p e cul ati o n was at first t o b e dir e c t e d t o w ards th e r e ligi o us an d

s o c i a l pr o bl e ms U nd o ubt e dly th e i nfl u e nc e o f th e uninte r

.

ru te d a dv an c e o f t h e p o sitiv e sci e n c e s was a ls o fe lt at t h e

p
s am e tim e A study o f A ugust e C o mte s syst e m c o uld ’
.

h ardly fail to re c o g n is e th e fact But e ve n with C o mt e .

, ,

s c i e ntifi c i nt e re s t h o w e v e r active it m ay b e is sub o rdi nat e d to

, ,

t h e s o ci a l i n t e re st Wh at h e asks o f phil o s o phy is th e

.

r ati o nal s e ttl e m e n t o f th e b as e s o f m o d e r n s o ci e ty Thus .

,

h e m e an s t o disc o ve r t h e e l e m e nts o f a r e ligi o n which c an

b e substitut e d t o C ath o licism wh o s e missi o n h e c o n sid e rs ,

a s at an e nd .

“
T he c e ntury R an k e h as s aid is e sp e ci ally a
! I! .
, ,
“

c e n tury o f r e st o r ati o n A d e e p s ayi ng which e x actly

”
.
,

e xpr e ss e s o ne o f t h e l e adi n g fe a tur e s in t h e his to ric a l physi

“

o g n o m y o f this c e n t u ry I t is pre cis e ly thus th at it was.

4 T ne P nilosofi/z v f g
oA u uste C o m te

c o nc e ive d by th o s e wh o i naugur at e d it S uch i nd e e d is th e .

m ai n te nd e ncy o f th e gre at e r n umb e r o f phil o s o phi c al

d o ctri ne s which h av e e xpre ss e d its m o st i ntim at e ch aract e r
istic s . O nly as is g e ne r ally th e c as e this re st o r ati o n abs o rb s
, ,

a nd c o n s o lid at e s a l a rg e p art o f th e r e sults a cquir e d du r1 ng

t h e crisis At th e s am e ti m e ne w pro bl e ms r ais e d e sp e ci ally

.
,

by t he d e ve l o pm e n t o f i ndus try in its l a rg e r asp e cts m ad e ,

cl e ar sighte d m e n fe e l th at t h e r e vo luti o n ary p e ri o d h o w e v e r

-
,

d e sirabl e it might b e to bri ng it to a cl o s e was re ally o nl y ,

b e gi nni ng .

L ik e m any c o nt e mp o rari e s August e C o mte th o ugh t

of h is
h ims e lf si ngl e d o u t fo r th e missi o n o f fo rm ul ati ng t h e pri n cipl e
o f s o c i a l r e o rg an is ati o n But this i s wh e re h e diffe rs fro m
“ ”
.

t he m E ach o f th e re fo rm e rs b e gi n s by pro p o si ng his o wn

.

s o l uti o n o fth e s o c i a l pro bl e m and all his e ffo rts o n ly t e nd to

,

j u stify it As this pro bl e m is t h e m o st urge n t o ne in th e i r

.

e y e s it is als o th e o n ly o n e which th e y h av e pu t dir e ctly to

,

the ms e lv e s No w this m e th o d acc o rdi ng t o C o mt e is a b ad

.
, ,

o ne ,
and in fo ll o wi n g it th e y c o urt c e r tai n failur e F or a .

s o c i al pro bl e m is such th at its s o luti o n c anno t b e o b tai ne d

imm e di at e ly ; o the r pro bl e ms m o re th e o re tic al in ch ar act e r
, ,

must b e s o lv e d b e fo re h an d I t is th e re fo r e th e s e which must

.

first b e d e alt with if we s e e k anythi n g e ls e th an th e l e ng th e n

,

ing o fth e hist o ry o f p o litic al dre ams a nd o f s o ci al chim e r a s .

“
I n stituti o n s C o mt e s ay s d e p e nd o n m o r als and m o rals
,
” “
, , ,

in th e ir tur n d e p e n d o n b e li e fs
, E v e ry sch e m e o fne w inst itu
.

t io n s will th e re fo r e b e us e l e ss so l o ng as m o rals h ave n o t b e e n

“
re o rg an is e d and so l o n g as t o r e ach this e nd a ge ne ral
”
, , ,

syst e m o fOpi n i o n s h as n o t b e e n fo u n d e d which are a cc e pt e d ,

by all mi nds as tru e as was fo r i n st anc e th e syste m o fC ath o lic

, , ,

d o gm a in Eur o p e 1 n t h e Middl e Ag e s Th e re fore e i th e r th e .

,
 I n trodu ction
5

so ci al pro bl e m admits o f n o s o luti o n—and C o m te d o e s no t

sto p at this p e ssimistic hyp o th e sis —o r t h e s o luti o n s o ught ,

fo r supp o se s th at a n e w phi l o s o phy sh all h av e b e e n pr e vi o usly

e st ablish e d .This is why C o m te Wish e s to b e at first o n ly a
phil o s o ph e r I n 1 8 2 4 h e wri te s I r e g ard all discussi o n s up o n
.
“

i nstituti o ns as pure no ns e ns e u n til th e spiritu al re o rg an is ati o n

,

o f so ci e ty h as b e e n b r o ught ab o ut o r at l e ast is v e ry f ar ,

a dv an c e d
”
.

C o m te s o rigi nali ty will t h e r e fo re lie in t ak ing fr o m sci e nc e

’

a nd phil o s o phy t h e pri n cipl e s up o n which d e p e n ds th e s o ci al

r e o rganis ati o n which is th e re al e nd o f his e ffo r ts Whi l e

,
.

h avi ng th e s am e aim as th e r e fo rm e rs o f his tim e h e will ,

fo ll o w a diffe re nt p ath I t is i nd e e d a p o lity which h e als o

.

cl aims to fo u nd but this p o lity is p ositive : it re sts up o n

,

e t hics an d phil o s o phy b o th e qu ally p os i tive U n d o ubt e dly th e .

p o lity is th e ra iso n d etre o f th e syste m which C o mte h as

’ ‘
,

c o n struc te d f o r it But with o ut th e syst e m th e P o lity w o u l d

.
, ,

r e m ai n arbitr ary I t w o uld l ack auth o rity and th at whi c h

.

wo uld m ak e it l e gitim at e Phi l o s o phy is no l e ss indispe ns

.

a bl e t o t h e fo u n d ati o n o f p o litics th an are p o litics to th e ,

c o mpl e t i o n and u n ific ati o n o f phil o s o phy .

Wh e n c e c o m e s it th at C o mte h as p ut this gre at pro bl e m ,

whi c h pr e o c cupi e d all t he mi nds o f his tim e in a fo rm whi c h ,

b e l o ngs to him al o ne ? We c an no t h e re e n t e r i nt o th e de
t ail e d bi o gr aphic a l study which w o u ld thr o w s o m e light up o n

t his qu e sti o n L e t u s o n ly r e c all th at C o mt e was b o r n in a

.

C ath o lic R o y alist family Fro m th e ag e o f thirt e e n h e t e ll s

.
,

us h e h ad br o k e n with th e p o litic al c o n victi o ns and th e

,

r e ligi o us b e li e fs o f his o wn p e o pl e P e rh aps h o w e ve r th e .

, ,

t rac e o f th e s e b e li e fs was l e ss c o mp l e t e ly e ffac e d th an h e him

s e lf th o ught D uri ng th e wh o l e o f h is l ife h e pr o fe ss e d th e
.

live li e st admirati o n fo r C ath o licism O n h is o wn c o n fe ssi o n .

h e was e sp e ci ally i nspi re d in this by J o s e ph de M aistr e ; b ut ,

V lt p
L tt 5 6 7 ( 5 Dé mb
1 ‘

e re s a a a , . 1 -
2 ce re
6 T b e P /z ilosofi/iy f g
oA u u ste C om te

if h e so m uch appre ci ate d th e b o o k du P ape did no t h is gre at ,

symp athy p artly spri ng fro m impre ssi o ns o f childh o o d i nd e

lib ly st amp e d up o n a p assi o n at e and s e n s itiv e n atur e ?
Wh at e ve r m ay b e th e c as e t h e first subj e ct which s e ri o usly
,

o c c upi e d h is mi n d was m ath e m atics B e i ng admitt e d to th e .

E cole polyteclz n ig ue a y e ar b e fo r e th e usu al ag e h e b e g an t o ,

study th e n atural sci e n c e s At th e s am e tim e h e m e ditat e s

.

up o n M o nt e squi e u and C o nd o rc e t H e appr o ach e s phil o s o phy .

pro p e rly so c all e d by re adi ng th e S c o ttish phil o s o ph e rs F e rg u ,

so n Ad a m Smith Hum e an d h e s e e s v e ry w e ll th at th e l ast

, , ,

o ne is f ar a b o v e th e o th e rs H av ing l e ft th e E cole polytecb nig ue

.
,

h e r e m ai n s in P aris and whil e givi n g l e ss o n s t o e ar n h is livi ng

, ,

h e c o mpl e t e s his sci e n tific e duc ati o n with D e l ambr e de ,

Bl ai nvill e and th e B aro n Th en ard H e r e ads assidu o usly

,
.

F o nt e ne ll e d A le m b e rt Did e ro t and e sp e ci ally C o n d o rc e t

,
’

, ,

wh o h as distill e d an d cl arifi e d th e phil o s o phy o f th e

! VI I I c e ntury
. Whil e studyi ng D e sc ar te s and th e
.

gre at m ath e m atici an s wh o c am e aft e r him h e als o fo ll o ws ,

att e n tiv e ly th e l ab o urs o f n at u ralists an d o f bi o l o gists o f ,

L am arck fo r i nst anc e o f C uvi e r o f G all o f C ab an is o f

, , , , ,

Bich at B ro ussais and o f so m any o th e rs H e u nd e rst and s

,
.

t h e phil o s o phic al imp o rt an c e o f th e s e n e w sci e nc e s as ,

alr e ady p o i n t e d o ut by Did e r o t But fo r all th at h e d o e s

.

no t ne gl e ct hist o ric al an d s o ci al studi e s H e h as r e ad th e .

id e o l o gists am o ng wh o m h e e sp e ci ally e st e e m e d De stutt de

,

T racy With o ut givi ng up M o nt e squi e u o r C o nd o rc e t h e

.
,

st udi e s th e traditi o nalists : M de B o nald this e ne rge ti c “

.
,

thi n k e r a nd m o re th an th e o th e rs J o s e ph de M aistre wh o
, ,

m ad e th e d e e p e st and m o st e nduri ng i mpre ssi o n up o n his

mi n d
B e fo re k no wi ng S ai nt S im o n th e n—and h is c o rre sp o nd e nc e
.

'

with V al at t e stifi e s to th e fac t—C o mte alre ady p o ss e ss e d a

-

l arge p o rti o n o f th e m at e ri als fo r his fut ure syst e m Up to .

this tim e his l ab o urs h ad b o rne upo n two disti nct o rd e rs o f

 I n trodu ct ion
7

subj e c ts T h e o ne sc i e ntifi c p ro p e r (m ath e m at ics physi c s

.
,

and ch e mi st ry n atur a l s c i e n c e s ) t h e o th e r m o r e pr o p e rly

,

p o l itic al (hist o ry p o litics and s o c i al q ue sti o n s )

, , .

I n 1 8 1 8 C o mt e m e e ts S ai n t Sim o n H e is att r ac t e d and

-
.

s urre nd e rs hims e lf alm o st u n r e se rve dly F o r fo ur y e ars h e .

w o rks with S ai n t Sim o n H e l o v e s and ve ne r at e s him as a

-
.

m aste r H e fe e ds up o n his id e as and c o ll ab o rat e s in his

.
,

l ab o urs and e nte rpris e s H e c alls him se lf pupil o f M S ai n t

. .

Sim o n . H o we ve r fro m 1 8 2 2 h e d e tach e s him se lf fro m this

,

gre atly admire d m ast e r and in 1 8 2 4 th e rup t ure is c o mpl e te

-
,

an d fi n a l Wh at c an h av e h app e ne d ?
.

T h e gri e v an c e s br o ught fo rw ard by C o mt e a re o n ly o f

s e c o nd ary imp o rt an c e A s a m atte r o f fac t m ast e r and p upil
.

w e re b o u n d to s e p arate s o o ne r o r l at e r Th e r e was a r adi c a l .

i n c o mp atibility b e twe e n th o s e t wo mi nds S ai nt Sim o n .

-
,

m arve ll o usly i nv e ntive an d o rigi nal t hro ws o ut a multitud e ,

o f n e w id e as an d vi e ws o f which m an y will b e fruitful ,

But .

h e quickly affirms and pr o v e s littl e, H e h as n o t th e p ati e n c e .

to c o n ti nue w o rki n g l o n g at t h e s am e subj e ct o r to pr o b e it ,

t o th e b o tt o m in an o rd e rly way C o mte o n th e c o ntrary .

, ,

thi n ks with D e sc art e s th at m e th o d is e ss e nti al to sci e nc e

, ,

and th at l o gic al c o h e re n c e is th e sure st sign o f t ruth H e

“
.

c o uld no t l o ng r e m ai n s atisfi e d with S ai n t Sim o n s disc o nne c t e d -

’

e ss ays . H e c o uld e v e n with o ut dish o ne sty turn t o acc o unt th e

, ,

brilli an t but dis o rd e rly i nt uiti o n in which h is m aste r ab o u nd s

and b e l i e v e th a t his o wn d o ctri ne al o n e g av e th o s e disc o n ne c t e d

e ss ays sci e n tific valu e b e c au se his d o ctri ne al o n e w as i n a po sitio n

,

to syst e m atis e th e m and to c o n ne ct th e m with th e ir pri n cipl e s .

I t wo uld th e re fo re s e e m th at we c an admit at th e s am e tim e

th at S ai nt Sim o n s i nfl ue nc e up o n C o m te was c o n sid e rabl e
-
’

an d o n t h e o th e r h and th at C o mt e s phil o s o phic a l o rigi n ality

’

, ,

is n o l e ss c e rtai n S ai nt Sim o n s i nfl u e n c e w o uld chi e fly

.
-
’

h ave c o nsiste d : 1 in sugge sti ng to C o mte a c e rt ai n n umbe r

.

o f g e n e r al id e as an d o f vi e ws o f d e t ail e sp e ci ally fo r hi s ,
8 Tb e P nilosoplzy ofA ug uste C om te

phil o so phy o f hist o ry ; 2 in sh o wi ng him h o w th e t wo o rd e rs

.

o f l ab o urs which h e h ad b e e n fo l l o wi ng un til th e n w e r e t o

bl e nd i nt o a si ngl e o ne thro ugh th e c re ati o n o fa scie nce which

,

w o uld b e s o ci al and c o ns e qu e ntly o f a poli ty which w o uld b e

,

sc i e n tific W o uld this sy nth e sis o f th e two o rd e rs o f studi e s

.

whi c h C o mt e h ad und e rt ak e n sid e by sid e h av e b e e n

pr o du c e d in his mi nd h ad h e n o t k n o w n S ai nt Sim o n ? I n
,
-

any c as e it w o uld h av e b e e n pr o du c e d m o r e sl o wly L e t us .

at l e ast l e av e S ai n t Sim o n t h e c r e dit which C o mt e him se l f

-

gran te d him th at o f h avi ng st arte d his discipl e up o n th e

,

li ne b e st sui te d to his g e n ius .

T h e i nt e ll e ctu al i n tim acy b e tw e e n th e m c o uld n e v e r b e

p er fe c t I f C o mte e nt e re d e n tir e ly i n t o S ai n t Sim o n s id e as
.
-
’

(w ith o ut ad o pti n g th e m all h o w e ve r ) in re tur n t h e r e was an

, ,

a sp e ct in C o mt e s th o ught which S ai nt Sim o n sc arc e ly

’
-

dis c e r ne d thro ugh t he l ack o f a su ffi c i e ntly stro n g sci e ntific

e duc ati o n I t is e no ugh to se e h o w h e sp e aks o f th e law o f
.

u niv e rs al attracti o n C o mte m ust h av e b e e n s c and alis e d by

.

it S o at th e ve ry m o m e n t wh e n h e submits with m o st
.
,

e n th usi asm and y o uthful c o n fid e n c e t o S ai nt Sim o n s in ’

-

fl ue n c e h e d o e s n o t n e gl e ct his sp e ci al m ath e m atic al studi e s .

My l ab o urs h e write s to V al e t o n th e 2 8 th o f S e pt e mb e r
,
”
,

are and will b e in two o rd e rs sci e n tific an d p o liti c al

“
1 8 19 , , .

I sh o uld se t littl e v alu e U p o n th e sci e ntific studi e s did I n o t ,

c o nti n u ally thi n k o f th e ir utility t o th e hum an r ac e As w e ll .

t h e n amus e mys e l f in d e c iph e ri ng v e ry c o mplic at e d pu z z l e s .

I h av e a supre m e av e rsi o n fo r s c i e n tifi c l ab o urs wh o s e utility ,

e ith e r dir e ct o r r e m o t e I do n o t se e But I als o c o n fe ss in

,
.
,

spite o f all my phil anthro py th at I sh o uld p ut far l e ss ,

e age r ne ss i n t o p o litic al l ab o urs if th e y did n o t stimul a t e t h e

,

i nte ll e ct if th e y did no t bri ng my brai n stro ngl y i nt o pl ay in

, ,

a w o rd : if th e y w e re n o t di f fi cu l t A y e ar l ate r in s e ndi ng
1 ”
.
,

a p arc e l o f p o liti c al tr acts t o his fri e n d in which h e ,

L tt aV l t p 99 e re s a a , . .
 I n t ro du cti o n
9

disti nguish e s wh at is in his o wn m anne r and wh at is fro m

S ai n t Sim o n h e says th at h e is b e sid e s v e ry e age rly
-
,

o ccupi e d with m ath e m atic al w o rk H e w an ts t o t ak e p art in .

t h e c o mp e titi o n o p e ne d by th e I n stitut an d his a mbiti o n is

s o o n t o e nt e r t h e A ca dem ie des S cie nces .

Fro m 1 8 2 2 in th e c e l e brat e d p amphl e t e n ti tl e d P la n des

,

s c i en t fi
i q necessa ires re or a n ise r
’

’ ’

la s ocie te ,
’

tra va ux
’

u es
p ou r g
th e s y n th e sis b e twe e n th e two o rd e rs ac c o m o f l ab o urs is

p lish e d in C o m te s mi n d th an ks to t h e d o ubl e disc o v e ry o f

’

t h e cl assific ati o n o f t h e sci e n c e s an d o f th e gr e at law o f s o ci al

dy namics We k no w th at this w o rk was if n o t th e pri ncip al

.
,

re as o n at l e a st th e o cc asi o n o f th e ruptur e b e tw e e n C o mte

,

a nd S a i n t Sim o n -
I t is th e m o m e n t which C o mt e hims e l f
.

c o nsid e rs to h av e b e e n d e cisiv e in th e his to ry o fhis mi nd T h e .

wh o l e o f his future d o ctri n e was e ss e nti ally c o n tai ne d in this

p amphl e t T h e pr e fac e add e d by S ai nt Sim o n sh o ws th at h e
.
-

did n o t u nd e rst an d its full b e ari ngs C o m te is h e n c e fo rth his .

o wn m ast e r A t l e ngth h e h as fo u n d wh at fo r s e ve r al y e ar s
'

h e h ad b e en s e e ki n g with o ut b e i n g cl e a rl y c o n sci o us o f it ;
a nd t h e r e st o f his life is n o w c o n s e cr ate d t o t h e w o rk which h e

h as c o n c e iv e d an d o f which h e h as j us t o u tli n e d th e pl an .

Si nc e h e h as e s tablish e d a phil o s o phic al hi e rarchy o f th e

sci e n c e s wh o s e summit is cr o w ne d by s o ci al phy sics h e h as
, ,

n o furth e r o cc asi o n t o ask h o w h e c an c o n cili a te h is sci e n tific

p o li tic al studi e s .

t h e i n te r v a l o f m y gre at phil o s o phic al l ab o urs

“
he ,

o n t h e 8 t h S e pt e mb e r 1 8 2 4 I pro p o s e to publish a fe w
, ,

m o re sp e ci al w o rks up o n t h e fun d a m e n tal p o i n ts in m ath e

m atic s which I h av e l o n g c o n c e iv e d a n d which I h av e at l ast
, ,

b e e n abl e to c o nne ct wi t h my g e ne r al id e as o f p o sitive

phil o s o phy : so th at I sh all b e fr e e to giv e m y s e lf up to th e m
with o ut breaking t/z roug /z t/z e u nity of m y tb oug /z t which is th e ,

gre at c o nditi o n fo r th e life o f a t hi n k e r A n d in a v e ry .

” 1

L tt aV l t p 8 1
e re s a a , . 12 .
10 T b e P /z ilosoplty of A ug uste C o m te

r e m ark ab l e l e tte r to de Bl ai nvill e o n th e 2 7 th Fe bru ary 1 8 2 6

, , ,

h e e xpl a i n s in t h e cl e ar e st way th e g e ne rati n g id e a o f h is

syst e m .
“
My c o nc e pti o n o f p o litics as s o ci al physics an d ,

t h e law which I h av e dis c o v e r e d up o n t h e thr e e succ e ssi v e

st at e s o f th e h um an mi nd are but o ne and th e s am e th o ught ,

c o nsid e r e d fro m th e t wo disti n ct p o i nts o f vi e w o f m e th o d

and o f sci e n c e . Th at b e i ng e s tablish e d I sh all sh o w th at this
,

si ngl e th o ught dire ctly and c o mpl e te ly s atisfi e s th e gre at

act ual s o ci a l n e e d co ns idered u n der i ts two a sp ects of tn
,
eo re tica l

ne ed a nd p ra ctica l need I will th e r e fo r e sh o w th at wh at o n

o ne h an d t e n ds t o c o n s o lid at e t h e futur e by re e st ablishi n g -

o rd e r a nd discipli ne a m o n g i n t e ll e c t s t e n ds o n t h e o th e r
, ,

h and to r e gu l at e th e pr e s e nt as far as p o ssibl e by fur n ishi n g

, ,

st ate sm e n with ra tional li ne s to w o rk up o n 1

.
”

H e nc e fo rth C o m te s life was to b e but th e m e th o dic al

’

e x e cuti o n o f his pr o gr a mm e I n tur n with p e rfe ct r e gul arity

.
, ,

h e wr o t e an d pub lish e d t h e phil o s o phy o f t h e sci e n c e s a nd o f

histo ry th e e thics th e p o siti v e p o lity and t h e p o sitive r e ligi o n
, , ,

D o e s t h is m e an th at C o m te s th o ught r e m ai ne d s tati o nary ?

’

M o st c e rt ai n ly no t I t e vo lv e d fro m 1 8 2 2 to 1 8 5 7 But this .

e v o lu t i o n fo l l o w e d a curv e which a n att e n tiv e o bs e rv e r might

h ave sk e tch e d b e fo r e h an d afte r h avi n g r e ad th e P la n des

sc ie n t ifiques necessa i res re o rg a niser la soc ie te
’ ’ ’ ’

trava ux p ou r .

C o mte h ad but o ne syst e m no t two Fr o m th e opuscules o f

, .

h is tw e nti e th y e ar to th e S yn tbése su bjective o f his l ast y e ar ,

it is th e d e ve l o pm e n t o fo ne and th e s am e c o nc e pti o n .

T he u nity o f th e d o ctri ne h as b e e n disput e d C o mt e him .

s e lf disti nguish e d t wo succ e ssive c are e rs in h is life I n th e .

first h e s ays with o ut affe ct e d m o d e sty h e was Aristo tl e : in th e

, , ,

s e c o nd h e wil l b e St P aul T h e fo u nd e r o f th e phil o s o phy

. .

did but p av e th e way fo r th e o rganis e r o f th e re ligi o n “

I .

R l
O id t l 8 8 I p 88
e vue cc en a e , 1 1, , . 2 .
 I n tr odu cti o n 1 1

h ave syste m atic ally d e vo t e d my life t o draw at l ast fro m

r e al sci e n c e th e ne c e ss ary b asis o fa s o u nd phil o s o phy acc o rd ,

ing to which I was a ft e rw ards t o c o n struct th e tru e r e ligi o n

”1
.

M any o f C o mt e s discipl e s e ve n s o m e o f th e m o re
’

illu stri o us and at fi rst m o re fe rve n t such as Lit tré r e fus e d

, ,

to fo ll o w him in his se c o n d c ar e e r Th e ir admirati o n fo r

“
.

th e phil o s o ph e r c o uld n o t p e rsu ad e th e m t o submit t o t h e

p o ntiff .

Littré and his fri e nds w e re u nd o ubt e dly fre e to fo ll o w

C o mt e o n ly up to a c e rt ai n p o i n t and whil e acc e p ti ng his , ,

phil o s o phy t o rej e ct his r e ligi o n I f th e y h ad st o pp e d t h e re

,
.
,

C o mte c o uld but h ave bl a m e d th e ir w ant o f l o gic and hims e lf

h ave dis o w ne d th o s e i nc o mpl e t e p o sitivists wh o are n o t
“
,

m o re i n t e llige nt b e c aus e th e y c all th e ms e l v e s i nte ll e ctu al .

”

But it is the y o n th e c o ntrary wh o accus e d C o mt e o f inc o n

, ,

sist e ncy an d o f s e lf c o ntradicti o n C o mte th e y s aid b e tr ay e d .

, ,

his o wn pri ncipl e s T h e subj e ctive m e th o d in his s e c o nd

.
“

c are e r rui ne d th e pre ci o us re sults h e h ad o bt ai ne d in th e first

by h is o bj e ctive m e th o d I n re fusi ng to g o b e y o nd th e C ou rs
.

de p nilosop /z ie p os i tive th e y r e m ai n e d m o re fa ithful t o C o mt e s

’

m aste r th o ught th an C o m te hims e l f I n a w o rd th e y de

-
.
,

fe nd e d tru e p o sitivism ag ai n st its misguid e d fo u nd e r .

C o mt e an swe re d th e s e att ac ks which w e re all th e m o re ,

p ai n ful to him b e c aus e th e y c a m e fr o m th o s e wh o m h e h ad

l o ng re g ard e d as his faithful discipl e s an d his b e st fri e nds .

I n th e c o urs e o f this w o rk it will app e ar t h a t t h o s e att acks

we re u n fo u n d e d C o mt e s two m e th o ds are no t o pp o s e d t o
2
.
’

e ach o th e r Th e y c o mpl e t e e ach o th e r as do als o th e two

.
,

“
c ar e e rs which th e y ch ara c te ri z e
”
.

I t is tru e th at duri ng t h e l ast two y e ars o f his life an

i ncre asi ngly m ark e d t i nge o f mysticism spre ad o ve r his
th o ugh t an d his wri t i n gs H is bri e f fri e n dship wi th M m e de
. .

V au x and th e d e ath o f t his h o l y fri e n d h ad stirre d v e ry

,
“

1
P litiq p iti I I p ! !
o ue os ve , V b k I h
, .i p .
2
. oo , , c . v . .
 1 2 T /z e P bilosopby of g
A u u ste C o m te

s tro n g e m o ti o ns withi n him an d th e s e e m o ti o n s wi th him we re

,

tr ansfo rm e d i n t o id e as which c am e t o b e i nc o rp o rat e d i nto

his syst e m A t th e s a m e t im e h e l ab o ure d t o o rg an is e
.

t h e R e ligi o n o f H um an ity H e cl a im e d t o s e cu r e fo r it an
.

auth o rity o v e r s o uls a t l e ast e qu a l to th at which h ad b e e n

e nj o y e d by C ath o licism at t h e p e ri o d o f its gr e at e st p o w e r .

T h e e x al tat i o n o f his s e n tim e n ts t h e pr e o ccup ati o n o f t h e

,

n e w r e ligi o n which was t o b e e st ablish e d t h e e v e r pr e s e n t ,

-

c o nsci o us ne ss o f his s ac e rd o tal m issi o n all this was n e c e ss arily ,

b o u nd t o re act up o n th e d o ctri ne which h e h ad fo u nd e d

in t h e pr e c e di n g p e ri o d .

Thus th e phil o s o phy o f th e sci e n c e s and o f hist o ry is n o

l o ng e r pre s e nte d to us ln th e s am e way in th e P olitique
i ti s it is in t h e C o u rs de p /cilosop / i p i t i But it is
p os ve a z e os v e .

d e sig ne dl y so T h e diffe re n c e in t o ne an d th e diffe r e n c e o f

.

m e th o d in t h e s e t ti ng fo rth is e xpl ai ne d a cc o rdi ng t o C o m te , ,

by th e diffe r e n t o bj e ct which h e h as in vi e w in e ach o f

t h e s e w o rks 1
Ess e nti ally t h e phil o s o phic al d o ctri ne h as no t
.
,

v ari e d All we c an gr an t to Littré is th a t by th e fact o f its

.

b e i ng pr e s e nt e d fr o m th e r e ligi o u s th at is to say fro m th e ,

sy nth e tic p o i n t o f vi e w in th e P olitique positive it u nd e rgo e s

, ,

a n app a r e n t alt e r at i o n I f we o n ly k ne w th e d o ctri ne thr o ugh

.

this w o rk we sh o uld no t g e t th e p e r fe ctly cl e ar vi e w o f it give n

in th e C o u rs de p /z ilosop /z ie p os i tive C o m te hims e l f o fte n .

advis e s t h e r e ad e r o f t h e P olit iq u e t o r e fe r to his gre at

fu nd am e n tal t r e atis e .
”

But o n th e o th e r h an d in c are full y r e adi n g t h e C ou rs

, , ,

we find n um e r o us i ndic ati o n s o f th e fu t ur e s t ruc t ure o f th e

P o litiqu e p o si t ive C o m te might h ave b e e n c o nte n t wi th a re
.

fe re nc e t o t h e C ou rs to an sw e r t h e o bj e c ti o n s o f his diss e n t
,

ing discipl e s H e did b e tt e r

. H e r e pri n te d a t t h e e n d o f
.

t h e fo urth v o l um e o f his P oli tiq ue p os i ti ve s ix p amphl e ts

C p d
o rres o n e nc e de J
. S M ill
. et de C mt L
o e, e tt re de C mt
o e du 14 juille t
1 8 45 ; H
 I n tro du c ti on 1 3

writte n in his y o uth fro m 1 8 1 8 to 1 8 2 6 I n the m no t o n ly is .

,

his phil o s o phy alre ady sk e tch e d in its m ai n o utli ne s with

su ffici e n t pre cisi o n ; but th e id e a th at phil o s o phy is a pre
limi nary wo rk a simpl e pre lud e and th at th e e ss e n ti al w o rk
, ,

t h e supre m e e n d is t h e p o sitiv e r e ligi o n which sh all aris e

up o n this phil o s o phy—this id e a is th e v e ry s o u l o f

,

th e s e p a mphl e ts T h e pr o o f is giv e n Up o n th e qu e sti o n

. .

o f th e u n it y o f his d o ctri ne C o mt e wi n s t h e c a s e ag ai nst

Littré .

IV
In his c o rre sp o nd e nc e with Stu art Mill which t ak e s p l ac e
b e tw e e n 1 8 4 1 and 1 8 4 6 th at is to say which e mbr ac e s th e
,

e nd o f his first c ar e e r an d th e b e gi nn i ng o f th e s e c o n d C o mt e ,

h as r e p e at e dly e xpl ai ne d h o w th e two suc c e ssive p o rti o n s o f

his w o rk are c o nne ct e d t o ge th e r and in wh at th e y are disti nc t , .

I t m ay n o t b e us e l e ss to qu o te his o wn w o rds T h e s e co nd .

h alf o f my phil o s o phic al life h e s ays must diffe r no t ably

“
,
”
,

fro m th e first e sp e ci ally in th at fe e li n g must t ak e if no t an

, ,

o bvi o us at l e ast a re al p art in it o n e as gr e a t as th at o f t h e

, ,

i nt e ll e ct T h e gre at w o rk o f syst e m ati z ati o n which h as b e e n

.

re s e rve d fo r o u r c e ntury must i n d e e d e mbr ac e e qu ally b o t h

, ,

fe e li ngs and id e as as a wh o l e Truly it was th e id e as which .

h ad first t o b e syst e m ati z e d u nd e r p ai n o f faili n g t o bri ng

,

ab o ut a c o mpl e t e r e g e n e r ati o n by falli n g i n t o a m o r e o r l e ss

v agu e m y sticism Th at is why my fu nd am e n t al w o rk h ad to

.

a pp e al a lm o st e xclusive ly t o t h e i n t e ll e ct I t was to b e a .

w o rk o f r e s e arch and acc e ss o rily o f discussi o n d e sti n e d to

, ,

disc o ve r an d to c o nstitu te t h e t ru e u n ive rs al pri n cipl e s in ,

risi ng by hi e rarchic al d e gr e e s fro m th e simpl e st sci e n tific

qu e sti o n s to th e high e st s o ci al spe cul ati o ns But this b e i ng .
” 1

d o ne C o mt e p ass e d to th e syst e m atis ati o n o f th e fe e li ngs a

, ,

C 1
p d
o rre s o nd C mt anc ed d St e t M ill p 4 5 6 7
o e an L tt d C m t d
e uar , .
- . e re e o e a

1 845
1 4 j11 ille t .
 1 4 T ne P /t ilosop/cy o f A u
g u ste C o m te

ne e c ss ary s e q ue l to th at o f th e id e as an d an i ndisp e nsabl e ,

b asis fo r th at o fth e i nstituti o ns .

”

I t is the re fo re an e nt ire ly ne w w o rk C o mt e c an im agi ne

, ,
.

with o ut di ffi cu l ty th at it might h av e b e e n r e s e rve d fo r ano th e r

th an hims e l f H is p e rs o nal missi o n might h ave b e e n limit e d
.

t o t h e fo u n d ati o n o f t h e ph il o s o phy whi c h puts an e n d t o t h e

m en tal an archy T h e e thics a nd t h e r e ligi o n which w e r e

“
.

t o b e e st ablish e d up o n this phil o s o phy t o put an e nd t o m oral ,

a nd
p olitical anarchy w o uld in this c as e h av e b e e n th e w o rk
, , ,

o fo ne o f his succ e ss o rs Stubb o r n l ab o u r and g o o d fo rtu ne

.

a ll o w e d C o mt e t o u n d e rt ak e thi s w o rk hims e l f But e ve n in .

1 8 4 5 h e s ays h o w u nd e r th e h o ly i nflu e nc e o f Mdm e de

“
.
,

Vaux h e h ad ve ry cl e arly s e e n his two c are e rs as disti nct

,

a nd as o ne th e s e two c are e rs o f which th e s e c o n d was to

,

tran sfo rm phil o s o phy i n t o re ligi o n as th e first h ad ch ange d ,

sci e nc e i nto phil o s o phy .

T h e o bj e ct o f th e pre s e n t w o rk is t o study C o mt e s phil

’

o s o phy pr o p e rly so c all e d l e avi ng a sid e t h e tr an sfo rm ati o n o f

,

this phil o s o phy i nt o r e ligi o n T h e ch o ic e which we thu s .

m ak e is no t an a rbitrary o ne si nc e in o rd e r to justify it we , , ,

h ave th e disti ncti o n fo rm ally e stablish e d by C o mt e hims e lf ,

wh e n h e admits th at his phil o s o phy an d his re ligi o n might

h ave b e e n th e w o rk o f two di ffe re n t p e rs o n s .

I t wil l p e rh aps b e ask e d in wh at o ur p o siti o n di ffe rs fro m

th at o f L ittré and o f th e i nc o mpl e t e p o sitivists
“
,
By th e .
”

diffe re nc e we sh all answ e r which s e p arat e s th e histo r ic al

, ,

fro m th e d o gm atic p o i nt o fvi e w I t is fro m th e l att e r p o in t .

o f vi e w th at L ittré an d his fri e n ds r e j e ct t h e syst e m atis ati o n

“

o f th e fe e li ngs th e subj e cti v e m e th o d and th e r e ligi o n o f

, ,

Hum anity I t is as p o sitivists th at th e y c o nne ct th e m se l ve s

.

with th e first h alf o f th e d o ctri ne and th at th e y e xclud e th e ,

s e c o nd h al f But we are h e re w o rki ng fr o m th e hist o ric al p o i n t

.

o f vi e w and t h e , hist o ri an whil e usi ng his right to d e fi n e

,

t h e limits o f h is w o rk h as no thi n g to e x c l ud e fr o m
 I n troductio n
5

th e d o ctri ne which h e s e ts fo rth As a m att e r o f fact far

.

fro m cl aimi n g with Littré th at th e s e c o nd p art o f C o mte s ’

w o rk w e ak e ns and c o ntradicts th e fi rst we h ave re c o g n is e d ,

th at th e y b o th fo rm a wh o l e o fwhich h e h ad draw n o ut th e
pl an in his e arly writi ngs and th at h e was no t wro ng in
,

t aki ng as an e pigraph fo r his P olitique p osi tive th e fine w o rds

o f t h e p o e t phil o s o ph e r :
-
W/ta t is a g rea t life ? A t/i oug /z t
f
o y ou t/i f ul
filled i n ri per ag e .

But th e n why o nly study th e first o f th e two c are e rs why

, ,

n o t r e sp e ct t h e i n t e grity o f th at wh o l e which a cc o rdi n g t o u s

Littré o ught n o t t o h av e disre g ard e d —

, ,

We do r e sp e ct it fo r ,

we do n o t a rbi t r arily e xcl ud e fro m t h e d o ctri ne any o f th e

p arts which C o mt e i nclud e d in it I f we m ak e th e phi l o so phy
.

pro p e r th e s o l e o bj e ct o fthis st udy in it we sh all e ve r h av e

,

b e fo re o ur mi n ds th e id e a o f th e gre ate r wh o l e in which

C o mt e pl ac e d it O n this c o nditi o n alO ne o ur study will b e
.
,

a ccur at e . But o nc e this c o nditi o n is fulfill e d we do n o t c o n

sid e r th at we e xc e e d o ur right in c o n c e n trati ng o u r e ffo rt
,

u p o n th e phil o s o phy .

Th e re are t wo diffe r e n t w ays o f c o n c e ivi n g th e hist o ry o f

a d o ctr in e T h e hist o ri an m ay pl ac e hi ms e lf e x actly in th e
.

m e nt al attitud e o f th e phil o s o ph e r wh o m h e studi e s a n d ,

thi n k ag ai n aft e r him his l e adi ng id e as as i n d e e d h e sh o uld do

,

b ut furth e r h e c an j udge j ust as th e phil o s o ph e r hims e lf d o e s

, , ,

o ft h e r e sp e ctive imp o rt an c e o fpr o bl e ms wi t h o ut all o wi n g him,

s e lf to dis t i n guish wh at is s e c o n d ary fro m wh at is e ss e n ti al

T h e hist o ric a l w o rk th e n assu m e s th e sh ap e o fa m o no graphy ,

o r o fa n
“
i nte ll e ctu al bi o graphy o r e ls e whil e e nd e av o uri ng to,

p e ne trat e to th e h e art o f th e syst e m in o rd e r to gr asp it in its

,

pri n cipl e s th e hist o ri an m ay ne ve rthele ss pl ac e hims e lf o ut

,

sid e it and ab o v e it and try to situ ate it in th e g e ne r al

,
“

e v o l uti o n o f phil o s o phy Th e n th e syst e m is b e tte r u nd e r

.

st o o d ln its e n tire ty si nc e we c an se e its r e l ati o ns with th e

,

pre c e di ng c o n t e mp o rary and fo ll o wi n g d o c tri ne s At th e

,
.
1 6 T b e P /z ilosop/zy o f A ug u ste C o m te

sa m e tim e it b e c o m e s p o ssibl e to s e p arat e wh at is o fe nduri n g

phil o s o phic al i nte re st fro m wh at was m e re ly o f s e c o nd ary o r
,

m o m e nt ary imp o rtan c e alth o ugh th e auth o r m ay h ave judge d

,

o th e rwis e T o b o r ro w fro m C o mt e a disti ncti o n which h e

.

o ft e n us e s th e fo rm e r o f th e s e m e th o ds is b e tt e r suit e d t o
,

e r uditi o n t h e l at t e r t o hist o ry
,
.

Appli e d to th e s t udy o f his d o ctri ne th e first m e th o d w o uld

,

h ave us to c o n sid e r p o sitiv e phil o s o phy wi th him as simply

pre p arat o ry to th e R e ligi o n o f H um an i ty which was th e first ,

and th e l ast g o al o fhis e ff o rts T h e writ e r sh o u l d u n d o ubt e dly

.

give a l arge pl ac e to this pré ambul e i ndisp e n s abl e to this

“
,
”

gre at fu n d am e nt al w o rk in which C o mt e l ay s d o w n th e ih
,

te lle c tual b as e s o f his p o li t ic a l and r e ligi o u s sys te m But h e .

o ught n e ve rth e l e ss t o sub o rdi nat e it to this syst e m an d pl a c e

in th e fr o nt r an k th e s o ci a l r e o rg an is ati o n th e d o gm a t h e
“ ”
, ,

w o rship and th e reg im e o fth e R e ligi o n o f Hum an ity th e institu

’

ti o n o f a spiritu al p o w e r in fact th e wh o l e o f th at p o rti o n o f

, .

C o mt es w o rk in Which h e t ak e s up agai n th e C ath o lic pro

’ “

gramm e o f th e Middl e Age s c o n fid e n t o f fulfilli ng it be t te r

,
”

th an C ath o licism its e l f e ve r did .

No w it is no t in this p art o f his w o rk th at C o mt e sh o ws

him se lf m o s t o rigi nal and th at his th o ught h as b e e n m o st
,

fruitful T h e pro bl e m o f s o ci al r e o rgan is ati o n d o e s n o t

.
“ ”

b e l o ng to him al o ne I ts pre s e nc e is fe lt so to sp e ak in th e
.
, ,

a ir at th e tim e th at C o mt e s y o uth was p assi n g aw ay

’
T he .

c o mm o n aspirati o n s o f th e ge n e rati o n which gr e w up with

him w e re to re e st ablish o rd e r and to fix th e c o nditi o n s o f
pr o gre ss to d e te rmi ne th e r e l ati o n s o f Ethics to P o litics an d
, ,

t o put a n e w r e ligi o n in t h e pl ac e app ar e n tly l e ft fr e e b y C ath o

lic ism . T h e P oli tique pos i tiv e which cl a ims to s atisfy th e s e as

pir ati o n s c o rre sp o nds in C o mte s syste m (all pr o p e r all o w an c e
,
’

b e i ng m ad e fo r th e subst an c e o f th e d o ctri ne s ) to wh at th e
S ai nt Sim o n sch o o l h ad alr e ady atte mpt e d t o do b e fo r e 1 8 3 0 .

I t c o m e s thirty y e ars l at e r th an th e pr e vi o us att e mp t s o f th e

 I n trodu ction 1 7

s am e ki nd b e c aus e C o mte w ante d to fo un d his s o ci al o rgan i sa

,

ti o n up o n phil o s o phy and m o rali ty and b e c aus e this spe c u

,

l ative e ffo rt o ccupi e d th e be tt e r p art o f his y o uth and o f his

m aturity But it o rigi nat e d in fac t in th e first third o ft h e c e n
.

tury as is pro v e d by th e p amphl e t s re pri nt e d by C o mte Wh e n .

it app e ars b e tw e e n 1 8 5 0 an d 1 8 5 7 a n e w g e ne r at i o n br o ught

,

up in o th e r p o litic al and so c i al cir c umst anc e s give s it o nly

p as si ng att e nti o n O th e r pro bl e m s c o mm an d atte nti o n m o re
.

fo rcibly and cl aim a m o re urge n t s o luti o n T h e phil o s o phy o f

, .

hi sto ry n o l o ng e r e x c it e s th e s am e p assi o nate i nt e re st M e n .

are l e ss an xi o us t o se e th e birth o f a n e w r e ligi o n and C ath o ,

lic ism h as pr o v e d th at its vit ality is still v e r y str o ng .

The r e fo re ne ith e r C o mt e s ge n ius no r th e pre c auti o n s which

’
,

h e th o ught h e h ad t ak e n t o pl ac e h is s o ci al r e o rg an is ati o n
“

up o n a r ati o nal b asis c o uld shi e ld it fro m th e c o mm o n fat e

,

whi c h s o o ne r o r l at e r o ve rt ak e s all att e mpts simil ar to hi s

o wn . U nd o ubte dly th e P olitiq ue positi ve and th e o th e r w o rks
o f C o mt e s s e c o n d c a r e e r are full o f j ust and d e e p vi e ws
’
.

Wh ate ve r m ay b e th e subj e ct up o n which a gre at mi n d h as

w o rk e d it is alw ays i n t e r e sti ng and pro fit abl e to se e wh at th e
r e fl e cti o n o fth at mi nd h as disc o ve re d in it But in fact th a t .
, ,

p o rti o n o f his w o rk which to him was th e m o st imp o rt ant is

, ,

far fr o m m ai n t ai n i n g this p o siti o n in t h e e y e s o f th e hist o ri an

By his P oli tique p ositive C o mt e o nly r e pre s e n ts his ge ne ra
ti o n By his phil o s o ph y pr o p e rl y so c all e d h e is a re
.

pre s e nt ative m an o f his e ntire c e n tu ry I s it ne c e ss ary to

”
.

pro v e this ? T h e i nt e ll e ctu al histo ry o f o ur ag e wit ne ss e s t o

it at e v e ry ste p O f all th e syst e ms which fo u n d birth in Franc e
.

in t h e X I X c e ntury this o ne al o ne fo u n d a h e ari n g b e y o n d

.
,

t h e fr o n ti e rs an d l e ft a d e e p impr e ssi o n up o n fo r e ig n thi n k e rs .

C o mte s phil o s o phy was at first re c e iv e d in E ngl and and in

’

H o ll an d e v e n with m o r e symp athy th an in Fran c e J o h n .

Stu art Mill H e rbe rt Sp e n c e r G e o rge L e w e s G e o rge Elli o t

, , ,

and a n umb e r o f E n glish phil o s o ph e rs and writ e rs dr e w m o r e

2
 P b ilosopby u uste C
1 8 m e
f
o A g om te

or l e ss th e ir i nspirat i o n fro m it T o this day it is de fe nd e d

of .
,

by m e n o fgr e at t al e n t in E ngl an d I t is tru e th at no G e rm an .

phil o s o ph e r h ad th e s am e p e rs o nal r e l ati o n s with C o mt e as

J o h n Stu art Mill but as a m atte r o f fact fo r thirty y e ars th e
, ,

p o sitive spirit h as gr adu ally g ai ne d gr o u nd in th e G e rm an

U n ive rsiti e s T o b e c o nvi nc e d o f this it is e no ugh to se e
.
,

h o w m e t aphysics are se t a sid e in th e m an d to o bs e rve t h e li ne s

o n which t h e m o r al a n d so ci al sci e n c e s a re t a ught I n th e .

L ati n c o u n tri e s o fth e two h e misph e re s C o m te s i nflu e nc e h as ’

b e e n e x e rcis e d with e ve n gre at e r stre ngth in Sp ai n in Po rtu , ,

g al in S o uth A m e ric a ; an d N o rth Am e ric a h as a ls o its P o si

,

t iv ist s o ci e t i e s I n his life tim e C o mt e h ad alr e ady fo u n d th e r e

.
,

s o m e o f his m o st d e v o t e d dis c ipl e s I n Fran c e th e pri ncip al .

“
v e hic l e s o f P o sitivist phil o s o phy h ave b e e n th e w o rks o f two
”

writ e rs wh o in th e ir tim e w e re th o s e m o st b e l o ve d by th e pub

, ,

lic R e nan and T ai ne alth o ugh th e y w e re no t p o sitivists h ave

, ,

p e rh aps d o ne m o re fo r th e diffusi o n o f th e id e as and m e th o d

o f C o mt e th an Li t t ré an d all t h e o th e r p o sitivists t o g e t h e r .

I t is tru e th at T ai n e o w e s a gre at d e al t o Spi no z a and

t o H e g e l an d m o r e still t o C o n dill ac
,
Am o n g his c o n t e mp o .

r ari e s h e se e ms to b e e sp e ci ally c o nne cte d with J o h n Stu art

Mill and Sp e nc e r But thro ugh th e m it is fr o m C o mt e th at
.

h e pr o c e e ds and t h e re we fin d th e o rigi n o f t h e gre at e r

,

n umb e r o f his l e a di ng id e as H is c o n c e pti o n o f lite rary

.

h ist o ry o f c riticism o f t h e phil o s o phy o f art in a w o rd his

, , , ,

e ff o r t to bri n g i n t o t h e study o fth e m o r a l sci e n c e s t h e m e th o d

u s e d in t h e n a tur a l sci e n c e s all this is chi e fly d e riv e d fro m

,

A ugust e C o m te T h e H is toi re de la L i ttera tu re a ng la i se I S i n

.
,

a s e n se an a pplic ati o n o f t h e p o sitiv e th e o ry ac c o rdi n g t o

,

w hich th e e v o luti o n o f th e arts an d l it e r atur e s is g o v e rne d by

n e c e ss ary l aws which c o n stitut e its so lid arity wi t h th at o f

m o r als o f i n stituti o n s an d o f b e li e fs
, T h e th e o ry o f th e .

“
m o m e n t and o f th e mili e u which is th e chi e f o ne in
” “

T ai ne s w o rk was c e rt ai n ly n o t u nkn o w n in th e X V I I I
’
.
 I n troduction 1 9

ce n u t ry But it is C o mt e wh o ge ne rali se d it by bri ngi ng

.

L am arck ne are r to M o nt e squi e u ; it is h e wh o t aught T ai ne

t h e g e ne r al d e fi n iti o n a t o n c e bi o l o gic al an d s o ci al o fth e id e a
, ,

O fth e
“
mili e u .

Re nan sp o k e o f C o mte with e xtre m e s e ve rity and no t with ,

o ut s o m e disd ai n H e o w ne d h o w e v e r th at l ate r o n C o mt e s
’
.
, ,

n am e w o uld b e o ne o f th e m o st r e pr e s e n t ativ e o n e s o f this

c e n tury an d h e h ad hims e lf str o ngly fe lt his i n flu e n c e

,
We .

m u st c e rt ai nly t a k e i n t o acc o u n t all t h e o th e r Fr e n ch and

fo re ig n s o urc e s fro m which this mi n d at o n c e so suppl e and

so l ar e dr e w i n spir ati o n B ut is it n o t fr o m C o mt e as m u ch
g ,
.
,

a s fr o m H e g e l th at h e l e a r n t t o r e g a r d hist o ry as t h e sacr e d
“
,

s c i e nc e o f hum an ity to e xp e ct fro m it wh at b e fo re was

,
”

d e m a n d e d fr o m th e o l o gy to tr ansfo rm th e an ci e n t d o gm as o f
,

Pro vid e nc e an d o f o ptimism i nt o th e b e li e f in th e p o sitive id e a

o f pr o gr e ss and fi n al ly to c o n c e iv e th at t ruth an d g o o d ne ss
,

a re n o t immu tabl e a n d imm o ve abl e r e aliti e s but are r e alis e d ,

by d e gr e e s thro ugh th e e ffo rt o fsuc c e ssiv e ge ne r ati o ns ?

Th e s e two e x ampl e s will su ffi c e to sh o w th e p o i n t o f
e x t re m e di ffusi o n which h as b e e n re ach e d by th e p o sitive
spirit .

This spirit is so i ntim at e ly mi ngl e d with th e ge ne r al

'

t h o ught o f o u r tim e t h at we sc arc e ly n o tic e it j ust as we do ,

n o t p ay att e n ti o n t o t h e air we br eath e H ist o ry r o m an c e

'

.
, ,

a nd , e ve n p o e t ry h ave r e fl e cte d its i nfl ue nc e an d b e i ng ,

c h arg e d with it h a v e c o n tribut e d t o its diffusi o n

,
C o nte m .

p o rar
y S o ci o l o gy is t h e cre ati o n o f C o mt e s c i e n t ific Psych o

l o gy in a c e rtai n d e gre e h as als o spru ng fr o m h im Fr o m all

,
.

th e s e sig ns it is no t r ash to c o nclud e th at p o sitiv e phil o s o phy

,

e xpr e ss e s s o m e o f t h e m o st ch a r ac t e ristic t e n d e nci e s o f t h e

We are th e re fo re c o nfo rmi ng t o his to ric al re ality wh e n

we att ach o urs e lv e s in C o mt e s w o rk to t h e phil o s o phy which
’

, ,

c o n stitut e s its m o st o rigi n al an d up t o th e pr e s e n t tim e its

,
2 0 F il e P /z ilosoplzy f A ug uste C om
o te

m o st fruitfu l and l iving p art I t m atte rs l ittl e th at h e h im

.

se l f sh o ul d o nly h av e c o nsid e re d it as a pr e l im inary p o rt i o n

o fh is w o rk. H o w o fte n h as th e spe c ul ativ e e ffo rt m ad e by a

g re at thi n k e r fo r th e p urp o se o f e st ab l i shi ng prac tic al c o n
c lusio ns p ro v e d to b e o f m o re e nd u r i ng in t e r e st th an th o s e

c o ncl usio ns th e m se l ve s
BO O K I
 C H A PTE R I
TH E P H IL O S O PHICA L PR O B LEM
A CC O RDI N G to C o mt e phil o s o phy is d e stine d to se rv e as a
,

b asis fo r m o rality fo r p o lit ic s and fo r r e l igi o n I t is no t an

, .

e nd in it se lf but a m e an s t o r e ach an e nd n o t o th e rwis e

att ai nabl e H ad C o mt e th o ught it p o ssibl e to r e o rg an i se

.

s o ci e ty with o ut first re o rgan isi ng m o r als and to re o rgan is e ,

m o r als with o ut first r e o rgan isi ng b e li e fs h e w o u l d no t ,

p e rh aps h ave writt e n t h e six vo lum e s o f th e C o u rs de “

Phil o s o phi e p o sitiv e whi c h o cc upi e d him fro m 1 8 3 0 to

”

1 842. H e w o uld h ave g o n e straight to wh at was o f supre m e

i nt e re st .

H e e ar l y b e c am e c o n vi n c e d th at th e sh o rt e st way w o u l d n o t
b e t h e b e st I n h is vi e w all e n d e av o u r a t r e ligi o us m o r al
.
, , ,

o r p o litic al r e o rg an is ati o n m u st b e v a i n so l o n g as m e nta l

,

re o rg anis ati o n h as no t t ak e n pl ac e I t is th e re fo r e with a ne w

.

phil o so phy th at h e m ust b e gi n I ndi sp e ns abl e to th e s o ci al

.

e nd which C o mt e h as in vi e w phil o s o phy b e c o m e s at l e ast

, ,

pr o visi o nally an e nd in its e l f

, .

C o mt e is go i ng to e n d e avo ur to re o rgani se be l ie fs th at i s ,

t o say t o substitut e a d e m o n str ate d fa ith t o th e r e v e al e d faith

,

wh o se fo r c e is n o w sp e n t This d e m o n strate d faith will

.

h av e no thi n g in c o mm o n with th e n atural re ligi o n o f th e

X V I I I c e ntury which was at b o tt o m but a w e ak and
.
,

d e ge ne rat e fo rm o f b e li e f in th e sup e r natural U nd e r th e .

m e t aphysic a l g arb o f D e ism we still r e c o g n is e the o

l o gic al th o ugh t O n th e c o ntr ary th e d e m o nstrat e d faith
.

will h ave its o rigi n and its j ustific ati o n in p o sitive sci e nc e .
2 4 T /z e P /t ilosop/ty of A u uste C om te
g

T h e t wo w o rds faith and d e m o n strati o n app e ar to cl ash

with e ach o th e r But th e c o ntradi c ti o n li e s m e re ly o n th e sur
.

fac e . F o r we a re stil l c o n c e r n e d with fa ith si n c e t h e gre at

m aj o rity o f m e n will alw ays h av e to t ak e o n faith th e c o n
e lusi o n s o f p o sitiv e phil o s o phy .

T h e n umb e r o f m e n with s ufli c ie nt l e isur e an d e no ugh

c u lture t o e x ami ne th e s e c o n c lu si o n s and t o g o i n t o t h e i r
_

pro o fs will alw ays b e sm all T h e attitud e o f th e o th e rs must

.

b e o ne o f submissi o n an d re sp e c t But diffe r ing o n this p o i n t

.
,

fro m th e r e ligi o us d o gm as which hum an ity h as k no w n u ntil

no w ; th e ne w fa ith will b e d e m o nstra te d It will c o ntai n
“
.

no thi n g which h as n o t b e e n e st ablish e d an d c o ntr o ll e d by

s c ie ntifi c m e th o ds n o thi ng whi c h g o e s be y o n d th e d o m ain o f

,

t h e r e l ativ e n o thi n g which at any m o m e n t c ann o t b e pr o v e d

,

t o a mi n d c ap abl e o f fo ll o wi ng th e d e m o n str ati o n .

This fo rm o f faith alre ady e xists in th e c as e o f a gre at

”

n umb e r o f sci e n tific truths Thus all m e n to day b e li e ve in

.
-

t h e th e o ry o f th e s o l ar sy st e m which we o we to C o p e r n i c us to ,

G alil e o and to N e wt o n Y e t h o w m any are in a p o siti o n to

.

u nd e rst and th e d e m o n strati o n s up o n which this th e o ry re st s ?

The y k no w h o we v e r th at wh at h e r e is a m atte r o f faith to
, ,

th e m is a m att e r o fsci e nce to o th e rs and w o uld b e so e q ually

, ,

fo r the ms e lv e s h ad th e y g o ne thr o ugh t h e ne c e ss ary studi e s .

F a it/i th e r efo r e sig n ifi e s h e r e n o t i nd e e d a v o lu n t a ry abdic a

ti o n o ft h e i nte ll e ct in pre s e nc e o fa myst e ry which surp ass e s

its p o w e r o f c o mpre h e nsi o n but a submissi o n t o fact whi c h
, ,

in no way e n cr o ach e s up o n th e rights o f r e as o n Eve ry m an .

is no t c ap abl e at any m o m e nt o f e x e rcisi ng this ri g ht t o

, ,

criticis e I n prac ti c e C o mte will s e ve re ly r e strict t h e use o f

.
,

it 1
. But in th e o ry this right be l o ngs to all m e n and m ust ,

e v e r r e m ai n u na lt e r abl e I n th e l ast pl ac e th e l e gitim at e

.

e xiste n c e o f t h e d e m o nstrat e d faith r e sts up o n thi s pro

po siti o n “
I f all mi n ds w e re in a c o nditi o n to e x ami ne th e
f i f b k iii h p
1
c . n ra. oo . c . v. .
 Tli e P /z ilosop/t ica l P r oble m 5

d o gm as o fth at faith all w ith o ut e xc e pti o n wo uld und e rst and

, , ,

t h e d e m o n str at io n an d w o uld agr e e with it

”
.
,

T h e w o rds b e li e f and faith must no t be mis

“ “ ” ”

un d e rst o o d re o rganis ati o n o f b e li e fs which h e

“ ”
. I n th e
u nd e rt ak e s C o mte o n ly c o n c e r ns hims e lf with b e li e fs c ap
,

a bl e o f d e m o n str ati o n H e is h e re faithful to t h e th o ught

.

o f S ai n t Sim o n wh o u n d e rst o o d r e ligi o n chi e fly as a

“ ”
,

b asis o f p o liti c al o rg an is ati o n At any rate in th e e arly .

,

p art o f h is phil o s o phi c al c are e r C o mt e d o e s no t bri ng i nt o

faith th e m ystic al s e ntim e nt al and no n i nt e ll e ctu al
,
-

e l e m e nts whi c h this w o rd u su ally impli e s and which so

o ft e n Opp o s e it t o re aso n T h e w o rd sig n ifi e s fo r C o mte
“
.

th at which m an b e li e ve s c o n c e rni n g w/ca t m ay be for ai m a

s u b ec t of k no wledg e
j U n ti
. l n o w th e s e b e li e fs h av e se t fo rth a

m o re o r l e ss mythic al o r m e t aphysic al e xpl anati o n o f th e

u ni ve rs e and o f m an t aught by pri e sts a nd phil o s o ph e rs
,
.

But this n o l o ng e r s atisfi e s th e hu m an mi n d By d e gre e s .

p o sitive sci e n c e which wo rks o n a t o t ally diffe r e n t pl an

, ,

s ubstitut e s a k no wl e dg e o f th e l aws o f ph e n o m e n a to th o s e
e xpl an ati o n s Fro m this m o m e n t t h e pro bl e m thus
“ ”
.

pre s e nts its e lf to C o mt e : T o e st ablish by r ati o nal m e ans a

syste m o f u nive rs ally ac c e pt e d truths c o n c e r n i n g m an s o ci e ty ,

a n d th e w o rld .

C o mte th us t ak e s fo r gran t e d I st th at t h e o pi ni o n s th e
“
, ,

be li e fs and th e c o nc e pti o n s r e l ati ng t o th e s e m atte rs

” “
,

ana rchic a l 2 nd th at th e ir n atur a l an d n o rm a l

“
are t o day
-
,

c o nditi o n is to be o rgan is e d .
”

Th e re is no ne e d to pro ve th e first p art a gl an c e at c o nte m

p o rary s o ci e t y is e n o ugh T h e c o n fus e d disturbi n g m o ve m e nt s
.

which fill it with tro ubl e and ag itatio n and wh ic h u nle ss rati o nal , ,

h arm o ny b e at l ast e st ablish e d thre at e n its d e structi o n are ,

n o t due m e r e ly t o p o litic al c a us e s The y pro c e e d fro m m o ral

.

dis o rd e r A nd this in turn pro c e e ds fro m i n te ll e ctu al dis o rd e r

.
,

th at is to say fro m a l ack o fpri ncipl e s c o mm o n to all mi nds ,

2 6 T b e P /t ilosop/iy f g
oA u u ste C o m te

and fro m th e abs e nc e o f u n ive rs all y admitt e d c onc e pti o ns and

b e li e fs F o r in o rd e r th at a h um an so c i e ty m ay subsist a
.
,

c e rt ai n h arm o ny o f se ntim e nt o r e v e n c o mm o n i nt e r e sts

a m o n g its m e mb e rs will no t su f fic e Ab o ve all thi ngs .
,

i n te ll e ctu al c o n c o rd which fi nds e xpre ssi o n in a b o dy

o f c o mm o n b e li e fs is ne c e ss ary .

I f th e re fo re a s o ci e ty b e a pre y to chro n ic dis o rd e rs which

, , ,

p o litic al r e m e di e s app e ar p o we rl e ss t o cure o ne h as e ve ry ,

right to b e li e ve th at th e d e e p ro o te d e vil h as its o rigi n -

in i nt e ll e ctu al dis o rg an is ati o n All o th e r tro ubl e s are m e re ly

.

sympt o ms This acc o rdi ng to C o mt e is pre cis e ly t h e st ate

.
, ,

o f c o n t e mp o r a ry s o ci e ty I t h as ne ith e r i nt e ll e ctu al n o r
.

“
spiritu al g o ve r nm e nt and d o e s no t e ve n fe e l t he w ant o f
”
,

it T h e mi nds o f m e n re c o g nis e no c o mm o n discipli ne No t

. .

a pr in cipl e subsis t s which n e g at iv e and c o rro sive cri t icism

“ ”

h as n o t a t tack e d T h e i n dividu al e re cts hims e lf as a j udge

.

o f all thi n gs —phil o s o phy e thics p o litics re ligi o n T h e

, , , .

o pi n i o n which h e ad o pt s m o st fr e qu e n tly wi th o ut a ny sp e ci a l

qu alific ati o n fo r so d o i ng and acc o rdi n g to his p as si o n s

, ,

a lw ays app e ars to him t o h ave as much right t o b e admitt e d

as th o s e o f o th e r m e n H e cl aims to b e am e n abl e to no o ne
.

fo r his th o ughts A nd t his sc att e ri n g (l a t e r 0 11 C o mt e will

.

say i nsurr e cti o n) o f i n t e llige n c e s is wh at h e c alls a st at e o f

a na

But we m ay say d o e s n o t thi s st ate r e pre s e nt th e o rdi nary

, ,

c o nditi o n o f hum an s o ci e ti e s ? P e rh aps th e o rg an ic st ate

“ ”

o n ly app e ars o cc a si o n ally an d as an e xc e pti o n ? Such a

su ppo siti o n is gro u ndl e ss F o r if such we r e th e c as e s o ci e ti e s
.
,

c o uld n o t subsist a nd ab o v e all c o uld no t d e v e l o p We must

, .

a dmit o n th e c o n tr ary th a t p e ri o ds o f i nt e ll e ctu al anar c hy

, ,

fo rm th e e xc e pti o n and th at in a no rm al s tate o f s o ci e ty

,

m e n are u n it e d b y th e ir u nan im o us submissi o n to a su f fici e ntly

l arge b o dy o f pri ncipl e s and be li e fs H ist o ry c o n firms this .

View . T h e imm o bility o f civilis ati o n i n t h e F ar E ast is -

 T /z e P nilosopnical P ro blem 2 7

es p e ci ally due to th e i nt e l l e c t ual st ability which disti nguish e s it

fro m o ur o wn c o n diti o n T h e s o ci e ti e s o fA ntiq u ity(G re c ian and
.

R o m an) re st e d up o n a c o nc e pt io n o f m an o f citi z e n ship and

, ,

o f th e w o rld which as a m att e r o f fact sc a rc e ly v ari e d duri n g

, , ,

th e wh o l e p e ri o d o fth e ir e xist e n c e L astly in th e Middl e age s

.
,
-
,

Christi an ity h ad c o nstitut e d an admirabl e spiritu al auth o rity .

T h e o rg anis ati o n o f C ath o licism a m as t e rpi e c e o f p o litic a l

“
,

s agac it y h ad e st ablish e d a b o dy o f b e li e fs which all mi nds

,
”

a c c e pt e d wi t h c o mpl a c e nt d o cility I t is th e d e c o mp o siti o n

.

o f this gr e at syst e m which h as pr o du c e d th e m aj o rity o f t h e

e vils wi t h which we are n o w struggli ng M e ntal anarc hy is

.

th e re fo re truly an ab no rm al st at e a p ath o l o gic al fact wh at

, ,

C o mt e will c all l at e r o n th e w e ste r n dis e as e a m o rt al

“
,

dis e ase if it is to b e pro l o n g e d Eith e r m o d e r n s o ci e ty must

.

p e rish o r mi n ds must r e g ai n th e ir s tabl e e quilibrium by

,

submissi o n to c o mm o n pri ncipl e s .

T h e pr o bl e m o f th e o rganis ati o n o f b e li e fs w o uld s e e m to

c o m e u n d e r two h e ads I n th e first pl ac e we h av e th e
.

phil o s o phic al pro bl e m : h o w t o e st ablish a syste m o f

pri n cipl e s and b e li e fs c ap ab l e o f b e i n g u ni ve rs ally admitte d
a nd in th e s e c o n d pl ac e a s o ci a l pr o bl e m : h o w t o bri n g all
, ,

mi nds i n to th e n e w faith But this disti n cti o n o n ly app e ars

.

o n t h e surfac e As a m att e r o f fact th e s o lu ti o n o f th e first

.
,

pro b l e m will ne c e ss arily imply th at o f th e s e c o n d D o e s no t .

t h e pri n cip al c aus e fo r t h e l ack o f c o mm o n discipli n e lie in

t h e dis o rd e r which tr o ubl e s t h e mi n d o f e ach i n dividu a l ? If

i nte ll e cts are di v id e d am o n g th e m se lve s it is b e c aus e e ach
i nte ll e ct is divid e d ag ai n st its e l f L e t o ne o f th e m succ e e d i n
.

e st abl ishi n g a p e rfe ct h arm o ny withi n its e lf and by th e ,

m e r e fo rc e o fl o gic this h arm o ny by gr adu al diffusi o n will b e

c o mmu n ic at e d to th e o th e rs—o nc e tru e phil o s o phy is
, ,

e s tablish e d th e r e st will o nl y b e a m at te r o f tim e

, I t will .

th e re fo re su ffic e to e x ami ne th e o pi ni o n s and b e li e fs which

a c tu ally e xist in o ne mi n d and t o i nquir e i n t o t h e c o n diti o n s
,
2 8 T /i e P bilosop/ty o f A u u ste C om te
g

ne e c ss ar y to substitut e in it h arm o ny to anarchy o r in a w o rd , ,

t o r e alis e withi n it a per fec t log ical conc rence .

A s D e sc art e s in o rd e r t o t e st all h is k no wl e dge h ad o nly t o

, ,

e x a mi ne th e s o urc e s fr o m which it o rigi n at e d so C o mt e in , ,

o rd e r to v e rify t h e l o gic a l c o mp atibility o f his o pi n i o n s will ,

c o n te n t hims e lf with th e c o nsid e r ati o n o f th e m e th o ds which

h ave fur n ish e d him with t h e m I f h e disc o ve rs m e th o ds
.

which mutu ally t e nd to e xclud e e ach o th e r h e will h av e ,

fo u n d th e c aus e o f th e m e n t al dis o rd e r which give s birth to

all t h e e vils we se e tro ubli ng m o d e rn s o ci e ty At th e .

s am e tim e h e will h ave disc o v e re d th e re m e dy which wil l

bri ng ab o ut th e dis appe aran c e o f th o s e c o ntradicti o n s T h e .

hum an mi nd is so c o nstitut e d th at th e first thi ng it re

,

quire s is un ity U nd e rst andi n g is sp o nt ane o usly syst e m ati c

. .

O pi n i o n s m e re ly in j uxt ap o siti o n in t h e mi nd but l o gic ally

i rre c o ncil abl e c an no t s atisfy it As a m att e r o f fact th e
.
,

c o ntr adicti o n e ve n wh e n it is ig no re d ne ve rth e l e ss impre ss e s

, ,

its e l f Wh e th e r we k n o w it o r n o t e ach o f o u r o pi n i o n s
.

impli e s a c o mpl e xus o f c o nne ct e d Op i ni o ns all arrive d at by

t h e s am e m e th o d as th e o n e in qu e sti o n ; and this c o mpl e xus

is its e lf p art o f th e m o re c o nsid e rabl e wh o l e which fi nally

c o mpl e te s its e lf in a c o mp re h e nsiv e c o n c e pti o n o f th e w o rld
giv e n in e xp e ri e nc e .

No w C o mt e saw in hims e lf as in his c o n te mp o rari e s

, ,

two g e ne r al m e th o ds t wo m o d e s o f th o ught which c an no t

“ ”
,

c o e xist with o ut c o n tradicti o n altho ugh n e ith e r o ne no r th e

,

o th e r h as o bt ai ne d a full m ast e ry up to t h e pr e s e n t t im e .

C o nc e r n i n g s e ve r al c ate go ri e s o f ph e n o m e na h e thi n ks as a
sch o l ar trai ne d in th e sch o o l o f H o bb e s o f G alil e o o f , ,

D e sc arte s and o f th e ir succ e ss o rs H e d o e s n o t s e e k to

.

e xpl a i n th e m by c aus e s .Wh e n by m e an s o f o bs e r vati o n

,

o r d e ducti o n ,
h e h as a rriv e d at a k no wl e dg e o f t h e ir l aws
h e re m ai n s s atisfi e d . F o r th e k no wl e dge o f t h e s e l aws all o ws
him in c e rt ai n c as e s to i nt e rve ne in th e ph e no m e n a an d to
-

,
 T b e P /z ilosopbica l P ro ble m 2 9

substi tut e to th e natural o rd e r an artifici al o rd e r b e tte r suit e d

to his r e quir e m e n ts I t is thus th at m e ch anic al as tro no mic al
.
, ,

physic al ch e mic al and e ve n bi o l o gic al ph e no m e n a are o bj e cts

,

o f rela ti ve a n d pos i ti ve sci e n c e f o r him to day -

.

B ut as s o o n as th e qu e sti o n is o ne o f facts which o rigi nat e

,

in th e hum an c o n sci e nc e o r which are c o nn e ct e d with so c 1al

,

life and with his to ry an o pp o site t e n d e n cy b e c o m e s pre

,

d o mi n an t .I n st e ad o f s o l e ly se e k ihg fo r t h e l aws o f
ph e no m e na o u r mi n d d e sir e s to e xpl a i n th e m I t w ant s to
,
.

find t h e e ss e nc e an d th e c aus e I t sp e c ul ate s upo n th e '

h um an s o ul up o n th e r e l ati o n o f th at s o ul to th e o th e r
,
‘

re aliti e s o f th e u n ive rs e u p o n th e e nd which s o ci e ty sh o uld

,

h ave in vi e w up o n th e b e st p o ssibl e g o ve r n m e nt up o n th e
, ,

s o c i al c o ntrac t e tc All th e s e qu e sti o ns a ris e fro m th e

.
,

“
m e t aphysic al m o d e o f th o ught and this m o d e is fo rm ally ,

i n c o mp atibl e with th e pre c e di ng o ne Y e t we se e b o th o f .

th e m subsisti ng in o ur mi nds t o day -

.

S o c i al dy namics will sh o w h o w this c o n diti o n must h ave

b e e n pro duc e d But wh ate ve r th e histo ric al r e as o n s m ay b e
.
,

th e r e ality is o n ly t o o e vid e n t T h e hum an mi n d to day c an

.
-

ne ith e r adh e r e e n tir e ly t o n o r giv e up e n tire ly o ne o r t h e

o th e r o f th e s e t wo m o d e s o f th o ught U n d o ubt e dl y it fe e ls .

th at th e c o n qu e sts o f p o sitiv e sci e nc e are irre v o c abl e

“
F or .
”

e x a mpl e h o w c o uld it r e tur n t o a m e t aphysic a l o r th e o l o gic a l

,

e xpl an at i o n o f a str o n o mic a l o r physic al ph e n o m e n a ? But ,

o n th e o th e r h an d m e t aphysic al an d th e o l o gic al c o n c e pti o n s

,

s e e m to it no l e ss i ndispe ns abl e I t d o e s no t b e li e ve it c o u l d
.

do with o ut th e m A n d t his is n atur al

. F o r t o s atisfy th e .
,

d e sire fo r u n ity which is its supre m e re quire m e n t th e hum an

, ,

mi nd d e m ands a c o n c e pti o n o f th e wh o l e which e mbr ac e s all

th e o rd e rs o f ph e n o m e n a wh at K an t c all e d a t o t ali z i ng o f
,

e xp e ri e n c e in a w o rd a phil o s o phy ”
.
,

No w up t o th e pre s e nt tim e th e p o sitive m o d e o f

, ,

th o ught h as n o t sh o w n its e lf in a p o siti o n t o re spo nd to this

30 T b e P b ilosopby o f A u uste C o m te
g

d e m and I t h as o nly pro d uc e d individu al sci e n c e s P o sitive

. .

Sci e nc e h as b e e n sp e c i al and fragm e ntary alw ays attach e d ,

t o t h e i nv e stig ati o n o f a m o r e o r l e ss r e stric t e d gr o up o f

ph e no m e na With a l aud ab l e prud e nc e which h as m ad e

.
,

h e r stre ngth sh e h as appli e d h e rs e lf s o l e ly to w o rks o f

,

ana lysis and p arti al sy n th e si s S h e h as n e v e r v e n tur e d up o n

.

a sy n th e sis o f t h e wh o l e o f th e re al withi n o ur re ach .

U ntil no w th e o l o gi e s an d m e t aphysics al o ne h ave m ad e

th e e ff o rt an d t his o fli c e is
,
still to day th e chi e f r e as o n
,
-
,

o f th e ir e xist e n c e this o flfic e must b e fulfill e d

, T h e hum an .

mi n d is c arri e d by a sp o nt ane o us and ne c e ss ary m o ve m e nt to

, ,

w ards th e p o i n t o f vi e w o fth e u nive rsal S o o ne r th an l e ave th e

.

phil o so phic al pr o bl e ms with o ut an answ e r it w o uld re m ai n ,

att ac h e d i nd e fi n it e ly to th e s o l uti o n s chim e ric a l as th e y a re

, ,

whi c h th e th e o l o gi e s and m e t aphysic s o ffe r him I n sh o rt .

,

in th e pr e s e n t st at e o f thi n gs t h e p o sitiv e mi nd is r e al but

“ ”
,

sp e ci a l T h e t h e o lo g ic o m e t aphysi c al mi n d is u niv e rs al
“ ”
-
“ ”
.

but fictiti o us
“
We c an ne ith e r s ac rific e th e r e ality o f
.
” “ ”

sci e n c e n o r th e u n i ve rs ality o f phil o so phy Which i s th e

,
“ ”
.

way o u t o f this d i fficulty ?

Thre e s o luti o n s al o ne are c o nc e ivabl e
1. T o find a r e c o n cili at i o n which will m ak e it p o ssibl e fo r
th e t wo m o d e s o f th o ught t o c o e xist with o ut c o ntr adicti o n

2 . T o re e st ablish u n ity by m aki ng th e t h e o lo g ic o m e t a

- -

physic al m e tho d u n iv e rs al :
3 . T o re e st ablish u n i ty by m aki ng th e p o sitiv e m e th o d
-

u nive rs al
II .

T h e first s o luti o n at first sight app e ars t o b e th e m o st

acc e pt abl e Wh y sh o uld n o t th e p o sitiv e i nve stig ati o n o f th e
.

div e rs o rd e rs o f natural ph e no m e na b e re c o ncil e d with a

th e o l o gic al o r m e t aphysic al c o n c e pti o n o f th e u n ive rs e ?
No thi ng prev e nts o ne fr o m c o n c e ivi ng t h e ph e no m e na as
 Tb e P /z ilosopnical P roble m
3 1

g o ve r ne d by i nvari abl e l aws and fro m s e e ki ng a t th e s am e

,

t i m e b y a no th e r m e th o d fo r t h e r e as o n which r e n d e rs n atur e
, ,

i n g e ne r a l i n t e lligibl e P o sitive sci e n c e lib e r ate d at l ast fro m

.

t h e o l o gy an d m e taphysics w o uld assure th e m o f th e in

,

d e p e n d e nc e which sh e cl aims fo r h e rs e l f Thus wi th gr o wi ng .

,

p e cisi o n w o uld b e fix e d th e b o u nd ari e s o n th e o ne h an d o f

r

t h e d o m ai n pr o p e r o f p o sitiv e sci e n c e an d o n t h e o th e r th at,

o f th e sp e cul a ti o n which g o e s b e y o n d e xp e ri e n c e .

This r e c o n cili ati o n s ays C o mt e h as fo r a l o ng ti m e b e e n

, ,

c o n sid e r e d l e gitim at e b e c aus e fo r a l o n g tim e it was i ndis

,

p e ns abl e Up to th e pr e s e nt tim e Th e o l o gy and M e t a

.

phy si c s h av e b e e n th e o n ly c o mpr e h e n siv e c o n c e pti o ns

o f th e w o rld whi c h th e h u m an mi n d h as fo rm e d Th e y .

ha v e ful fill e d a n e c e ss ary fu n cti o n M o re o ve r with o ut th e m

.
,

p o sitive sci e nc e c o uld ne ith e r h ave o rigi nat e d n o r h av e b e e n

d e ve l o p e d B ut as sh e rs th e ir h e ir e ss sh e is als o t h e ir
.
, ,

a nt ag o n ist H e r pro gr e ss ne c e ss arily i n v o lve s th e ir d o w n fall

. .

T h e p ara ll e l his to ry o f r e ligi o n s an d m e t aphysic al d o gm as o n

t h e o ne h an d an d o f p o sitiv e k n o wl e dg e o n t h e o th e r sh o ws

t h at t h e c o n cili ati o n b e tw e e n th e m h as n e v e r b e e n a l as ti ng

o ne .

No t th at t go n i sm b e tw e e n th e two m o d e s o f
th e an a

t h o ught c an b e s o lv e d by a supr e m e di al e ctic a l st ruggl e in

which th e th e o l o gic al and m e t aphysic al d o gm as w o uld be

w o rst e d I t is no t thus th at d o gm as c o m e to an e n d Th e y
. .

dis app e ar acc o rdi n g to C o mt e s striki ng e xpre ssi o n by desue

,
’

tu de a s i s th e c as e with fo rs ak e n m e th o ds
,
As a m att e r o f .

fact h av e th e y n o t b e e n as m e th o ds fo r th e hum an mi nd which

, ,

s o ught withi n a si ngl e p o i nt o fV i e w to e mbrace t h e u n ive rs ality

o f thi ngs be fo r e t h e y h ad b e e n su ffici e ntly studi e d ? M an de
m ande d fr o m his im agi nati o n at first sight an a bs o l ut e k no w

l e dge o f th e re al which r e as o n c o uld o nly give him at a l at e r

,

stage o n a ve ry m o d e st sc al e e ntire ly re l ati v e and aft e r th e

, ,

p ati e n t l ab o ur o f th e sci e n c e s But by d e gre e s as h e h as .

,
3 2 T b e P /i ilosop/ty o f g
A u u ste C o m te

a dv anc e d in th e p o sitive study o fph e no m e na h e h as fo rs ak e n ,

th e th e o l o gi c al an d m e t aphysic al e xpl an a ti o n s With o ut

“ ”
.

r e l i nqui shi ng al t o ge th e r th e s e arch afte r c aus e s h e h as t ak e n ,

th e h abit o f r e l e g ati ng th e m to m o r e and m o r e r e m o t e r e gi o n s .

Alre ady in wh at c o n c e rn s ph e no m e na wh o s e c o nc e pt h as
,

r e ach e d a p o sitive st age we c an v e ry w e ll do with o ut any

a ssump t i o n o f c aus e s I t su ffic e s fo r us to r e pre s e nt th e s e
.

ph e no m e na to o urs e lv e s as subj e c t to l aws Wh e n all th e .

ph e no m e na o f all o rd e rs are h abitu ally c o n c e iv e d in t his way ,

wh e n th e id e a o f th e ir l aws wh ate v e r th e y m ay b e will h av e

, ,

b e c o m e e qu ally famili ar tO U S th e m e t aphysic al m o d e o f ’

t h o ught will h av e dis app e ar e d .

I n a w o rd as s o o n as th e wh o l e o f s c i e n c e sh all h av e
,

b e c o m e p o sitiv e phil o s o phy will ne c e ssarily b e p o sitive als o

,

F o r we o n ly h av e at o u r disp o s al o ne p o i n t o f vi e w c o nc e r n i n g
thi ngs All o ur r e al k no wl e dge b e ars up o n ph e no m e na and
.

t h e i r l aws . I f th e re fo re c o nsid e re d o ne by o ne all th e o rd e rs

, , ,

o f ph e no m e na are c o n c e iv e d acc o rdi n g t o t h e p o sitiv e m o d e

o f th o ught h o w c o uld it b e th at c o n sid e r e d t o g e th e r and i n

, ,

t h e ir t o t ality th e y sh o uld b e c o n c e ive d ac c o rdi n g t o a m o d e

,

o f th o ught c o mpl e t e ly di f fe r e nt and e v e n i nc o n sist e nt with

,

t h e fo rm e r o ne ?

As a m atte r o f fact th e c o e xist e n c e o f th e s e two m o d e s o f

,
-

th o ught l asts so l o ng as th e p o sitiv e spirit h as no t r e ach e d its

c o mpl e te e xp an si o n so l o n g as a m o re o r l e ss c o n sid e r abl e
,

p o rti o n o f natural ph e no m e na is still e xpl ai ne d by th e ir

e ss e nc e ,
th e ir c aus e o r th e ir e nd But this c anno t b e in
,
.

d e fi n ite ly pr o l o nge d T h e m o re th e p o sitiv e spirit pro gre ss e s

.
,

t h e m o r e th e th e o l o gic al and m e t aphysic al c o n c e pti o n o f th e

w o rld l o s e s gro u nd and it b e c o m e s m o r e e vid e n t th at we

,

must m ak e o ur ch o ic e T h e u n ity o f th e u nd e rstandi n g th e

.

f t l i a l con re nce are at this pric e

p r
e ec og c c , .

T h e c o ncili ati o n b e i n g se t asid e t h e alt e r native e ith e r to ,

thi n k s o l e ly o r n o t at all acc o rdi ng to th e p o siti ve m o d e

, ,
 Tb e P /z ilosop/z icalP ble m
ro
33

pre s e nts its e l f T h e tr adit io nalists and e sp e ci ally J o s e ph de

.
,

M aistre saw this asp e ct o fth e pro bl e m v e ry cl e arly C o mt e

,
.

give s th e m ve ry gre at cre dit fo r it De M aistre admits no .

salv ati o n f o r o u r s o ci e ty e xc e pt in t h e c o mpl e t e r e tur n t o th e

th e o l o gic al m o d e o f th o ught H e thu s att acks at its ve ry

.

s o urc e o r t o put it m o r e pl a i n ly in its m any s o ur c e s th e

, , ,

spirit o f m o d e rn phil o so phy H e d o e s no t sp are L o ck e any

.

m o re th an th e phil o s o ph e rs o f th e X V I I I ce ntury wh o .

p ro c e e d fro m him B ac o n any m o re th an L o ck e ; th e pro

,

m o te rs o f t h e R e fo rm ati o n any m Ore th an B a c o n H e u nd e r .

st o o d th at th e X V I I I c e n tu ry c am e as a mighty c o nc lusi o n
.

o f which t h e X V I and X V I I c e n tu r i e s w e r e th e pr e miss e s

. .
,

an d th at th e gre at d e structiv e syll o gism h ad o rigi nat e d in a

w o rk o f d e c o mp o siti o n which b e gan as e arly as th e ! I V c e n .

tury H e is th e re fo re p e rfe ctly c o nsist e nt with hims e lf wh e n

.
,

h e e nde avo urs to c o mb at this di ab o lic al w o rk and t o bri n g

r

Euro p e b ack to t h e m e nt al and re ligi o us c o n diti o n o f th e

Middl e age s T h e re e st ablishm e nt o fth e spiritu al supre m ac y
-
.
-

o f th e P o p e w o uld put an e n d t o m e nt al an d m o r al an ar c hy .

T h e c ath o lic d o c tri n e w o uld r e st o r e t o m e n s mi nds th at

’

un ity which is th e ir supr e m e n e e d .

This so luti o n fulfi ls id e ally th e c o nditi o n s o f th e pro bl e m ,

but as a m att e r o f fact th e so lutio u is impractic abl e T h e

, , .

tid e o f hist o ry c anno t fl o w b ack I n o rd e r to bri ng m e n s .

’

mi nds o n c e agai n u n d e r th e sw ay o f th at spiritu al p o w e r

which th e y fr e e ly acc e pt e d in th e Middl e age s we sh o uld als o -
,

h av e to re c o n stitut e th e t o t ality o f th e c o nditi o n s in which

t h e y liv e d at th at tim e H o w c an we wip e fr o m t h e p age s o f
.

hist o ry th e disc o v e ry o f Am e ri c a t h e i nve nti o n o f pri n ti ng , ,

an d s o m any o th e r gr e at s o ci al fa cts ? H o w c an we pr e t e n d
th at C o p e rn icus K e pl e r G alil e o D e sc arte s N e wt o n and all
, , , , ,

t h e h e r ald s o f p o sitiv e S c i e n c e ne ve r e xi st e d ? A nd if pre ,

su m ing wh at is imp o ssibl e we sh o uld suc c e e d in r e st o ri n g t h e

,

m e nt al an d m o ral u nity o f Christi an s o ci e ty in th e Middl e

34 T ue P lt ilosopby oA
f gu u ste C om te

a g e s h o w c o uld we pre v e n t th e n atural l aws which h ave o nc e

,

bro ugh t ab o ut its d e c o mp o siti o n fro m pr o duci ng ag ai n th e

,

s am e r e sult ?
We are thus ne c e ss arily bro ught to th e third and l ast s o lu
ti o n Si nc e th e c o nc ili ati o n b e tw e e n th e p o sitiv e m o d e o f
.

th o ught an d th e o th e r o ne is imp o ssibl e ; si nc e th e e xclusiv e

asc e n d e n cy o f th e th e o lo g ic o m e t aphysic a l m o d e o f th o ught
-

is o u t o fth e qu e sti o n ; si n c e wh e n all is s aid th e hum an mi nd

n e e ds a phil o s o phy it fo ll o ws th a t t h at phil o s o phy c an o n ly
,

pr o c e e d fro m th e p o sitive m o d e o f th o ught i ts e l f Th e re is .

no thi n g a p ri o ri t o pr e v e nt this s o luti o n fr o m b e i n g r e alis e d

, ,
.

F o r t h e l as t p o siti o n s o f th e th e o lo g ic o m e t aphysic al spirit are

-

sure ly no t i mpre gnabl e . This spirit ficti t i o us in its ,

”

e sse n c e n e v e r c o uld b e c o m e
,
re al T h e p o sitive spirit is
.

o n ly a cc id e n t ally sp e ci al I t is qu ite c ap abl e o f acquiri ng

“ ”
.

t h e u n iv e rs ality which it l acks T h e n e w phil o s o phy w o uld

‘
.

th e n b e fo u n d e d and th e pr o bl e m o f perfect log ical conerence

,

w o uld b e s o lve d .

T h e wh o l e di fficul ty thus app e ars t o b e in u n ive rs alisi ng

th e p o sitiv e m od e o f th o ught T o do this it must b e e xt e nd e d
.

to th o s e ph e no m e na which are still h abitu ally c o nc e iv e d

acc o rdi n g to th e th e o lo g ic o m e t aphysic a l m o d e th at is t o sa

y
-
, ,

to th e m o r al and s o ci al ph e n o m e n a This will b e C o mte s ’

.

c r o w n i ng dis c o v e ry H e will fo u n d s o ci al physics

.
“
By so .

d o i ng h e wil l t ak e fr o m th e o l o gy and m e t aphysi c s th e l ast

r e as o n o f the ir e xist e nc e H e will m ak e p o ssibl e th e transi
.

t i o n fr o m a p o sitive sci e n c e t o an e qu ally p o sitiv e phi l o s o phy .

Thus will b e re alis e d th e u nity o f th e und e rst an di ng and

“
,
”

t his m e n t al h arm o ny will c a rry with it as its c o n s e qu e n c e th e

m o r a l and re l igi o us h arm o ny o f hum an it y .

 C H A PTE R I I
TH E LA W OF T H E TH REE S T A TE S

I N C o mt e s syste m t he c o nstituti o n o f s o ci o l o gy m ay b e
’

c o n sid e r e d at t h e s am e t im e as a t e rmi n us and as a st arti n g

p o i nt O ne s e e s th e p o sitiv e m e th o d attai n i ng with it to th e

.

o rd e r o f th e high e st t h e m o st n o bl e th e m o st c o mplic at e d
“ ”
, ,

ph e no m e na : in this s e n s e s o ci o l o gy is th e te rm re ach e d by
t h e p o sitiv e spirit in its asc e n t I t thus re ach e s th e summit
.

o f th e hi e r archy o f t h e s c i e n c e s a n d h e n c e fo rth rul e s o ve r

,

th e m all O n t h e o th e r h an d p o sitive phil o s o phy p o ssibl e

.
, ,

fr o m this m o m e n t will m ak e this a st arti ng p o i n t fo r e st ablish

,

i ng th e pri ncipl e s o f m o r ality a nd o f p o lity .

Thro ugh th e fo u nd ati o n o f so ci o l o gy s ays C o mte at th e ”

,

b e gi nn i n g o f th e C o u rs p o sitive phil o so ph y will acquire th at

,

u n ive rs a l ch a r act e r which it sti l l l acks an d will thus b e c o m e ,

q u alifi e d to t ak e th e pl ac e o f th e o l o gic al and m e t aphysic al

phil o s o phy wh o se o n ly re al pro p e rty to day is this u n iv e rs al
,
-

ity,
”1
an d at t h e e n d o f t h e C ou rs h e c o n clud e s “
T he
c r e ati o n o f s o ci o l o gy e n d o ws with fu n d am e nt al u nity th e
e ntir e syst e m o f m o d e r n phil o s o phy
2 ”
.

This cre ati o n up o n which e ve rythi ng e l s e d e p e nd e d d at e s

, ,

fr o m t h e t im e wh e n C o mt e disc o v e re d th e la w of tb e tlz ree

'

s ta tes as it is c all e d F o r o nc e this law is e s tablish e d

.
, ,

s o c ial physics c e as e s to b e a m e re phil o s o phic al c o n c e pti o n

”
,

1
C o urs de ph ilo so ph ic p o sitive , I , 19 (se e d iti o n, P aris,

C o u rs, VI , 7 86 .
3 6 T ue P /i ilosop/zy f g
oA u uste C om te

and b e c o m e s a p o sitive sci e n c e This law h ad b e e n an tici .

p ate d and e ve n alre ad y fo rm ul ate d in th e X V I I I c e ntury by .

Turgo t t h e n b y C o nd o rc e t and by Dr Burdi n C o mte

, , . .
,

n e v e rth e l e ss t ak e s t o hims e lf th e m e ri t o f t h e disc o v e ry

, A s .

h e is g e ne r ally m o st pre cis e in d o i n g full j us t ic e t o his p re

curs o rs we must admit t h at acc o rdi n g t o him no ne o f th e m
,
”
, ,

h ad s e e n t h e sci e n tific imp o rt an c e o f t his law I t c er tai n ly is .

o ne t hi n g t o g at h e r th e n o ti o n o f a law o ut o f a n umb e r o f

facts and ano th e r to un d e rst and its c apit al imp o rt an c e and

, ,

t o disc e r n m it t h e fu n d am e n t al law which g o v e r n s t h e wh o l e

o ft h e e vo luti o n o f hum an ity .

This is t h e way in which C o mt e e no u n c e s it in th e P la n ,

des tra vaux scien t ifi necessa i res reorg a n iser la s oc iete

’ ’ ’

g u es p ou r
(1 8 2 2 )
Acc o rdi ng to th e ve ry nature o f th e hum an i nte ll e ct e v e ry
branch o f o u r k no wl e dge must ne c e ss arily p ass succ e ssive ly
in t h e c o urs e o f its pr o gr e ssiv e d e v e l o pm e nt t hr o ugh thr e e ,

di ffe re n t th e o re ti c al st at e s : t h e th e o l o gic al o r fic t iti o us st at e ,

th e m e t aphysic al o r abstr act st at e fi n ally th e sci e n t ifi c o r ,

p o sitive st at e .
”

I n th e first l e ss o n o f t h e C o u rs de p /z ilosop/z ie posi tive aft e r ,

h avi ng re pro duc e d this st at e m e nt C o mt e adds : I n o th e r “

,

wo rds th e hum an mi nd by its natur e in e ach o ne o f its , ,

re s e a rch e s m ak e s use succ e ssiv e ly o f thr e e m e th o ds o f

phil o s o phisi ng e ss e nti ally diffe re nt and e ve n o pp o s e d t o
,

e ach o th e r : firstly th e t h e o l o gic al m e th o d ne xt th e m e ta

, , ,

physic al an d l astly th e p o sitive H e nc e we fin d thr e e ki nds o f

, .

phil o s o phi e s o r ge ne ral syst e ms o f c o n c e p t i o n s o f th e t o t alit y

,

o f ph e n o m e n a which mutu all y e xclud e e ach o th e r T h e

, .

first is th e ne c e ss ary st arti n g p o i nt o f hum an i nte llige nc e th e

-
,

third its fix e d an d fi nal st at e ; th e s e c o n d is s o l e ly d e sti ne d

,

t o se rve as a tr an siti o n
”2
.

P l p I V pp d i p 7 7
1
o . o s. , a en ce, . .

2
C o u rs, 1 .
3 .
 T /t e L aw o
f t/be T /
cre e S ta tes
37

T he w o rds the o l o gic a l and m e t aphysic al are h e re

“ “

t a k e n in a p articul ar s e n s e strictly d e fi ne d
, .

C o mt e c alls the o l o gy a g e ne r al syst e m o f c o n c e pti o n s

“ ”

c o n c e r n i ng th e un ive rs ality o f ph e no m e na which e xpl ai n s th e ,

a pp e aran c e o f th e s e ph e n o m e na by t h e will o f g o ds H e h as .

n o t in his mi n d th e o l o gic al sp e c ul ati o n as o n e usu ally u n d e r

s t an ds it as a rat io nal o r s acr e d s c i e n c e

,
H e d o e s n o t in t h e .

l e ast dre am o fa st udy o f re v e al e d truth H e o nly d e sig nate d .

b y this n am e an i n t e rpr e t ati o n o f n atur al ph e no m e na by

m e an s o f sup e r natural an d arbitrary c aus e s T h e o lo g 1c al .

t h at is t o say—fic t itio u s Els e wh e re C o mt e c alls thi s m o d e

.

o f e xpl an ati o n im agi nary o r myth o l o gic al I t is in

“ ” ”
.

this s e ns e th at h e c o uld ask if e ach o ne o f us did no t

re m e mb e r h avi n g b e e n in re gard to his m o st imp o rt an t
n o ti o n s a th e o l o gi an in 11 15 i n fan cy a m e t aphysici an in h is
, ,

y o uth , a n d a physicist in his m an h o o d ?

2
C o mt e d o e s no t

a llud e t o t h e r e ligi o us tr aditi o n s w h ich th e child re c e ive s fr o m

h is p ar e n ts but i nd e e d t o th e sp o n t ane o us t e nd e nc y whi c h

,

c aus e s him in th e first pl ac e to e xpl ai n natur al ph e no m e na

by wills and no t by l aws The o l o gy is he re sy no nym o us
, .

w ith anthro p o m o rphi sm in t h e c o n c e pti o n o f c aus e s .

S imil arly C o mt e d o e s n o t t ak e th e w o rd m e t aphysic s in “

t h e m o st usu al e xt e n si o n o f its m e an i n g T h e sci e n c e o f .

B e i ng as su c h th e sci e nc e o f S ubstan c e o r o f first Pri n

,

c ip le s is n o t h e re in qu e sti o n at l e ast dir e c tly

, ,
H e o n ly .

r e fe rs to a c e rt ai n m o d e o f e xpl ai ni n g ph e no m e n a give n
i n o ur e xp e ri e n c e F o r e x ampl e in physics t h e hyp o th e sis
.
, ,

o f an e th e r t o e xpl a i n o ptic al an d e l e ctric al ph e no m e na is

m e taphysic al S o it is in physi o l o gy with th e hyp o th e sis o f

.

a vit al pri n cipl e o r in psych o l o gy with th e hyp o th e sis o f a

, , ,

s o ul M e t aph y sic al o r abstract s ays C o mt e At b o tt o m

“
. .
,

t his m o d e o f e xpl an ati o n is n o o t h e r th an th e pr e c e di n g o ne ,

b ut m o re and m o r e p al e and c o l o url e ss v an ishi n g so t o sp e ak , , ,

C
”
o urs, 1 . 6 .
3 8 T b e P /z ilosopn
y f A ug uste C o m
o te

as n a tural ph e no m e na b e tte r o bs e rve d are re fe rr e d n o l o nge r

, ,

t o c aprici o us wills but t o i nv ari abl e l aws

,
.

L e t u s th e n b e c are fu l n o t to giv e h e r e t o t h e w o rd s
m e taphysics and th e o l o gy th e ir full m e an i ng F o r
“ ”
.

i nst anc e to c o n clud e fro m t h e law o f th e thre e St at e s th at

,

t h e e v o luti o n o f hum an ity e v e r c arri e s it furth e r fr o m

th e o l o gy to e nd in a fi nal st at e wh e re i n re ligi o n sh o uld h ave

,

n o pl ac e is si n gul arly t o mis appr e h e n d C o mt e s d o ctri n e

’
.

O n t h e c o ntr ary t h e e vo lu ti o n o f hum a n ity I S l e adi ng it to

a st a t e which will b e p re e mi n e n tly r e ligi o us I n it r e ligi o n
-
.

will r e gul at e t h e wh o l e life o f m an C o mt e p e rh aps .

w o uld no t r e fus e to d e fi ne m an as h as o ft e n b e e n d o ne , ,

as a r e ligi o us an im al T h e hist o ry o f hum an i ty m ay b e

.

re pre s e nte d in a s e n s e as an e v o luti o n which pro c e e ds fro m

, ,

primitive r e ligi o n (fe ti c hism ) t o fi nal r e ligi o n (p o sitivism ) .

But th e o bj e ct Of th e law o fth e thre e St ate s is no t to e xpre s s

t h e r e ligi o us e v o luti o n o f h u m an ity I t is o n ly c o n c e r ne d .

with th e pro gre ss o f th e hum an i nt e ll e ct I t s e ts fo rth th e .

succ e ssive phil o s o phi e s which th at i nt e llige n c e h as b e e n

o blig e d by tur n t o ad o pt in t h e i nt e rpr e t ati o n o f n at ur al

ph e no m e na I t is in a w o rd th e ge ne r al law o f th e e v o l uti o n
.
, ,

o f t/
z oug /
it .

Th o s e wh o m ad e a mis tak e ab o ut it pro b ably o nly

c o nsid e re d this law in th e first l e ss o n o f th e C o u rs wh e re it is ,

s e p ar ate l y pre s e n te d But th e e rro r is n o l o nge r p o ssibl e

.

wh e n o ne re fe rs to th e fo urth vo lum e o f th e C ou rs wh e re th e ,

law is put in its pl ac e in s o ci al dy n ami c s e sp e ci ally in t h e

, ,

fifty e ight l e ss o n in th e sixth v o lum e

-
,
.

It is no t h o we ve r with o ut r e as o n th at C o mt e se t fo rth this

, ,

law in th e first p age s o f his C ou rs de pnilosop/t ie posi tive In .

s o ci o l o gy as h e c o n c e iv e s it t h e law o fth e i nt e ll e ctu al e vo luti o n

,

o f hum an ity th at is t o s ay t h e law o f t h e thr e e St at e s is th e

,

e ss e n ti al law o f dy namics and t h e re fo r e o f th e wh o l e o f

,

s o ci al sci e nc e F o r o f all t he so ci al fac t o rs o f which th e

.
,
 Tb e L a w of tb e a ce S tates 39

c o nc o mitant and j o i nt e vo l uti o n c o nstitut e s th e pr o gr e ss o f

hum anity th e i nte ll e c tu al fac t o r is th e m o st imp o rt ant I t
, .

is th e d o mi nan t o ne in th e se nse th at th e o th e r s d e p e nd far

,

m o re up o n it th an it d o e s up o n th e m T h e h isto ry o f art o f
.
,

instituti o n s o f m o r als o f law o f civili sat io n in g e ne r al c o uld

, , ,

n o t b e u nd e rst o o d with o ut th e hist o ry o f i n t e ll e ctu a l e v o l uti o n ,

th at is to say o f sci e n c e and o f phil o so phy wh e r e as this o ne , ,

strictly sp e aki n g w o uld still b e i n t e lligibl e with o ut th e o th e rs

, .

This e vo luti o n is th e re fo r e th e pri n cip al axi s aro u nd which

t h e o th e r s e ri e s o f s o ci al ph e no m e n a are arr ang e d Thu s th e .

law which e xpr e ss e s it is th e m o st fu nd am e n t al the

“ ”
,

m o st ge ne r al in th e pre cis e s e ns e in which C o mt e u nd e r

“
,
”

st ands this w o rd I n e n u n ci ati ng this law h e d e c l ar e s le g iti

.

m ate by anticip ati o n th e e xiste nc e o f a s o c i al sci e nc e H e .

pro ve s ipso fac to no t o nly th at it is p o ssibl e but th at it ,

a lr e a dy e xists . H e nc e th e e mi ne n t p o siti o n which h e give s

to th e law o f t h e thr e e st at e s .

II .

T h e d e m o n strati o n o f this law pr e s e nts its e lf u nd e r t wo

disti n ct fo rms I n th e first pl ac e C o mt e s upp o rts his
.

argum e n t by hist o ry This pro ve s i nd e e d th at e ve ry bran ch

.

o f o u r k n o wl e dg e p a ss e s in t ur n thr o ugh th e th re e sta te s

'

with n e v e r a s ingl e re tro gr e ssi o n I t is tru e th at much o f

.

o u r k n o wl e dg e h as n o t ye t r e ach e d t h e p o sitiv e st at e But .

at any r at e it is e st ablish e d th at up to t h e pr e s e n t e v e n th o se

sci e nc e s which h av e no t ye t r e ac h e d th at st at e h av e all

d e s c rib e d th e s am e curv e alr e ady d e scr ibe d by th o s e th at
,

h ave re ach e d it .

H isto ric al v e rific ati o n w o uld su ffic e if ne c e ss ary pro vid e d

, ,

it we re c o mpl e te C o mt e is no t s atisfi e d with it H e c l aim s

. .

m o re o ve r to d e duc e th e law o f th e thre e state s fro m th e

n atur e o f m an . H e will t hus giv e a dir e ct d e m o n str ati o n o f
it. H o we v e r us e ful histo ry m ay app e ar to him as an
40 T ue P /t ilosop/ty ofA ug uste C o m te

1 nstrum e n t pro o f h e still wish e s t o re n d e r its v e rdi c t

of ,

i nte lligibl e T o re ac h this e nd h e h as re c o urs e to psych o

.

l o gy . We o ught h e s ay s c are fu l ly to ch ar act e ris e th e

,
”
,

g e ne ral m o tive s draw n fro m an e x act k no wl e dge o f hum an

,

natur e which must h av e r e n d e r e d p art l y i ne vit abl e p art ly

, ,

i ndisp e ns abl e th e n e c e ss ary su c c e ssi o n o f s o ci a l ph e no

,

m e na c o nsid e re d dir e ctly with re sp e ct to th e i nt e ll e c tu al

,

d e ve l o pm e n t which d o mi nat e s e ss e nti ally th e ir chi e f ad

van c e 1‘ ”

I n th e first pl ac e th e hum an mi n d c o uld o n ly be gi n t o

,

i nte rpre t n ature by a phil o s o phy o fth e th e o l o gic al type F o r .

it is th e o nly o ne which is sp o nt ane o usly pro du ce d th e o nl y ,

o ne which d o e s no t pr e supp o s e an o th e r M an at first .

c o nc e iv e s all activity o n th e s am e pl an as h is o wn I n o rd e r .

t o u n d e rst an d ph e n o m e n a h e lik e n s th e m to his o wn ac ti o ns

, ,

wh o s e m o d e o f pro ducti o n h e thi nks h e appre h e nds b e c aus e ,

h e h as th e fe e li ngs o f his o wn e ffo rts an d t h e c o n sci o us ne ss o f

his o wn vo liti o n s This an thro p o m o rphi c e xpl anati on c o m e s
.

so n at ur al l y t o us th at we are a lw ays r e ady t o giv e wa

y to it .

Eve n to day if we fo rg e t p o sitiv e discipli ne fo r a m o m e n t if

-
, ,

we v e n tur e to ask fo r t h e m o d e o f pr o du c ti o n o f so m e
ph e no m e no n we imm e di ate ly dimly im agi ne an activity m o re
,

o r l e ss lik e o u r o wn A n d a m o ng t h e m e t aphysici an s wh o
.

p ro fe ss to give an id e a o fG o d th e m o st c o nsist e nt ac c o rdi ng , ,

t o C o mt e are th o s e wh o m ak e a p e rs o n o f H im
,
.

T h e sp o n t ane ity which ch ar act e ris e s t h e th e o l o gic al m o d e

o f th o ught h as b e e n e xtr e m e ly us e ful With o ut it we do no t .
,

s ee h o w m an s i n t e llig e n c e c o u l d h a v e b e gu n t o u n fo ld its e l f
’
.

F o r in o rd e r t o fo rm a sci e n tific th e o r y h o w e v e r m o d e st and

, ,

fr agm e nt ary o f natur al ph e no m e n a th e mi n d n e e d s pre vi o u s

, ,

o bs e rv ati o n s whil e o n t h e o th e r h an d in d e fa ult o f a th e o ry

, , , ,

o r at any r at e o f a pre e xisti n g hyp o th e sis n o sci e ntifi c ,

o bs e rv ati o n is p o ssibl e Abs o lut e e mpiricism s ays C o mte is

.
, ,

C IV 5 6 1
o urs ,
2 .
 T ne L aw o f tue T!tree S tates 4 1

b arre n and e ve n strictly sp e aki ng i nc o n c e iv abl e Simpl e

, , .

c o ll e c t i o n s o f facts h o w e v e r n um e r o u s we m ay s upp o s e th e m
,

t o b e do n o t p o ss e ss by th e ms e l v e s any sci e n tifi c sig n ifi c an c e

, .

S uch fo r i n st anc e w o uld b e th e c as e in th e m e te o r o l o gi c al

,

fac ts, m aki n g i nt e rmi nabl e l i st s and fil l i n g v o l um e s

, .

Th e y w o uld o nly b e c o m e o bs e rvati o ns if in c o ll e c ti n g th e m

t h e mi n d tri e d t o put up o n th e m s o m e i n t e rpr e t ati o n ,

h o we ve r v ague o r pre cis e r e al o r chim e ric al

, .

C aught be twe e n th e two e qu ally imp e r ative ne c e ssiti e s o f

o bs e rvi n g in th e first pl ac e in o rd e r t o r e ac h suit ab l e c o n
“

c e pt io n s an d o f c o n c e ivi ng at t h e s am e tim e s o m e t h e o ry in
,

o rd e r t o m a k e c o h e r e n t o bs e rv ati o n s th e hu m an mi nd s av e s
,

its e lf by th e the o l o gic al m o d e o f th o ught F o r it h as no ne e d .

o f pr e vi o us o bs e rv ati o n s t o im agi ne e ve rywh e re in natu re

a ctiviti e s simil a r t o its o wn O n c e this hyp o th e sis h as arisen
.
,

o bs e rv ati o n c o m e s i n t o pl ay first to c o n firm it

,
but s o o n to ,

o pp o s e it Fro m th at m o m e nt th e i mpuls e h as b e e n give n

. .

T h e e vo luti o n o f th e sci e n c e s and o f phil o s o phy will be

c o nti nu e d thr o ugh d o ctri ne s which will succ e e d e ach o th e r in
a n e c e ss ary o rd e r .

I n th e s am e way fr o m th e m o ral p o i n t o f vi e w a th e o
, ,

lb ic al phil o s o phy al o ne c o uld at first i n spire w e ak and ig no r an t

g

hu m an ity with su ffici e nt c o urag e and c o n fid e n c e to sh ak e o ff

d
i ts rim itive to rp o r T o day if m an k no ws t h at ph e no
.
-
,

m e na are subj e ct to i nv ari abl e l aws h e als o k no ws th at ,

a k n o wl e dg e o f th e s e l aws giv e s him a c e rt a i n c o n tr o l o v e r

n ature . B ut in t h e d ays wh e n m an c o uld n o t fo r e s e e th e

p o w e r o f sci e n c e th e id e a th at ph e no m e na o b e y e d ne ce ss ary
,

l aws w o uld h av e fill e d him with d e sp air I t w o uld pro b ably .

h ave p aralys e d him fo r all e x e rti o n T h e th e o l o gic al m o d e o f

.

tho ught was far m or e e nc o uragi ng si n c e th e ph e no m e na are

i m agi ne d to b e arbitra rily m o difi abl e A nythi ng m ay h app e n
. .

N o thi ng is imp o ssibl e ne ith e r is anythi n g ne c e ss ary T h e

,
.

will o f th e g o ds sufli c e s fo r a thi ng to h app e n o r no t to

4 2 T /z e P nilosop/zy f g
oA u u ste C o m te

h app e n .Dire ctly m an h as no p o we r o ve r n ature i ndire c t l y

,

h e c an do e ve rythi ng pr o vid e d o n ly th at h e c an pr o pit iat e

,

t h e divi n iti e s wh o s e will is law I n this way it is at th e

.
,

m o m e n t wh e n m an s imp o te n c e is gr e ate st th at his c o nfid e nc e

’

in h is o wn p o w e r is t h e str o ng e st .

Fi nally fr o m a s o ci al p o i n t o f vi e w th e o l o gi c al phil o s o phy

, ,

was i ndisp e n s abl e fo r hum an s o ci e ty to subsist and to b e

d e ve l o p e d F o r this s o ci e ty d o e s n o t m e re ly imply symp athy
.

o f fe e li n g and u n i o n o f i n t e r e sts a m o n g its m e mb e rs but firs t ,

an d ab o v e all u n an im o us adh e si o n to c e rt ai n b e li e fs With .

o ut a c e rt ai n syst e m o f c o mm o n pre limi nary o pi ni o ns th e re ”

c an b e n o hum an s o ci e ty But o n th e o th e r h an d h o w c an
.
, ,

we c o n c e iv e t h e app e a ranc e o f such a syst e m if s o ci al l ife is ,

n o t o rg an is e d ? H e re is a n e w vici o us circl e o ut o fwhi c h th e ,

th e o l o gic al phil o s o phy al o ne c an re l e as e us I t c o n stitut e s at .

first sight a t o t ality o f c o mm o n b e li e fs All th e m e mb e rs o f .

th e s o ci e ty d e fe n d th e m all th e m o r e e n e rg e t ic all y b e c aus e ,

with th e m are b o u n d up the ir h o p e s and th e ir fe ars fo r thi s ,

w o rld and fo r t h e ne xt if th e y alre adyb e li e ve in it

, , .

At th e s am e tim e this th e o l o gic al phil o s o phy d e t e rm ine s

,

t h e fo rm ati o n in s o ci e ty o f a sp e ci al cl ass c o n s e cr at e d t o
, , ,

sp e c ul ativ e activity Wh at an imm e n s e pr o gre ss this

.

divisi o n b e tw e e n pra ctic e and th e o ry must h av e b e e n h o w ,

e ve r r o ughly o utli ne d ! S uch a di v isi o n was e st ablishe d as

s o o n as a s ac e rd o t al cl ass b e gan to be disti n guish e d fr o m th e
r e st o fth e s o ci al b o dy A nd h o w sl o w this pro gre ss must
.

h ave b e e n wh e n w e se e e ve n to day h o w h ard it is fo r m e n to

,
-

a cc e pt any i nn o v a ti o n which d o e s n o t s e e m t o c a rry with it

an
y imm e di at e pr actic a l adv an t ag e ! T h e s ac e rd o t al cl ass ,

i nv e st e d b y t h e nature o fits fu n cti o ns with an auth o rity which

,

was pre ci o us fo r s o ci al pr o gr e ss at th e s am e tim e e nj o y e d

,

th at l e isure which is i n disp e n s abl e fo r th e o re tic al r e s e a rch .

With o ut th e sp o ntane o us e st ablishm e n t o fsuch a cl ass s ays ,

”

C o mt e all o ur activity th e nc e fo rth e xcl usive ly practic al

,
“
, ,
 T /z e L aw o f t/re T b ree S ta tes 43

w o uld h ave c o n fi ne d it se lf to th e impro v e m e n t v e ry so o n ,

c h e c k e d o f s o m e pro c e ss e s h avi ng r e fe r e n c e t o milit ary

,

o r i n dustri a l life T h e subs e qu e n t divisi o n o f l ab o ur

1 ”
.

d e p e nd e d up o n this i n iti al st e p O ur sav an ts o ur phil o .

,

S o ph e rs o ur e ngi ne e rs d e sc e nd fro m th e first pri e sts

, ,

s o rc e re rs and r ai n c o njuro rs .

Thus give n t h e natur e o f M an th e th e o l o gic al phil o s o phy

, ,

was b o u n d to app e ar spo nta neo usly This app e ar an c e was a t .

t h e s am e tim e i ne vit abl e and i n disp e ns abl e in a w o rd

“ ”
, ,

ne c e ss ary I mm e di ate ly b e gi n s wh at o ne might c all th e diale c

.

ti c s o f th e i nt e ll e ctu al hist o ry o f hum an ity T h e t h e o l o gic al .

phil o s o ph y h as m ad e p o ssibl e th e o bs e rvati o n o f ph e no m e na .

I n its tur n this o bs e rv ati o n i n tro duc e s th e id e a o f i nv ari abl e

,

l aws i nt o th e mi nd wh e re by th e the o l o gic al phil o s o phy b e gi n s

,

t o b e c o mpr o mis e d T h e tim e c o m e s wh e n it a pp e a rs

.

an tiqu at e d and p e r n ici o u s an d r e as o n t e n ds t o t ak e t h e pl ac e

o f th e im agi n ati o n in th e i n t e rpr e t ati o n o f n a tur e T h e m o re .

e v o luti o n a dv an c e s t h e m o r e m ark e d b e c o m e s t h e pr e fe r e n c e
,

o fth e hum an mi n d f o r t h e p o siti v e m o d e o f th o ught and in , ,

t h e s e v e r al o rd e rs o f t h e sci e n c e s aft e r a m o r e o r l e ss pro

,

l o ng e d c o nflict this l at t e r e n ds by o bt ai ni ng th e asc e nd an cy

, .

A s a m att e r o f fac t t h e th e o l o gic al st ag e o fo u r k no wl e dg e

, ,

e v e n wh e n it e x e rcis e s its gr e at e st d o mi n i o n th a t is to sa a t
y , ,

t h e tim e n e a r e st to its o rigi n a lr e ady c o n t ai n s th e g e rms o fit s

,

o wn d e c o mp o siti o n I t is ne ve r p e rfe ctly h o m o g e ne o us

. .

Th e r e a re v e r y c o mm o n ph e no m e na wh o s e r e gul arity m an
h as n e v e r fail e d t o r e c o g n i z e a n d whi c h h e h as n e v e r c o n
,

c e ive d as d e p e n di n g up o n arbitr ary wills C o mte lik e s to .

qu o t e a p ass ag e fr o m Ad am S mith wh e re th at phil o s o ph e r ,

re m arks th at in no tim e and in no c o u ntry do we find a g o d

o f W e ight M o re o ve r si nc e th e e xist e nc e o f s o ci e ty m an
.
, ,

must h ave h ad s o m e id e a o f psych o l o gic a l l aws si nc e h e was

o blig e d t o re gul at e his c o n duct acc o rdi n g to th e way in
C I V 54 81
o urs , .
44 T b e P nilosop/ty o f g
A u u ste C om te

whi c h his fe ll o ws th o ught and act e d C o ns e qu e ntly th e ‘

.
“

e l e m e n t a ry g e rm o f p o sitiv e phil o s o phy is quit e as primitiv e ,

at b o tt o m as th a t o f th e o l o gi c al phil o s o phy a lth o ugh it c o uld

, ,

o n ly b e d e v e l o p e d v e ry much l at e r No t b e i ng u n ive rs al .
” 1
,

th e o l o gi c al phil o s o phy c o uld o n ly b e pro visi o nal T he .

phil o s o phy th at is to say th e m e th o d o f i nte rpre t ati o n o f

, ,

n atur al ph e n o m e n a will a l o n e b e fi n al which will b e applic ab l e

, ,

to all ph e n o m e n a with o ut e xc e pti o n fr o m t h e m o st simpl e to

t h e m o st c o mp l ic at e d F o r this ph 1lo so ph y al o n e will r e alis e

.

t h e u n ity d e m and e d by t h e u n d e rst an di n g .

T h e p ass age fr o m th e o l o gic al to p o sitiv e phil o s o phy is

n e ve r s udd e n ly a cc o mplish e d Th e ir o pp o siti o n is to o sh arply
.

d e fi ne d and o u r i n t e llige nc e d o e s no t l e n d its e lf to such an

,

abrupt ch an g e T h e m e t aphys ic al st at e s e rv e s as a tr an siti o n

. .

This st at e is disti nguish e d fr o m th e two o th e rs in th at it h as ,

n o pri n cipl e pr o p e r which de fi ne s it Th e o l o gic al phil o s o phy .

is su ffici e n t to i ts e l f I t fo rm s a h arm o n i o us wh o l e at l e ast

.
,

so l o n g as t h e g e rm o f p o sitiv e ne ss which it c o nt a i n s h as no t

y e t r e v e al e d its a ctivity I n t h e s am. e w

“

a y th e p o sitiv e st at e ,

will b e p e rfe ctly h o m o g e ne o us O n th e c o n trary th e m e t a .

,

physic al st at e is o nly d e scrib e d by a mixture o f th e two

o th e rs T h e m e t aphysic al c o n c e pti o n s wr o t e C o mt e in
“ ”
.
,

1 82 5, pro c e e d at th e s am e tim e fr o m th e o l o gy and physi c s ,

o r r ath e r a re o n ly th e fo rm e r m o difi e d b y th e l att e r U nd e r

2 ”
.

e v e r v aryi ng and pr o gr e ssiv e ly att e n u a t e d fo rms m e t aphysi c s ,

pro cure th e i ndisp e n s abl e c o nc ili ati o n in o rd e r th at th e th e o

l o gic al and p o sitive phil o s o phi e s m ay c o e xist in m e n s mi nd s ’

s o l o n g as t h e l att e r is n o t p e rfe ctly w o rk e d o ut U nd e r .

c o v e r o f m e t aphysic al hyp o th e s e s th e sci e ntific m e th o d h as ,

b e e n abl e to push its c o n qu e sts with o ut gre atly al armi ng th e ,

d e fe nd e rs o fth e o l o gic al phil o s o phy Thus m e t aphysic al spe c u .

l ati o n h as a ve ry active c riti c al q uality I t h as n o t slightly .

c o n tribute d t o th e d e c o mp o siti o n o f th e anci e n t syst e m o f

l
C I V 5 54 5
o u rs, , P l p - I V App dix p 44
.
2
o . os .
, . en ,
. 1 .
 T ne L aw o f t/ze l r ee S tate s 45

b e li e fs . this s e n s e C o mt e re g ards th e Fr e nch phil o s o ph e rs

In ,

o fth e X V I I I c e n tury f o r th e m o st p art as e xc e ll e n t r e pr o

.
, ,

se n tat iv e s o f t h e m e t a physic a l spirit .

N e ve rth e l e ss if we must r e fe r t his i nt e rm e di at e st age to

,

o n e o f t h e t wo e xtr e m e s C o mt e d o e s n o t h e sit a t e to ap ro x i
, p
m at e it to th e th e o l o gic al st ag e As a m att e r o ffac t m e t a .
,

physic al phil o s o phy substitut e s e n titi e s to will an d N atu re ,

t o t h e Cr e at o r b u t wi t h a v e r y a nal o g o us fu n c t i o n
,
It .

s uppli e s a t b o t to m th e s am e e xpl an ati o n o f th e re al

,
“
, ,

alth o ugh w e ak e n e d by a str o ng e r an d str o n g e r s e n s e o ft h e

n e e d o f n atur a l l aws This e quivo c al m e th o d pre se rve s

.

th e o l o gy whil e d e stro yi n g its pri ncip al m e nt al c o nsiste nc y

, .
”

I t d e n i e s th e c o n s e qu e n c e s in th e nam e o f th e pri ncipl e s .

M o re o ve r it o ffe rs no gu arant e e ag ai nst an o ffe nsive re tur n o f

,

th e o l o gic a l c o nc e pti o n s so l o n g as th e y h av e no t b e e n,

r e pl ac e d by p o sitive no ti o n s I n th e fi nal c o nflict b e tw e e n .

t h e th e o l o gic al spirit an d th e p o sitive spirit th e m e t a

, ,

physici ans will pro b ably b e s e e n with th e D e ists i nv o lve d in a , ,

‘
re tr o grad e c o n c e ntr ati o n 1 “
P o sitive phil o s o phy s ay s .
”
,
”

C o mt e h as ne ith e r hist o ric al no r d o gm at ic s o lid arity with

“
,

this ne g ative phil o s o phy and c an o n ly c o nte mpl at e it as a ,

fi nal pre p ar at o ry tr ansfo rm ati o n o f th e o l o gic al phil o s o phy .

” 2

Thus th e m e t aphysic al st age is ne v e r o th e r t h an an u n st abl e

c o mpr o mis e I t o n ly l asts o n c o ndi t i o n th at it ch an ge s
.

c o nti n u ally I n d e fault o f a pri n cipl e o f its o wn m e t a

.
,

physic al phil o s o phy is pure ly critic al in ch aract e r As a fac t .

,

t h e r e are b ut t wo phil o s o phi e s th at is t o say t wo m e th o ds , ,

t wo o rg an ic m o d e s o f th o ught O nly th e o l o gic a l phil o s o phy .

a n d p o sitiv e phil o s o phy a ll o w t h e mi n d t o c o n struct a l o gi

c al an d h arm o n i o us syst e m o f id e a s th e b asis o f a m o r ality ,

a n d o f a r e ligi o n T h e th e o l o gic al spirit is id e al in its “

.

ad v a n c e abs o lut e in its c o n c e pti o n a rbitr a ry in its a pplic a

, ,

1
C p d
o rres o n d H C mt e nc e J h S t t M ill L tt d 5 f l 84 p 5
e . o e ave c o n uar . e re u av e 1 2 , . 1 .

C V 573 5 2
o urs. .
-
.
 T b e P nilosop/ty f g
oA u u ste C o m te

ti o n T h e p o sitive spirit s ubstitu te s th e m e th o d o f o bs e rv a

.

ti o n to th at o f im agi nati o n re l at iv e n o ti o n s to abs o l ut e

,

n o ti o n s I t d o e s n o t fl atte r its e lf with u n limit e d d o mi n i o n

.

o v e r th e ph e no m e na o f n atur e ; it k no ws t h a t its p o w e r is

m e asure d by its k no wl e dge T h e i n t e ll e ctu al his to ry o f

.

hum an ity sh o ws by wh at st ag e s it h as p ass e d fr o m t h e fo rm e r

m o d e o f th o ught to th e l atte r .

III
C o mt e r e g ards th e law o f th e th re e st ag e s as d e m o n str at e d .

“
S e ve nt e e n ye ars o f c o nti n u o us m e dit ati o n o n this gr e at
subj e c t h e write s in 1 8 3 9 discuss e d und e r all its asp e cts and
, ,

subj e ct e d to all p o ssibl e t e sts auth o ris e m e to affirm b e fo re

,

h and with o ut th e slight e st sci e ntifi c h e sit ati o n th at we sh all

, ,

a lw ay s se e c o n firm e d this hist o ric al pr o p o siti o n which n o w ,

s e e ms to m e as fully d e m o nstrate d as a ny o f th e g e ne r al facts

a ctu ally a dmitt e d in t h e o th e r p a rts o f n atur a l p h iI O S O
”
ph y
1
.

I t c o uld o n ly b e d o ubt e d i f we fo u nd any br an ch o f o u r

k no wl e dg e which h ad go ne b ack fro m th e m e t aphysic al t o
t h e th e o l o gic al st at e o r fr o m th e p o sitiv e st at e t o e ith e r
,

o f th e t wo pre c e di ng st at e s But this c as e h as ne v e r

.

pre s e nt e d its e l f T h e th e o re tic al d e m o n strati o n o f th e law

.

h as e st ablish e d th at it cou ld not pr e s e n t its e l f .

I nd e e d this d e m o n strati o n h as sh o w n th at th e suc c e ssive

a dv an c e thr o ugh t h e thr e e st ag e s in i n v ari abl e o rd e r was th e, ,

n e c e ss a r y fo rm o f pr o gr e ss o f t h e hum an mi n d in th e k no w

l e dg e o f ph e no m e na I t is fo u n d e d up o n th e nature o f th e
.

mi nd I n C o mt e s th o ught th e law o fth e thr e e st at e s c o uld

.
’

th e re fo re h av e b e e n e qu ally c all e d psych o l o gic al o r histo ri c al .

But we are n o t h e r e c o nc e r ne d with i ntro sp e ctive Psy c h

o l o gy which us e s s e lf c o n sci o us ne ss as a m e an s o f i nv e stig a
,
-

ti o n C o mt e d o e s no t r e c o g n i z e any sci e n tific v al ue in this

.

C
‘ o u rs, IV , 52 3 .
 T be L aw o f tae T /
z re e S ta tes
47

m e th o d 1 H e e v e n d e n i e s its p o ssibilit y M o r e o v e r th e
. .

o bs e rva ti o n o f a subj e ct by hims e lf w e r e it p o ssibl e w o uld b e , ,

o f no h e lp in t h e pr e s e n t c a s e F o r it w o uld o n ly r e v e al to
.

him th e pre s e nt st at e o f his i ndividu al i n te ll e ct and no t th e ,

law o f t h e e vo lu t io n o f th e hum an mi n d F o r this law t o

‘

b e c o m e m an ife st we must c o n sid e r no t t h e i n dividu al but

, ,

t h e sp e ci e s Givi ng up a fruitl e ss e fl o rt at s e lf c o n te mpl ati o n

'

-
.

in its activity t h e i nte ll e ct must grasp th e law o f its suc c e ssive

,

ph ase s l n th e pro gr e ss o f wh at it h as pro duc e d T h e phi l o .

s o phic al hist o ry o f o u r b e li e fs o f o ur c o nc e pti o n s and o fo ur

, ,
‘

syst e m s such is th e c o nsci o us ne ss which th e hum an i nt e l l e ct

c an h av e o f its e l f Th e re o n ly th e phil o s o phe r s e e s th e
.
,

fac ulti e s o fwhich t his i nte ll e ct c o n t ai ne d th e ge rm c o mi ng i nt o

pl ay by tur ns to r e ach a dur abl e h arm o ny
,
“
Th e n o n c e .
”
,

disc o v e re d th e law o f th e thre e St ate s h e lps us to u n d e rst an d

,

th e i nt e l l e ctu al e v o luti o n o f e ach i n dividu al and t h e study o f ,

th e i n dividu al th e n fur n ish e s us with a suppl e m e n t ary ve rific a

t i o n o f th e law But by i t s e lf this study o f the i ndividu al

.
, ,

c o uld n o t h ave e st ablish e d it Wh at e ve r utility I m ay h av e .

o ft e n d e riv e d fr o m t h e c o n sid e r ati o n o f t h e i n dividu al s ays ,

C o mt e it is e vid e n tly to th e dire ct study o fth e sp e ci e s th at

,

I o w e d n o t o n ly th e fu n d am e n t al th o ught in my th e o ry but
, ,

aft e rw ards its sp e cific d e v e l o pm e n t .

T he law o f the thr e e St ate s is th e n th e ge n e r a l fo rmul a o f

th e pr o gr e ss o f t h e hum an i n t e ll e ct c o n sid e r e d n o t in an ,

i ndividu al subj e ct but in th e u niversal subject which is

.
,

hum an ity .

I t is i nd e e d a ls o th e u n ive rs al subj e ct th at K an t h as
“

studi e d in h is C ritic of P u re Reason But K an t s m e th o d is .

’

a lt o g e th e r abstr a ct an d m e t a physic a l th e u n ive rs a l subj e ct o f ,

which h e s e e ks th e l aws is a hum an mi n d in its e lf c o nsid e red

“
,
”

in its e ss e nc e C o mt e, o n th e c o n tra ry re pre s e nts th e u n ive rs al

.
,

subj e c t as a c o ncre te u n i ty which r e ali z e d its e lf in tim e F o r

, .

Cp i f b k II h p V p . n ra, oo , c a .
, .
 T /t e P bilosop/iy of C o m te

him th e study o fth e m e nt al fu n cti o ns ch aract e ristic o fm an

,

o nl y b e c o m e s p o sitiv e wh e n it is c a rri e d o u t fr o m an hist o ric al

an d s o c io l o gic al p o i nt o f vi e w
. Th at is why th e disc o ve ry o f
th e law o f th e thr e e St at e s is an e v e n t o f c apit al imp o rt an c e .

I t inaug urate s th e p o sitive s c ie nc e o f hum anity which was an

,

an i n disp e nsibl e c o nd iti o n fo r p o s itive phil o s o phy to be

e st ab l ish e d
. I t m arks th e tim e wh e n all ph e no m e na b e i ng
,

h e nc e fo rth studi e d afte r th e s am e m e th o d th e p e rfe ct l o gic al

,

c o h e re nc e is d e fi n i te ly assure d Thi s law o f s o c i al dy namics

.

is th e c o rne r st o ne o f th e w h o l e p o sitiv e syst e m

-
.
 C H A PTE R I I I
TH E C LA SS IFI CA TI O N OF THE S CIE N C E S
A CC O RDI N G to th e law o fth e thre e St ate s all o ur c o nc e pt io n s
,

in t h e diffe re n t o rd e rs o f k no wl e dg e b e gi n by be i ng th e o
,

l o gi c al p ass thro ugh th e m e t aphysic al tr an siti o n and e nd by

, ,

b e c o mi ng p o sitive I f this e vo l uti o n w e re te rmi nat e d at th e

.

p re se nte d tim e th e phil o s o phy which C o mt e wishe s to fo u n d

,

w o uld b e zpso facto e st ablish e d Bu t we are far fro m such a

.

st ate o f thi n gs O n th e c o n trary th e thre e m o d e s o f th o ught

.
,

th e o l o gic al m e t aphysi c al and p o siti ve c o e xist still to day

, , , ,
-
,

e ve n in th e m o st cultiv at e d mi n ds I n a diffe r e n t m e asur e

.
,

all l ac k t h e l o gic al c o h e re nc e
“ ”
.

Eve n in th o s e sci e n c e s wh e re th e p o sitiv e m e th o d h as be e n

fi nally and fo r a l o ng tim e e st ablish e d in physics and in , ,

ch e mi stry fo r i n st an c e we o bs e rv e u nd o ubt e d tr ac e s o f th e
, ,

m e t aphysic al spirit T o a still gr e ate r d e gre e this spirit i s

.

m an ife ste d in wh at are c all e d th e m o r al an d s o ci al sci e n c e s .

N e v e rth e l e ss this i n c o h e re n c e c anno t l ast No w th at th e

,
“
.

p o sitive spirit h as assum e d full c o n sci o us ne ss o f its e l f it i s ,

p o ssibl e to pro c e e d with a syst e m at ic purific ati o n which will ,

dis e nt an gl e it fr o m t h e th e o l o gic al and m e t aphy sic al spirit .

But is no t this critic al r e vi e w o f th e wh o l e o f hum an k n o w

l e dge an e n t e rpris e ab o ve th e p o w e rs o f a m an P—H appily
p o sitive phil o so phy its e lf fur n ish e s a m e an s o f light e n i n g th e
t ask I t e st ablish e s an o rd e r which all o ws us to d e t e rmi ne
.

with o ut to o much tro ubl e to wh at d e gre e o f p o sitive ne ss th e

c o nce pti o n o f a give n c at e go ry o f phe no m e n a h as r e ach e d up
4
 T b e P bilosop/ty u u ste C o m te
50 f g
oA

t o th e pr e s e nt tim e C o mte c alls this o rd e r th e cl assific ati o n

.
,

o r m o r e pr e cis e ly th e
,
p o sitive hi e rar c hy o fth e fu nd a m e nt al
s c i e n c e s I t is th e pl an which h e will fo ll o w in t h e e xpo si
.
“

ti o n o f p o sitive phil o s o phy .

” 1

This pl an is no t a simpl e artific e d e sti ne d t o m ak e th e

e n tir e ty o f t h e d o ctri n e cl e ar e r o r its e xp o siti o n e asi e r
,
I t is .

n o t e xt e r na l t o t h e w o rk I t is b o r n fro m th e ve ry spirit o f
.

p o sitive phil o s o phy it e xpre ss e s th e spirit o f th at phil o s o phy

in a ne w fo rm . I t is th e n atural c o mpl e m e n t o f th e law o f
t h e thr e e St at e s C o mt e puts it in pl ai n w o rds “
. T he
diffe re n t br an ch e s o f o ur k no wl e dge h av e n o t b e e n abl e wi t h
e qu al r apidity to p ass thr o ugh t h e thr e e gr e at ph a s e s in th e ir

d e ve l o pm e nt n o r c o n s e qu e ntly to re ach sim ult ane o usl y t h e

,

p o sitive st at e Th e re e xists in this r e sp e ct an i n vari abl e and

.
, ,

n e c e ss ary o rd e r whi c h o u r di f
, fe r e n t ki n ds o f c o n c e pti o n s h av e
fo ll o w e d and h ave b e e n o blige d t o fo ll o w in th e ir pro gre ss ,

and o f which t h e e x a ct c o n sid e r ati o n is th e i ndispensa ble

t e fu d m e t l w pre vi o usl y e n o u n c e d
”
co m ple m e t tn o h n a n a la
2
.

C o mt e did n o t lik e his c o n t e mp o r ary Amp ere se t hi m se lf

, ,

t h e l o gic al pr o bl e m o f th e c l assific ati o n o f t h e sci e n c e s in

t h e ir e n tir e ty . H e did n o t s e e k acc o rdi n g t o wh at pri n cipl e

we c o uld arr ang e th e m all in an o rd e r wh e r e t h e fact o f th e ir
r e spe ctiv e sub o rdi nati o n w o uld b e m ai nt ai ne d H e e ve n .

do ubts h o w far such a pri n cipl e e xists an d h e is so far fr o m ,

t hi n ki ng o f e st ablishi n g a c o mpl e t e C l a ssific ati o n o f t h e

s ci e n c e s th at h e b e gi n s by l e avi n g o u t t h e gr e at e r n umb e r o f
,

t he m . H e fi rst s e ts a sid e all fo rm s o f hum an k no w l e dg e

wh ich r e fe r to art th at is to say all th e appli e d sci e nc e s
, ,

practic al an d t e ch n ic al Simil arly h e s e ts asid e all th e

.

c o ncr e t e sci e n c e s such as z o o l o gy mi ne r al o gy ge o graphy

, , , ,

e tc . H e o n ly pl ac e s withi n h is cl assific ati o n t h e tb eo retica l

a nd a bs trac t sci e n c e s th a t is to sa th o s e which h ave no o th e r
, y
o bj e ct b ut th e k n o wl e dg e o f l aws and which st udy ph e ny ,

C I 46 4 7
o urs, , C -
I 4 5 , o urs, , 1 -
1 .
 T b e C lassificat ion f
o t/z e S c i e n ces

m e na, e xclusi ve o f th e c o ncre t e b e i ngs in which th e s e

p h e n o m e n a pre s e n t th e ms e lv e s C o mte c alls th e m fu nd a
“
.

m e n t al b e c aus e t h e Oth e r sci e nc e s supp o s e th e ir e xiste nc e

” ’

whe re as th e abs tr act sci e n c e s do no t supp o s e th e e xist e nc e o f

t h e o t h e rs b e fo r e th e m
.

Th e s e sci e n c e s are th e o n ly o ne s wh o s e c o n sid e rati o n is o f

c o n s e qu e n c e t o t h e e nd which C o mt e h as in vi e w F o r why .

d o e s h e ne e d a cl assific ati o n o f th e sci e n c e s ? I t is in o rd e r

t o study th e a sc e n t o f th e p o sitiv e spirit thr o ugh t h e succ e ssiv e

o rd e rs o f ph e no m e n a . F o r this h e h as n o o cc asi o n to
,

c o n sid e r th e appli e d o r c o n cr e t e sci e n c e s which r e c e ive th e ir

,

pri ncipl e s fro m th e th e o re tic a l and a bstr act sci e nc e s I t .

su ffic e s fo r him to b e c o n c e r ne d with th e s e I t is in th e .

m e th o ds an d t h e pr o gr e ss o f th e s e sci e n c e s th a t t h e ch ar a c t e r

ist ic e ffo rts o f th e hum an mi n d h av e b e e n m a n ife st e d and it

is th e re fo re h e re th at we c an grasp th e l aws o f its e vo luio n .

I n o rd e r t o cl assify t h e fu nd am e n t al sci e nc e s C o mt e will ,

c o nfo rm to th e pri n cipl e s o f th e p o sitive m e th o d H e will be .

g uid e d by t h e r a ti o na l cl assific ati o n s o f which t h e m o d e l is to

b e fo u n d in th e n atur al sci e nc e s T h e cl assific ati o n must

.

spri ng fro m th e ve ry study o f th e o bj e cts which are to b e

cl assifi e d a nd must b e d e te rmi ne d by th e r e al affi ni ti e s and
,

t h e s e ri e s o f c o nne ct e d li n ks which th e y pr e s e nt in such a ,

way th a t this cl assific ati o n m ay its e lf b e th e e xpre ssi o n o fth e

m o st g e ne r al t ruth ,
m ad e m an ife st by th e s e archi ng c o m
p a ris o n o f t h e o bj e cts which it e mbr ac e s .

C o mte will no t the re fo re st o p t o c o nsid e r th e cl assific ati o n s

which h ave pre c e d e d his o wn I n th e first pl ac e wh e n th e y
.
,

a pp e ar e d t h e r ati o n al m e th o d o f cl assific ati o n was n o t e st ab

,

lish e d. Fur th e r h o w c o uld anyo ne h av e u nite d th e wh o l e o f

,

t h e sci e n c e s i nt o an e n cycl o p ae dic c o n c e pti o n wh e n s o m e h ad

,

alre ady r e ach e d t h e p o sitiv e st at e whil e o th e rs r e m ai ne d in

,

th e th e o l o gic al o r m e t aphysic al st at e s ? H o w c o uld any o ne

rati o nally arr ange h e t e ro ge no us c o n c e pti o n s in a si ngl e
s yst e m
 T /t e P /z ilosop/zy f
o A u
g u ste C om te

Th o s e pre m atu r e att e mpts w e re d o o m e d to fail ure I n .

o rd e r th at t h e u n d e rt aki n g might suc c e e d it was ne c e ss a ry ,

th at all o ur c o nc e pti o n s r e l ati n g to t he v ari o us o rd e rs o f

,

ph e no m e na s h o uld h ave r e ach e d th e p o si tiv e fo rm H e re .

ag a i n th e cre ati o n o f s o ci o l o gy h as b e e n t h e d e cisi v e e v e n t

, ,

fo r it h as all o w e d th e s e ri e s o f fu nd a m e nt al sci e n c e s to b e
m ad e c o mpl e t e T h e disc o ve ry o f th e law o f th e thre e St at e s
.

h as fo u n d e d s o ci o l o gy an d a t t h e s am e tim e it h as a cc o mplish e d
,
.

th e h o m o g e ne ity o f hum an k n o wl e dg e I n its tim e this

.
,

h o m o ge ne ity re nd e r s p o ssibl e th e r ati o nal cl assific ati o n o fth e

s c ie nc e s.

II .

H e nc e fo rth th e fu n d am e nt al sci e n c e s are all c o nc e i v e d as

,

e qu a lly p o sitiv e Th e y h av e all giv e n up t h e pursuit o fth e

.

ab so lu te f o r t h e study o f th e r e l ativ e and t h e s e a rch aft e r

i ,

c aus e s fo r th e k no wl e dg e o f l aws All no w pro c e e d by m e ans

.

o fth e s a m e g e ne r a l m e th o ds and th e ir diff e r e n c e s c an t h e r e

fo re o nly aris e fro m th e ir o bj e c t th at is to say fro m th e nature

,

o f th e ph e no m e na which are studi e d C o ns e qu e ntly th e i r

.

r e l ati o ns o f mutu al d e p e nd e n c e will s o l e ly re sul t fr o m th e .

r e l ati o n s o f th e s e ph e no m e na No w o bse rv ati o n sh o ws us

.
,

th at th e s e ph e no m e na fo rm th e ms e lve s i nt o a c e rt ai n n umb e r
o f n atur a l c at e g o ri e s such th at th e r ati o nal study o f e ac h
,

c ate go ry pre supp o s e s a k no wl e d ge o f th e l aws o f th e pre c e d

ing c at e go ry and th at a k no wl e dg e o f this o ne is in t ur n
,

pre supp o s e d fo r u nd e rst andi ng th e o ne th at fo ll o ws This .

o rd e r is d e t e rmi ne d by t h e d e gr e e o f g e n e r a lity o f t h e ph e no
'

m e na fro m which th e ir s ucc e ssiv e d e p e nd e n c e up o n e ac h

,

o th e r r e sults and as a c o n s e qu e n c e t h e gr e at e r o r l e ss e r
,

simplicity o fe ach sci e nc e r e sults fro m it als o .

Up o n this pri n cipl e th e e nc yc lo pm dic l add e r o f th e fu nd a

,

m e nt al sci e n c e s is e asil y c o n struct e d Afte r th e m ath e m atics

.
,

i n a n o rd e r o f dimi n ishi n g g e n e ra li ty an d o f gr o wi n g c o m
 T /z e C lassif
icat ion f
o t ue S c i e n ces 53

p le xity, c o m e astro no my physics ch e mist ry physi o l o gy o r

, , ,

bi o l o gy s o ci al physics o r so c i o l o gy T h e first sci e n c e c o nsid e rs

,
.

t h e m o st g e ne r al th e m o st simpl e t h e m o st abstr act ph e n o

, ,

m e n a and th o s e
,
furth e st r e m o ve d fr o m hum anity Th e y .

i nflu e nc e all th e o th e r s with o ut b e i ng i n fl u e n c e d by th e m

, .

T h e ph e no m e na c o nsid e r e d by th e l ast are th e m o st par

t ic ular t h e m o st c o mpli c at e d t h e m o st c o n cr e t e an d th e
, , ,

m o st dire c tly i n t e r e sti ng f o r m an ; th e y d e p e n d m o r e o r l e ss

up o n all th e pre c e di ng o ne s B e tw e e n th e s e t wo e xtre m e s

.
,

t h e d e gr e e s o f sp e ci alis at i o n o fc o mplic ati o n and o fi ndividu al ,

isat io n are in an e v e r g ro wm g qu an tity

,
-
.

This cl assific ati o n is c o n firm e d in fact by th e ge ne ral , ,

u s age o f l e ar n e d m e n I t r e pro duc e s th e his to ric o rd e r o f the

.

de ve l o pm e nt o f t h e sci e n c e s Thus fo r a l o n g tim e m ath e

.
, ,

m ati e s was t h e o n ly sci e n c e o f a p o si t iv e typ e O n t h e o th e r .

h and s o ci al sci e n c e h as b e e n t h e l ast t o r e ach this p o i n t

, .

Ne ve rth e l e ss C o mt e d o e s no t m e an t o say th at th e fu nd a
,

m e n t al sci e n c e s c am e i n t o e xist e n c e o ne a ft e r th e o th e r no r ,

‘
t h at fo r e v e ry o ne o f th e m e ach p e ri o d is sufli c ie n tly e x
, ,

p l ai ne d by t h e p e ri o d imm e di at e ly pr e c e di n g it H is th o ught .

i s v e ry di f fe re n t O n th e c o n tr ary h e r e pre s e nts th e d e v e l o p

.
,

m e n t o f th e s e v e r al sci e n c e s as simult ane o us Th e y ac t and .

r e act o ne u po n an o th e r in a th o us an d w ays O fte n s o m e .

p r o gr e ss i n a sci e n c e is t h e dir e ct e ff
e ct o f a disc o v e ry m ad e

in an a rt which h as app ar e n tly no affi n iti e s wi t h it Such is .

,

t o qu o t e an e x ampl e which C o m te c o uld n o t in t h e l e ast h av e

fo re s e e n t h e pr o gr e ss o f astr o no mic al o bs e rv ati o n s due to

,

p h o t o gr aphy I n fact th e hist o ry o f a s c i e n c e duri n g a giv e n

.
,

p e ri o d is cl o s e ly alli e d to th at o f th e o th e r sci e nc e s and arts

d uri n g th e s am e tim e o r r ath e r to b e m o r e e xpli c it t o t h e
, , ,

g e n e r al hist o ry o f c i v ilis ati o n But the i r re sp e ctive tr ansiti o ns

.

t o th e p o sitiv e st at e is acc o mplish e d in t h e o rd e r se t fo r t h in

t h e cl a ssific ati o n F o r in dividu ally th e y c o uld n o t re ach thi s

.

st at e if t h e fu nd a m e n t al sci e n c e imm e di at e ly pr e c e di ng h ad
,
 54 Tb e P /i ilosop/iy of A ug uste C om te

no t a tt ai ne d to it b e fo re th em I t is in this o rd e r th at .
“
th e
p ro gre ss alth o ugh simult ane o us must h ave t ak e n pl ac e
, ,
.
” 1

III .

Mr H e rb e rt Sp e nc e r h as m ad e s e v e r al o bj e cti o n s to Auguste
.

C o mt e s cl assifi c ati o n o f th e sci e n c e s Littré h as l e ngthily

’

r e fut e d th e m I t is no t in o u r d e sig n to re o p e n t his discus

.

si o n But it re sults fro m t h e pre c e di ng e xpl an ati o n s th at

.

t h e gr e at e r n umb e r o f Mr Sp e n c e r s criticisms miss th e m ark

’
.
,

p e rh aps b e c aus e h e h as no t r e ad C o mt e pro p e rly O n his o wn .

admissi o n h e o n ly k n o ws th e t wo first l e ss o n s in t h e C o u rs de
,

p lz ilosopnie p osi ti ve in t h e t e xt furth e r th e i no rg an ic Physics

,

and t h e first ch apt e r o f t h e Bi o l o gy in Miss M artine au s c o n

’

d e ns ati o n and fi nall y th e re m ai nd e r in L e we s s summi ng up

,
’

in h is H istory of P /z ilosop/ty I f Mr Sp e n c e r h ad b e e n abl e to

.
2
.

o bt ai n a k no wl e dg e o fth e C o u rs de pnilosop nie p os i ti ve in its

e n tir e ty a nd e sp e ci al ly o f th e thr e e l ast l e ss o n s o r at l e a st o f

, ,

th eDiscou rs su r l E sp ri t positif o r o f th e Discou rs s u r l ensem ble

’ ’

da pos itivism e h e w o uld pr o b ably h av e appre ci at e d di ffe r e ntly

th e p o sitive cl assific ati o n o fth e sci e n c e s H is o wn c lassific a .

ti o n in which h e i n clud e s th e c o ncre t e an d c o ncre te abstract

,
-

s ci e n c e s is n o t r e ally o pp o s e d to th at o f August e C o mt e wh o
,

o n ly wish e d to cl assify th e fu n d am e nt a l a bstra ct sci e nc e s .

C o mte ne v e r s o ught to do wh at Mr Sp e n c e r r e pr o ach e s him .

with n o t h avi n g d o ne .

Am o ng Mr Sp e nc e r s o bj e cti o ns th e re is o ne which b e ari n g

.
’

, ,

up o n t h e v e ry c o n c e pti o n o f th e cl a ssific a ti o n o f t h e sci e n c e s ,

sh o ws v e ry cl e arly th e misu n d e rst andi ng which we are p o i nti ng

o ut .

Mr Sp e n c e r i nsists up o n th e an thro p o c e n tric ch arac te r

.
“

o f C o m te s C l assific a ti o n which is i n d e e d r e m a rk abl e

’

, an d h e

1
C o urs, I , 82 , 12 .

H b e r e rt S p e nc e r T he Cl assific atio n o fth e S c ie nc e s. L d

on o n, 1 8 64 , p .
42 .
 T b e C lassifica t ion o
f tbc S cie nces 55

is surpris e d at wh at app e ars to him to b e a gl ari ng c o ntr a

di c ti o n I s no t th e c o nc e pti o n o f thi ngs fro m m au s p o i nt o f
.
’

vi e w o ne o f th e e ss e n ti al fo rms o f th e th e o l o gic al m o d e o f
,

th o ugh t ac c o rdi n g to C o mt e him se lf D o e s no t p o sitive

,

phil o s o phy t e ach th at m an m u st no t c o n sid e r hims e lf as a s o rt

of
“
imp e ri um in imp e ri o but as a b e i ng sub o rdi nat e to th e
,
”

wh o l e o fnature I f t h e re fo re we m ust substitute th e o bj e c tive

t o th e subj e ctiv e po i n t o f vi e w in which m an at first sp o n t ane

o u sly pl ac e s hims e lf h o w c an th e cl a ssific ati o n o f th e sci e n c e s

,

b e at th e s am e tim e an thr o p o c e n tric and p o sitiv e ?

‘

This o bj e cti o n w o uld p e rh aps b e a stro ng o ne agai nst

p o siti ve phil o s o phy as Littre u nd e rsto o d it Ag ai nst August e .

C o mt e it h as no fo rc e fo r h e ac c e pts it H e admits th at his

, .

cl assific ati o n pre s e n ts th e s e two ch arac t e rs at th e s am e tim e ,

a nd h e d o e s n o t thi n k th at in so d o i n g h e is c o n tr a dicti n g

hims e l f We m ust o nly disti nguish with him two succ e ssive and
.

di ffe re nt p e ri o ds 5 0 l o ng as p o sitiv e phil o s o phy is in pro c e ss

.

o f fo rm ati o n ( th at is t o say so l o n g as th e p o sitive spirit

,

re m ai n s sp e c i al ) it is quite tru e th at it is o ri e nt at e d fr o m th e
o bj e ctive p o i n t o f V i e w in o th e r w o rds th at it g o e s fr o m t h e
, ,

w o rld to m an Duri n g this p e ri o d it is i nd e e d o pp o s e d to th e

.
,

n ai v e b e li e f which m a k e s m an th e c e n tr e an d th e e nd o f

th e u n iv e rs e But wh e n fro m sp e ci al t he p o sitiv e spirit h as

.
,

b e c o m e u n iv e rs al wh e n it h as ris e n fro m sci e n c e to phil o s o phy

, ,

wh e n s o ci o l o gy is at l e ngth fo u nd e d and wh e n th e u nd e r ,

st an di ng r e alis e s fro m t h e p o sitive p o i n t o f vi e w th e l o gi c al

,

u n ity which is i ndisp e n s abl e to it this u n ity is o nly c o mpl e te d

,

wh e n in its tu rn it t ak e s m an fo r its c e n tr e
, ,
.

C o n sid e re d as a n e x act re pr o ducti o n o fth e re al w o rld says ,

C o mt e o ur sci e n c e is n o t c ap abl e o fb e i ng c o mpl e t e ly syste m a

,

t ise d an d in this s e n s e we must n o t s e e k fo r any u n ity s av e

th at o f m e th o d aspiri ng o n ly to h o m o ge ne ity an d to th e c o n
,

v e rg e n c e o f th e diffe re n t d o ctri ne s I t is o th e rwis e in re gard

.

t o th e i n n e r s o urc e o f hum an th e o ri e s c o n t e mpl at e d as t h e

 Tb e P nilosop/ty of A ug u ste C om te

re s ult s o f o ur i nd ividu al and c o ll e ctive m e nt al e v o l uti o n .

Thus r e fe rre d no t to th e u n ive rs e but to m an o r r ath e r to

, , ,

hum anity o ur r e a l k no wl e dg e te nds o n th e c o n tra ry to w ar ds

,

an e ntir e syste m at iz at iOn We must th e n c o nc e ive a si ngl e

.

sci e n c e th e hum an s c i e n c e m o re pre c is e ly s o ci al o f whi c h

, , ,

o ur e xist e n c e c o n stitut e s at o nc e th e pri nc ipl e and th e e nd .

I nto thi s hum an sci e nc e th e rati o nal st udy o f th e e xt e r nal

w o r l d be c o m e s fus e d at o n c e as a ne c e ss ary e l e m e n t and
,

a fu nd am e n t al pr e a mbl e
1 ”
.

C o mt e w o uld the re fo re no t h av e r e pudi ate d fo r h is C lassific a ,

ti o n o fth e sci en c e s th e qu alific ati o n o f an thro p o c e ntri c o n

,

c o nditi o n th at it w e re u nd e rst o o d I t is no l o ng e r th e sp o n
.

tane o us s ubj e ctivism fr o m which th e th e o l o gic al phi l o s o phy

starts ; it is th e c o n s c i o us subj e c t ivis m to which t h e p o sitive

phil o s o phy att ai n s I t h as th e m e rit o f uniti ng in its e lf th e
.

t wo m e th o ds c alle d o bje c tive an d subj e ctiv e

. T h e fo rm e r h as .

b e e n in th e asc e nd an t duri ng th e l o ng e vo luti o n o fth e sci e nc e s ,

whi ch w e re by d e gre e s and succ e ssive ly r e achi ng th e p o sitiv e

'

stat e T h e l atte r all o ws us to c o nc e ntrat e th e aim o f th e

.

di sti nct sci e nc e s thus c o n stitute d i nt o a supre m e sci e n c e which ,

s ub o rdi nat e s all th e o th e rs to its e l f with o ut abs o rbi ng th e m ,

.

IV .

T he cl assific ati o n o fth e sci e nc e s is at th e s am e tim e a , ,

p l an fo r th e s e tti ng fo rth o fth e p o sitive phil o s o phy and a c o m ,

pl e m e nt o f th e law o f th e thr e e St at e s But whil e this law .

,

e xpre ss e s th e p rog re ss o ft h e h u m an i n t e ll e ct in t h e c o nstitu

ti o n o f sci e n ce and phil o s o phy th e cl assific ati o n supp o s e s th at

,

sci e nc e and phil o s o phy are alre ady c o n stitut e d I t e xp re ss e s .

the ir o rde r and e n u n ci ate s fr o m th e st atic p o i n t o f vi e w wh at

,

t h e law fo rmul at e s fr o m t h e dy nami c p o i n t o f vi e w I t sh o ws .

th e r e l ati o ns o f th e v ari o us e l e m e n ts o f phil o s o phy a m o ng

the m se lv e s and to th e wh o l e
, .

Di 1
l p it p itif ( 8 44 ) p
sc o urs sur
’
es 4 r os 1 . 2 .
 Tb e C lassification of th e S cie n ces 57

So l o ng as thi s id e a o f th e wh o l e was no t d e fi ne d th at is t o ,

say so l o n g as p o sitiv e s c i e n c e r e m ai n e d sp e ci al th e s e r e l ati o n s

, ,

c o uld no t b e r ati o nally e stablish e d B ut o n c e so ci o l o gy was .

,

cre at e d and with it p o sit ive phi l o so phy it b e c am e p o ssib l e to

, ,

e mbr ac e t h e wh o l e o f th e fu n d am e nt al sci e n c e s in a si n gl e

c o nc e pti o n F o r fr o m th at tim e th e y c an b e r e pre s e n t e d as

.
, ,

b e i ng v ari o us asp e cts o f th e d e v e l o pm e nt o f th e hu m an

i nt e ll e ct .

Truly th e o bj e c t o f s c i e nc e is si ngl e and th e divisi o n s

, ,

whi c h are i ntr o duc e d i n t o it fo r o ur c o n ve n i e n c e with o ut ,

b e i ng arbitrary are a rtifici al All th e br an ch e s o f o u r

, .

k no wl e dge th at is t o say all th e fu n d am e nt al sci e nc e s must

, ,

b e c o n sid e r e d as is sui ng fr o m a s ingl e tru n k No t th at the s e .

s c i e n c e s c an e ve r b e r e du c e d o ne to ano th e r I t su ffi c e s th at .

t h e y b e h o m o g e ne o us an d th e ir h o m o g e ne ity r e sults fto m th e i r

,

subj e cti o n to t h e s am e m e th o d furth e r fr o m th e ir te n d e n c y ,

t o w ards th e s am e e nd and fi n ally fr o m th e ir sub o rdi nati o n to

, ,

t h e s am e law o f pr o gre ss I n re sp e ct to th e l ast an d high e st

.

o f th e s e sci e n c e s th e o th e rs must o nly b e fi nally r e gard e d

,

a s i ndisp e n s abl e p re limi na ri e s in a pr o gr e ssiv e o rd e r

” 1
.

Thus th e l add e r o f th e fu n d am e nt al sci e n c e s re pre se nts in ,

C o mte s mi n d th e m e th o dic al asc e nt o f th e p o sitive spirit

’
,

t o w ards u n ive rs ality and u n ity It is a hi e rarch y a scala .

,

i ntellectu s a cc o rdi n g to B ac o n s e xpr e ssi o n I t i nclud e s th e ’

.
,

wh o l e o f th e phil o s o phi a prim a als o fo r e sh a d o w e d by

B ac o n an d v ai nly s o ught aft e r by p hil o s o ph e rs .

T h e m e m o ry o f B ac o n d o e s no t pr e ve n t th e pr e p o n d e r ati ng
i nflu e n c e in this c o n c e pti o n o f C o mte fr o m b e i n g th at o f
D e sc arte s C o mte is far fro m ig no ri ng it H e c alls hims e l f
. .

t h e c o n ti n u at o r an d by a dr e adful b arb arism th e co m plete r o f ,

D e sc arte s U n d o ubte dly D e sc arte s h ad no t lik e him c o nc e ive d

2
.

1
C0 urs, VI . 610 .

11
Co rre s p d
on e nc e de H . C mt
o e and de Jo h n St uart M ill
. L e ttre da 5
n o ve mb re 1 8 4 2 ,
p . 1 32 .
58 T b e P nilosopby f g
oA u u ste C o m te

th e s e ri e s o f th e fu nd am e nt al sc ie nc e sfi Aft e r h avi ng appli e d

a p o siti ve m e th o d t o t h e study o fi n o rg an ic n atur e an d e v e n o f ,

li vi ng n atur e fo r th e r e st h e h ad r e ve rte d to a m e t aphysic a l

,

m e th o d But this c ar te si an c o mpro mis e c o uld o n ly b e

.
”

pro visi o nal N o ne th e l e ss to D e s c arte s b e l o n gs th e m e rit o f

.

h avi n g d e fi nite ly acquire d s e ve ral o rd e rs o f ph e no m e na fo r

t h e p o si t iv e spirit an d o f af fi rmi n g th e u n ity o f sci e n c e at th e
,

s a m e tim e as th e u n ity o fm e th o d H e was u n abl e hims e lf t o .

re alis e this tw o fo ld u nity fo r its tim e h ad no t c o m e and th e , ,

n e c e ss a ry c o nditi o ns h ad n o t ye t b e e n bro u ght to ge th e r .

M o re o ve r in th e c arte si an id e a o fsci e nc e m e t aphysic al e l e m e nt s

subsist ,
and D e sc art e s wr o ngly b e li e v e d th at t h e u n iv e rs a l

m e th o d was to b e o bt ai ne d by a tran sfo rm ati o n o f th e

m ath e m atic al m e th o d .

C o mt e t ak e s up th e l e adi ng id e as o f D e sc art e s agai n and , ,

at t h e sa m e t im e h e c o rr e cts t h e m acc o rdi n g as th e pr o gr e ss

, ,

o f t h e p o sitiv e spirit duri n g two c e n turi e s e n abl e d him t o do .

T h e p ositi o n o f l e adi ng sci e n c e if t his e xpr e ssi o n c an b e

“ ”
,

all o w e d p ass e s fro m m ath e m at ics to s o ci o l o gy M o re o v e r

, .
,

t h e u n ity o f sci e n c e as C o mt e c o n c e iv e s it n o l o ng e r pr e v e nts

, ,

t h e fu n d am e n t al sci e nc e s fr o m b e i n g i rr e ducibl e t o o ne
a n o th e r .This u nity is su ffici e ntly s e cure d by th e h o m o ge ne ity
o fth e sc ie nc e s wh ic h fo rm a c o n ti n u o us s e ri e s an e n cycl o p ae di c
“
, ,

hi e r ar c hy and which are all sub o rdi nate d to th e fi n al sci e n c e

,
”
.

L ast l y th e u n ity o f th e p o sitive m e th o ds d o e s no t imply its

u nifo rmity e v e rywh e r e E ach fu nd am e nt al sci e n c e as will b e
.
,

s e e n furthe r o n h as its m e th o ds which are sp e ci al to its e lf

, .
1

T h e C l assific ati o n o f th e sci e n c e s thus sh o ws h o w p o sitive

phil o s o phy stre tch e s b ack o ve r th e X V I I I c e nt wh e nc e it .
,

spri ngs to li n k its e lf with B ac o n and D e sc art e s C o mt e h as

, .

r e t ai ne d B ac o n s vi e w o n this p o i nt th at all sci e ntific k no w

’

l e dge re sts up o n facts which h ave b e e n fully o bs e rve d and ,

th at a syst e m o f p o sitive s c i e n c e s c o n sti t ut e s th e i ndisp e n s abl e

Cp i f b k I h VI 1
. n ra, oo , c . .
 Tbe C lassification of tb c S cie nces 59

b asis fo r th e o nly phil o so phy wh ic h is w ithi n o u r re ac h T o .

D e s c arte s h e h e re o w e s th e id e a o f th e u n ity o f m e th o d an d
o f th e u n ity o f sci e n c e
. We might alm o st say th at h e h as
re c e iv e d fro m B ac o n his id e a o f th e c o nt e nts o f th e sc i e nc e s
and fr o m D e s c art e s h is id e a o f th e i r fo rm . By wh at m e an s
did h e i nve st such m att e r with s uch a fo rm ? T h e answ e r
t o this q ue sti o n is fo u n d in th e p o sitive t h e o ry o f sci e n c e .
 C H APTER I V
SC IE N C E

WE m ay a dmit with Arist o tl e th at c uri o sity is natural to m an

, , ,

and th at we are i n cli n e d to i nquir e i n t o thi ngs f o r th e pl e asur e

o f k no wi ng th e m . But it must b e admitt e d adds C o mt e th at

, ,

this in c l i nati o n is o ne o f th e l e ast ac tiv e and th e l e ast

imp e rative in o ur n ature I t must h ave b e e n still l e ss so in
.

th e b e gi nn i n g o f m an ki n d s d e v e l o pm e n t ; and it was in any

’

c as e much w e ak e r th an th e i n c l i nati o n t o laz m e ss o r th an

, ,

th e r e pug n an c e t o a cc e pt anythi n g n e w . I t h as th e re fo re
b e e n ne c e ss a ry in o rd e r th at m an might e m e rg e fr o m his
,

primi t ive i n te ll e ctu al t o rp o r t h at t h e activity o f his mi nd

,

sh o uld b e i nduc e d a nd e v e n c o mp e ll e d t o e x e rt its e l f by

pre ssi ng circumst an c e s . S uch w e re u n d o ubt e dly t h e

n e c e ssiti e s o f hu n ti n g th e d an g e rs o f war and in a g e n e r al
, ,

way th e d e sire t o a v o id suffe ri ng an d d e at h

,
.

M o re o v e r t h e k no wl e dge which th e hum an mi n d a cquire s

,

at first is o n ly v e ry imp e rfe ctly r e a l fo r t h e o l o gic al phil o s o phy

fur nish e s th e mi n d wi t h its first c o n c e pti o n s M an b e gi ns by
.

supp o si ng e ve ry wh e re wills lik e his o wn an d th e w o rld whi c h

,

surr o u nds him is p e o pl e d with go ds o r fe tish e s N e v e rth e l e ss

.
,

fro m t his first p e ri o d th e rudim e nts o f a m o re p o si t i v e k no w

,

l e dge alre ady app e ar I n e ve ry o rd e r o f ph e no m e n a s o m e

.

a re v e ry simpl e an d o f such striki ng r e gul a rity th at e v i de n tly ,

n o a rbitr a r y will i n t e rv e ne s in th e ir w o rki ng M an must

.

ve ry q uickl y h av e h ad a re al id e a o f th e s e ph e no m e na
“
.

I n all t h e o t h e r c as e s i n st e ad o f o bs e rvi ng th e ph e n o m e n a h e
 S c ie n c e 6I

im agi ne d th e m o d e o f th e ir pro ducti o n but h e re h e o bs e rve d

th e s e qu e n c e s an d c o n c o mit an c e s which h e c o uld n o t r e sist ;

an d h e r e gul a t e d his c o n duct up o n this o bs e rv at i o n Fro m .

this humb l e b e gi nni ng sci e n c e c am e i n to b e i n g .

I n this way far fr o m o pp o si n g sci e n t ific t h o ught t o c o mm o n

,

th o ught as m o st o f th e phil o s o ph e rs do C o mte with o ut

, , ,

disr e g ardi ng th e spe ci al ch aract e r o f o ne a nd o f th e o th e r

sh o ws t h at b o t h spri n g fr o m th e s am e s o urc e and th at th e y ,

do n o t pre s e n t any e ss e n t i al p o i n t o f diffe re n c e H o w e ve r .

abstr act and h o w e v e r e l e v at e d s c i e n c e m ay b e c o m e it alw ay s ,

r e m ai ns a cc o rdi ng to him a simpl e sp e ci al pro l o n g ati o n

,
“
,
”

o f g o o d s e n s e o f c o mm o n s e n s e and o f univ e rs al wisd o m

“
, .

T h e ch arac t e r o f p o sitivit y by which sci e n tific k n o wl e dge

“ ”
,

is disti nguish e d fr o m th e o l o g i c al an d m e t aphy sic al c o n

c e pt io ns b e l o n gs al s o t o p o pul a r wisd o m
,
Lik e this wisd o m
.
,

which th e pr actic al ne c e ssiti e s o f life h ave fo rm e d sci e n c e ,

abst ai n s fr o m s e archi n g a ft e r th e c aus e s th e e nds t h e

, ,

subst anc e s and wh ate ve r is b e y o n d th e r e ach o f v e rific ati o n

,

by e xp e ri e n c e I ts e ffo rts b e ar e xclusi v e ly up o n th e l aws o f

.

c o e xist e n c e and o f succ e ssi o n which g o v e r n t h e ph e no m e n a .

A nd ag ai n it is fr o m this wisd o m t h at it h as b o rr o w e d th e
S pirit o f its p o sitiv e m e t h o d which c o n sists in o bs e rvi n g facts
,

and in syst e m a tisi n g o bs e rv ati o n s t o ris e t o t h e c o n c e pt o f

l aws .

I t fo ll o ws fro m this th at sci e nc e c o ntai n s withi n i ts e lf

n e ith e r its st a r t i n g p o i n t n o r its t e rmi n us
-
B o th are give n
.

it by c o mm o n s e n s e wh e n c e it spri ngs T h e st arti ng p o i n t

“ ”
.
-

is th e sp o n t ane o us o bs e rvati o n o f c o nst an t re l at i o n s b e tw e e n

th e m o st simpl e ph e no m e n a T h e t e rmi n us is t h e k no wl e dg e
.

o f th e s e s am e r e l ati o n s am o ng a ll giv e n p h e n o m e na as c o m ,

pi e t e and as pre cis e as o u r re quire m e n ts d e m an d I n d e e d .

th e c o mm o n s e n s e o r th e p o pul ar wisd o m is s o o n b affl e d b y

, ,

th e c o mpl e xity o f ph e no m e na I f we h ad no o th e r guid e

.

we sh o u ld k n o w v e r y littl e an d in ne arl y all c as e s we sh o uld

,
 Tb e P /t ilosopby of A ug uste C om te

be r e duc e d to a ki nd o f e mpiri c al di v i nati o n T h e fu ncti o n .

o f sc i e n c e is t o s ub stitut e a r e al k n o wl e dge o f l aws t o this

divi nati o n.

This fu ncti o n w o uld ne ve r h ave b e e n fulfill e d if th e hum an

mi nd h ad no t p o ss e ss e d th e pro p e rt y o f b e i n g abl e t o s e p arate
th e o ry fr o m pract ic e U nd o ubte dly th e fo rm e r pro c e e ds
.

fro m th e l att e r . As h as b e e n s aid e ve ry sci e nc e is ,

b o r n fr o m a c o rr e sp o n di ng a rt and fro m th e d e sire to pe r

,

fe c t it
. But this p e rfe c ti ng w o uld no t h av e go ne ve ry far ,

if th e hum an mi n d h ad ne ve r l o st sight o f it H appily m an .

,

is c ap abl e o f te mp o rarily fo rge tti ng h is imm e di ate i nte re sts

in t h e pursuit o f k n o wl e dg e By d e gre e s fro m th e c o m
.
,

ple x ity o f c o n cre t e c ase s h e h as l e ar nt t o dis e ng age th e

,

e l e m e n ts c o mm o n t o a wh o l e cl a ss o f ph e no m e n a H e h as .

th us fo rm e d th e id e a o flaw o r th e i nvari abl e r e l ati o n b e tw e e n

,

g iv e n ph e no m e n a B e y o n d th e i nt e ll e ctu al s atisfacti o n which

.

this k no wl e dge g ave him h e fo u nd in tim e applic at i o ns o f it

,

which h e w o uld n e v e r h ave im agi ne d b e fo re h and T o qu o te .

an e x a mpl e fr o m a ci v ilis ati o n alr e a dy v e ry ad v an c e d wh e n ,

t h e Gr e e k g e o m e t e rs p ati e n tly appli e d th e ms e lv e s to th e .

study o f c o n ic s ec ti o n s did th e y susp e ct th at th e ir l ab o urs

,

w o u l d o ne day se rv e in c alcul ati ng c e rt ai n astro no mic al

d e t e rmi nati o ns up o n whi c h th e s afe ty o f m ari ne rs w o uld
d e p e nd
I n this way sci e n c e utilit ar i an in its o rigi n si n c e it spr a ng
, , ,

fr o m th e practic al n e e ds o f m an utilit ari an in its e nd si nc e

, ,

it aims at pr o v idi ng fo r th o s e ne e ds h as ne ve rth e l e ss b e e n ,

u nabl e to d e v e l o p its e lf and will b e unabl e still to do so in .

th e futur e e xc e pt by ne gl e cti n g this v e ry utilit y

,
B e tt e r to .

fulfil its d e sti ny it must pro visi o nally fo rg e t it ; and it will

,

be th e m o r e us e ful in th e l o ng run in pr o p o rti o n as it will

, ,

h ave b e e n th e m o re disi n t e re ste d We ne ve r k n o w a priori

.
, ,

if a disc o v e ry which fi nds no applic ati o n to day c o mbi ne d -

,

l at e r with an o th e r o ne will no t b e o f c apit al i nt e re st fo r

,
 S c i en ce 63

m anki nd Th e re fo re it is o f th e high e st i mp o rt an c e th at
.

t h e o r e tic a l o rd e r sh o uld r e m ai n cl e arly disti n ct fr o m th e

practic al o rd e r .

Th at is why C o mt e re gard e d th e app e aran c e o fa sac erd o t al

cl ass sp e ci ally o ccupi e d with sp e cul ati ve r e s e arch as a
, ,

d e c isive m o m e n t in hist o ry o f hum an ity I t m att e rs littl e

.

t h a t th e s e r e s e a rch e s sh o uld h av e r e m ai ne d chim e ric al an d

abs urd d uri n g l o n g c e n turi e s T h e e ss e n ti al p o i n t was th at

.

th e hum an mi n d sh o uld fo rm and k e e p t h e h abit o f dis

i n te re ste d sp e cul ati o n th at it sh o uld n o t r e st c o n t e nt with

,

imm e di at e ly applic ab l e k no wl e dg e and th at it sh o uld e x e rt

,

its e lf t o w ards a th e o re tic al c o n c e pti o n o f nat ure h o we ve r ,

simpl e at first th at c o n c e pti o n was b o u n d t o b e .

Thus sci e n c e h as pro p e rl y spe aki ng two r o o ts th e o ne

, , , ,

pr actic al th e o th e r th e o re tic al I f it o rigi nat e d in th e primiti v e

,
.

a rts,
it is no l e ss cl o s e ly alli e d with primitive phil o s o phy .

I t s t ill b e ars fe ature s which e nabl e u s to disc e rn this two

fo ld filiatio n O n th e o ne h an d it h as r e m ai ne d specula tive
.
,

as was th e th e o l o gic al phil o s o phy which first d o mi n a t e d o v e r

t h e hum an mi n d .O nly this sp e cul ati o n h as gradu ally

ab and o n e d e v e rythi n g e x c e pt t h e l aws o f ph e no m e n a an d it ,

h as e nd e d by u nd e rmi ni n g th e th e o l o gic al c o n c e pti o n s fr o m

which it c am e O n th e o th e r h and sci e n c e h as r e m ai ne d
.
,

real lik e th e p o pul a r wisd o m which g av e it birth

,
But whil e .
,

d e ali ng with giv e n ph e no m e na in e xp e ri e nc e it h as d e ve l o p e d ,

in th e dire c t i o n o f th e o ry I nst e ad o fo nly c o n sid e ri ng sc e ne s

.

o f c o n cr e t e o bj e cts ,it h as r e s o lv e d th e m i n t o t h e ir e l e m e n t s .

A m o re and m o re p o w e rful analysis h as ra is e d it to th e c o n

sid e r ati o n o f l aws m o re and m o re ge ne r al and abstract Thus .
,

whil e th e p o pul a r wisd o m is limit e d to e mpiric al g e ne ralisa

ti o n s a sci e nc e such as fo r i n st an c e astro no m y disc o ve rs th e
, , ,

law which g o ve r n s th e wh o l e o f an imm e n s e o rd e r o f ph e n o

m e na .

Fro m this ge ne ral id e a o fsci e n c e th e fo ll o wi ng c o n s e qu e nc e s

a t o n c e fo l l o w :
 T ne P b ilosopby of A ug uste C om te

1 .Sci e nc e is th e c o ll e ct ive w o rk o f hum an ity I t be ars .

up o n an o bj e c t c o mm o n t o all : R e ality I t e mpl o ys th e . .

m e th o d c o mm o n t o all th e p o sitive m e th o d All i n te ll e cts .

w o rk in th e sam e m anne r o n a c o mm o n gro u nd I t is wh at .

C o mt e c alls th e pro fo u nd m e nt al id e ntity o f l e arne d m e n

“

w ith th e cro wd wh o s e d e sti ny fulfils its e l f in active w o rk ”

T h e pr o gr e ss o f th e sci e nt ific mi nd is a m e th o dic al e xt e nsi o n

o f p o pu l ar c o mm o n s e n s e to all subj e cts a cc e ssibl e to hum an

r e as o n But h e re m e tho d d o e s alm o st e ve rythi ng

.
“
T he .

wh o l e s up e ri o rity o f th e phil o s o phic al mi nd o ve r th e p o p ul ar

c o mm o n se ns e r e sults fro m a sp e ci al and c o nti nuo u s applic a
t i on to c o mm o n sp e cu l ati o n s in st arti ng p ru d e n t l y fr o m t h e
,

i niti al ste p a fte r h avi n g bro ught the m b ack to a no rm al st at e

,

o f j udic io u s abstr a cti o n f o r th e p urp o se o f g e ne r alisi n g an d

,

c o o rdi nati ng F o r wh at o rdi nary i nt e ll e ct s chi e fly l a ck is l e ss

.
, ,

t h e pre cisi o n an d p e ne tr ati o n appr o pri at e fo r dis c e r n i n g p arti al

a p ro x in atio n s th an t h e aptitud e fo r g e ne r alisi n g abstr act

p ,

re l at io ns and fo r e st ablishi ng a p e r fe ct l o gic al c o h e re nc e

,

a m o n g o ur v a ri o us n o ti o n s
2 ”
.

T h e g e rm o f th e high e st s c i e ntific c o n c e pti o n s is o ft e n t o

'

b e fo u n d in c o mm o n r e as o n C o mte d e light s in givi ng as an

.

e x ampl e o ne o f th e dis c o ve ri e s which h e m o st admire s ,

D e s c arte s i nv e n ti o n o f analyti c al G e o m e try T o d e t e rmi n e

’
.

at e v e ry m o m e n t t h e p o siti o n o f a p o i nt in sp ac e by its
“

dist an c e fro m fix e d ax e s : is no t th at w hat ge o graph e rs h ave

b e e n d o i ng fo r so l o ng in o rd e r to d e te rmi ne th e l o ngitud e
a nd l a titud e o f a pl ac e up o n th e t e rr e stri al sph e r e ? A nd h as
n o t this pr o c e e di n g its e lf b e e n sugg e st e d t o th e g e o gr aph e r by

simpl e c o mm o n s e ns e ? F o r h e i nsti n ctiv e ly s e e k s to m ark

t h e i nacc e ssibl e p o i nts which i n t e r e st him by m e an s o f th e ir ,

dist anc e fro m give n p o i nts o r li ne s Fr o m this th e id e a o fth e .

C art e si an c o o rdi nate s o n ly di ffe rs by a sup e ri o r d e gre e o f

abstr acti o n an d o f g e n e r ality .

1 Co u rs, vi. 6 5 1 -3 . C o urs, vi . 65 1 3 - .

 S c ie n ce 65

Thus all m e n must b e re gard e d as c o ll abo rati ng in th e

disc o ve ry o f truth as much as in m aki n g use o fit S pe aki ng '

ge ne rally if th e gre at phil o s o ph e rs and sci e ntifi c m e n o f

,

ge n ius s e e m to b e th e i n te l l e ctu al guid e s o f hum an it y it is ,

be c aus e th e y are th e first to be affe c te d by e ach m e nt al re

vo luti o n Th e y are th e first to p ass fro m a traditi o nal to
.

a ne w attitud e a n d th e i r e x ampl e is d e c isiv e But s ay s .

,

C o mt e th e ch an g e s re l ati ng to th e m e th o d o f thi nki ng with

,

o rigi nality o n ly b e c o m e m an ife st wh e n t h e y are alm o st

a cc o mplish e d T h e gre at m e n wh o s e n am e s are j ustly
”
.

a uth o rs a tt ach e d to are h o we ve r m o re th e h e r ald s th an th e

, ,

o f th e s e C h an g e s .

2
. Sci e n c e is th e w o rk o fall it must th e re fo r e b e acce ssibl e
t o all . I t is a p atrim o n y c o mm o n t o th e wh o l e o f m an ki nd
an d th e i n h e rit an c e must b e t ak e n fr o m n o o ne As a c o n
.

s e qu e n c e t h e S t at e o we s sci e n tifi c i nstru cti o n to th o s e wh o

,

are n o t in a p o siti o n t o pr o c ur e it f o r th e ms e lv e s No t t h a t .

all m e n all t h e
,
p e o pl e o ught to acquire a d e e p k n o w
l e dge o f th e s e ve r al fu n d am e nt al sc ie n c e s lik e th o s e wh o
,

m ak e it th e
o
p articul ar o cc up ati o n o f th e ir live s T h e im .

p o ssibility o f such a thi n g is to o e vid e nt fo r s eve ral r e as o n s .

N e ith e r is it a qu e sti o n o f p o pul arisi n g th e gre at sci e ntifi c

th e o ri e s fo r th e u se o f b adly pre p are d mi nds C o mte c o n
,
.

de m n s s e v e re l y this way o f simplifyi ng sci e nc e F o r

“ ”
.

i nst anc e h e will no t all o w N e wt o n s l aws to b e s e p arat e d

,
’

fro m the ir d e m o n strati o n s I t will a lw ays b e th e duty o fth e

.

gre at e r n umbe r o f m e n to ad o pt th e m aj o rity o f sci e ntific

t ruths o n th e t e stim o ny o f th o s e wh o will h av e disc o v e r e d ,

criticis e d and ve rifi e d the m But wh at it will b e th e duty o f

.
,

c o m m o n e duc ati o n to give to e ve ry mi nd is th e h abit o f ,

c o n c e i v i n g all ph e no m e na fr o m th e m o st simpl e to th e m o st
,

c o mpl e x as e qu ally go v e r ne d by i nvari abl e l aws and c o n

, , ,

s e q u e ntly o f u nd e rst an di ng th e wh o l e o f n ature as an o rd e r

,

which th e p o sitiv e m e th o d al o ne all o ws us to disc o v e r and to

 T /t e P /i ilosop/zy of A ug uste C om te

m o dify A nd as this m e th o d c anno t b e studi e d a p art fr o m

.

th e sci e n ce s in which it is us e d it will b e ne c e ss ary , ,

fo r e v e ry m an to b e m ad e ac qu a i n t e d with a summ ary o f e ach

fu nd am e nt al sci e nc e fro m m ath e m ati c s to s o c i o l o gy Th e re
, .

is no thi n g impr actic abl e in this sch e m e C o mt e h as dr aw n .

o ut in t h e p o sitiv e P o lity a pl an o f e duc ati o n c o nc e iv e d o n

, ,

this pri n cipl e O n this c o n diti o n al o ne will phil o s o ph y fo u nd e d

.
,

upo n p o sitive sci e nc e su c c e e d in re alisi ng th e h arm o ny o f

,

mi n ds and in r e o rgan isi ng th e b e li e fs

,
.
”

A uguste C o mte o fte n s ays th at th e p o siti ve spirit c o n sists

in k ee pi ng o ne s e lf e qu ally dist an t fr o m t wo d an ge rs mysticism ,

an d e mpiricism By mysticism h e u nd e rst an ds th e re c o urs e

.
1

t o n o n verifiab le e xpl an ati o n s an d t o t ransc e de n t hyp o th e s e s , .

M e n s im agi nati o n fi nds pl e asure in th e s e thi ngs but we must

’

b e abl e t o bri n g all r e a l k no wl e dge b ack to a g e ne r a l o r

“ ”

p art icul ar fact P o sitiv e sci e n c e th e r e fo re abst a i n s fr o m

.

s e ar c hi ng a ft e r subst an c e s e nds and e v e n c a us e s I t o n ly , , .

b e ars up o n ph e n o m e na and th e ir r e l ati o n s .

Empiricism in its tur n is no l e s s th an mysticism c o ntrary

, ,

to t h e spirit o f sci e nc e Empiri c ism sig n ifi e s fo r C o mt e th e

,

k no wl e dge which d o e s no t g o b e y o nd th e pure and simpl e .

a sc e rt a i n m e n t o f a fact No w an accu mul ati o n o f e ve n

.
,

pre cis e ly n o te d facts h as n o th e o re tic al i n te re st I t m ay at .

,

m o st be e r uditi o n but it is no t s c i e nc e T o thi nk th at by

, ,
.

t hus g ath e ri n g facts t o g e th e r o ne is l ab o u ri n g at th e w o rk

o f sci e n c e is t o t ak e a qu arry fo r an e dific e I n a w o rd

“ ” 2
.
, ,

sci e nce is m ad e up o f l aws and n o t o f fa cts ,

.
” 3

Strictl y sp e aki ng n o sci e ntific o bs e rvati o n is e ve n p o ssibl e

,

with o ut a pre vi o us th e o ry th at is to say with o ut a pre supp o s e d

, ,

Di l p it p itif p III 5
1 ’
sc o urs su r 6; P l p
es r os , . 1 o . o s. , 2 .

C III 4
2
o urs, C V I 647 .
3
o urs, , .
 S c i e nce 67

law ,
wh o s e ve ri fic ati o n is in qu e sti o n U nd oubte dly in
.

sci e nc e wh e n it h as b e c o m e p o si t iv e th e im agi nati o n no ,

l o ng e r c o n structs c aus e s o r e ss e nc e s
”
I t must submit to
.

re as o n th at is to say to th e m e th o dic al i nv e stigati o n o f

, ,

p h e no m e na . N e ve rt h e l e ss this i nve stigati o n c an no t t ak e

,

pl ac e with o ut guidi n g hyp o th e s e s an d thus th e im agi nati o n

,

p l ays a p a rt in s c i,
e n c e sub o rdi n at e it is tru e but indis e ns
p ,

a bl e . C o mte h e re s e p arat e s him se lf fro m B ac o n A c c o rdi ng .

t o t h e E n glish phil o s o ph e r in th e k no wl e dg e o f nature th e

, ,

m i n d m ust m ak e its e lf as r e c e ptiv e as p o ssibl e I n int ro duc .

i ng anythi ng o f its e lf it w o uld falsify sci e n c e and it s wh o l e ,

e f fo rt must b e t o h o ld its e lf up to ph e no m e n a as a pe r fe ctly

pl ai n and u n sp o tte d mirr o r so as to re fl e ct th e m as th e y
,

a re. No w this is pre cis e ly th e id e a o f sci e n c e which C o mte

r e j e cts u n d e r th e nam e o f e mpiricism With o ut th e hyp o .

t h e s e s o r t h e th e o ri e s sugg e st e d by th e v e ry a ctivity o f t h e

m i n d sci e n c e w o uld n e v e r b e c o n stitut e d a cc o rdi n g t o him , .

Th e r e w o uld ne v e r e ve n be an appre h e nsi o n o f fact at l e ast

’
,

a n a ppr e h e n si o n such th at it c o uld b e o f s e r vic e t o sci e n c e .

I n a w o rd abs o lut e e mpiri c ism is imp o ssibl e I n th e simpl e

“ ”
.

o bs e rv ati o n o f a ph e n o m e n o n by t h e hum an mi n d t h e e nt ir e ,

m i n d is i n t e r e st e d and in it t h e subj ec tiv e c o n diti o ns o fsci e n c e

,

a re a lr e ady virtu ally giv e n .

This be i ng grant e d sci e nc e m ay b e d e fi ne d as a m e th o dic al

,

p r o c e ssus o f t h e c o nne cti o n a nd e xt e n si o n o fo u r k no wl e dg e .

I t c o nsists in e ve ry d e p artm e n t in th e e x act r e l ati o ns

,
“

e st ablish e d be twe e n o bs e rv e d fa cts so as t o d e du c e fr o m t h e

,

l e ast p o ssibl e n umb e r o ffu nd am e nt al d at a th e m o st e xt e nsive ,

s e ri e s o f s e c o nd ary ph e no m e na in re no u n ci n g abs o l ute ly th e

,

v ai n s e arch afte r c aus e s and e ss e nc e s S o l o ng as m e n se e k

.
”

e xpl ai n ph e no m e na th e th e o l o gic al and m e t aphy sic al

“ ”
to

S pirit h as n o t ye t dis a pp e ar e d . P o sitive sci e nc e abst ai n s fro m

a ll e xpl an ati o n s o f this ki nd . Thus N e wt o n h as pl ac e d in
,

t h e s am e c at e g o r y u n iv e rs al gr avit ati o n and t h e at t r acti o n o f

 68 T ue P bilosop/cy of A ug u ste C om te

b o di e s . We c anno t k n o w wh at this mut ual acti o n o fth e st ar s

and t h e attr ac ti o n o f t e rr e stri a l b o di e s are in th e ms e lv e s But .

we k no w with full c e rt ai n ty th e e xist e n c e and t h e law o f th e s e

,

t wo o rd e rs o f ph e no m e n a an d m o r e o v e r we k no w th at th e y

are inde nt ic al . F o r th e g e o m e t e r w e ight is e xpl ai ne d wh e n h e

c o nc e ive s it as a p articul ar c as e o f ge ne r al gravit ati o n O n .

th e c o ntr ary it is w e ight which m ak e s t h e physicist pr o p e r

und e rst an d c e l e sti al gr avit ati o n We c an ne ve r g o b e yo n d
.

such j uxt a p o siti o n s o f id e as .

” 1

B ut whil e sci e nc e bri ngs t o g e th e r simil ar ph e no m e na its

‘

’
,

c hi e f fu ncti o n is to connect th e m th at is to say to d e t e rmi ne

,

th e m o ne by ano th e r acc o rdi ng to th e r e l ati o n s which e xis t

b e tw e e n th e m All sci e n c e s ays C o mt e c o n sists in th e c o
.
, ,

o rdi n ati o n o f fa cts and if t h e s e v e r a l o bs e rv ati o n s r e m a i ne d

is o l at e d th e re w o u ld b e n o sci e n c e We m ay e ve n say .

g e ne rally th at sci e nc e is d e sti ne d as far as th e v ari o u s ,

ph e no m e na p e rmit t o disp e ns e with dire ct o bs e r v ati o n in

, ,

a ll o wi n g us t o d e duc e t h e gr e at e st p o ssibl e n umb e r o f r e sults

fro m th e sm all e st n umbe r o f a cquir e d d at a I f a c o n st an t .

r e l ati o n i s fo u n d to subsist b e tw e e n two ph e no m e na it ,

b e c o m e s us e l e ss to o bs e rve th e m b o t h fo r fro m th e o bs e r va
ti o n o f o ne th e v ari ati o n s o f t h e o the r will b e
d e duc e d But th e first m ay in its tur n b e t h e fu n cti o n o f a
.

third and so o n u ntil at l ast we c o nc e i v e a c o n s tant c o nne c

,

ti o n b e tw e e n all th e ph e n o m e n a o f a g 1ve n o rd e r which m ay ,

all o w us t o d e duc e th e m a ll fr o m a si ngl e law Such fo r .

C o mt e w o uld be th e th e p e rfe ct fo rm o f sci e n c e : h o w n e ar it

is to th e C arte si an id e al ! T h e p o sitive spirit h e s ays
“
,
”
,

“ with o u t fa ili n g to r e c o g n i z e t h e
p re p o nde re nc e o f r e ality
dire ctl y a sc e rt ai n e d ,te n ds t o e n l arge th e r ati o nal at th e e x
p e n s e o f th e e xp e rim e nt al d o m ai n by substituti ng th e pre ,

visi o n o f ph e n o m e na to th e ir imm e di ate o bs e rvati o n .

”

Sci e ntific pr o gre ss c o n sists in dimi n ishi ng th e n umbe r o f

1
C I 8 II 8 8 8 9
o u rs, . 10 : . 1 ,
1 -
.
 S c ie n c e 69

d i sti n ct i n d e p e nd e n t l aws by c o n ti n u ally multiplyi ng

an d ,

t h e ir r e sp e ctiv e c o nne cti o n s .

1

Pre visi o n thus b e c o m e s th e e ss e n ti al ch ar act e risti c o f

H

s ci e n tific k n o wl e dge and th at i n d e pe n d e n tly o f any

,

utilit ari an m e n t al re s e rv ati o n F o r th e e v e ntu al ap .

plic ati o n s o f sci e nc e do n o t d e te rmi n e its th e o r e t ic al

a dv an c e T h e pr e visi o n with which we are h e r e c o n c e rne d
.

c o n sis t s s o l e ly in th e p o ssibility o f k no wi ng wi t h c e rtai n ty

wi th o ut o bs e r v i n g I t is k no wl e dge a p riori in th e
.

Arist o t e li an s e n s e o f th e w o rd o f which m ath e m ati c s ,

p r e s e n t t h e m o st p e r fe ct m o d e l A r e ctili ne ar tri angl e .

b e i n g give n I do n o t n e e d e xp e ri e n c e to k no w with
,

c e rt ai nt y th at th e su m o f th e a n gl e s in it is e qu al t o t wo

right angl e s Thus u nd e rsto o d pre visi o n appli e s to th e

.

p r e s e n t a nd e v e n t o
,
t h e p a st a s w e ll as t o t h e fu t ur e ,
.

Wh e n C o mt e writ e s All s c i e n c e h as pre visi o n fo r its

“

a im ,
”2
we m ust u nd e rst an d All sci e n c e t e n ds to
substitut e d e ducti o n to e xp e ri e n c e r ati o nal to e m piric al ,

k no wl e dge This pre vi si o n a ne c e ss ary c o n s e qu e nc e o f

.
,

t h e c o n st ant r e l ati o n s disc o v e r e d b e tw e e n ph e n o m e na will ,

a ll o w m en ne ve r t o mist ak e r e al sci e nc e fo r fruitl e ss

e ruditi o n which a ccumul at e s facts with o ut d e duci ng t h e m
,

o ne fro m an o th e r .

Thus th e fo rmul a cit e d ab o ve e nl arge s its e lf : Sci e nc e is

c o mp o s e d o f l aws a nd n o t o f fa cts T h e m o r e d e ducti o n is
”
.

s ubstitu t e d t o e xp e ri e n c e t h e b e tt e r is th e e xt e n si o n an d
,

c o nne cti o n o f o ur k n o wl e dg e r e alis e d C o n s e qu e ntly th e .

,

m o r e a ls o d o e s sci e n c e dr aw n e ar t o th at u n ity which is im

p e r a t iv e ly cl aim e d by o u r u n d e rst an di n g and whi c h is f o r it ,

t h e crit e ri o n o f truth Re al sci e nc e s ays C o mt e re g ard e d ”

.
, ,

fro m th e high e st p o i nt o f vi e w h as n o o th e r g e ne r al o bj e ct ,

but to e st abl ish o r to fo rtify u n c e asi ngly th e i nte ll e ctu al

'

O rd e r which is th e b asis o f all o th e r o rd e r T h e mi n d

3 ”
.
,

1
C V I 646 qq
o urs . C II 8 III II
s .
2
CO urs, IV 47 . 1 ,
-1 2 . 8 o urs, ,
1 .
70 Til e P nilosoplty of A ug uste C o m te

which appli e s its e lf to th e c o nt e mpl ati o n o fth e wo r l d re quire s ,

b e fo r e e ve rythi ng to find it i n te lligibl e

,
R e al sci e n ce .
”

s atisfi e s it n o t in im agi n i n g wills and c aus e s as did the o l o gy

, ,

and m e t aphysics but in disc o v e ri n g o rd e r in t h e c o n st an t

,

r e l ati o ns b e twe e n ph e no m e na Wh e n this o rd e r is h arm o ni o us

.
,

th at is t o say whe n th e s e ve ral cl ass e s o f ph e no m e na are

,

c o nc e ive d as h o m o ge no us and as simil arly go ve r ne d by l aws

, ,

th e sp o n t ane o us un ity o f o u r u n d e rst an di n g is c o n s o li

“

d at e d
. I t m atte rs littl e th at th e v a ri o us o rd e rs o fph e no m e na
are gi v e n t o u s a s irr e ducibl e t o o n e a no th e r T h e high e st .

o bj e ct o f sci e n c e is to d e t e rmi n e th e p o i n t o f vi e w fr o m whic h

all ph e n o m e na a pp e ar i n t e lligibl e a n d this p o i n t o f vi e w is

,

o ne as t h e u n d e rst an di n g its e l f is o n e .

P e rh aps it w o uld h av e b e e n e asy to p ass fro m this c o nc e p

ti o n o f p o sitive sci e n c e to a th e o ry o f k no wl e dge and to a ,

m e taphysic al vi e w o f n ature b o th id e alistic But C o mt e

, .

n e ith e r c o uld n o r w o uld push his th e o ry in this d ire cti o n In .

th is re sp e ct no thi ng is m o re sig nific an t th an his way o f u n d e r

st andi ng th e r e l ativity o f sci e nc e .

This re l ativity is usu all y pre s e nt e d as th e c o ncl usi o n o f a

criticism o f o u r u nd e rst an di ng o f its n ature o f its b e ari n gs
, , ,

and o f its r e l ati o n s t o its o bj e cts But acc o rdi ng t o C o mte

.
, ,

an i n quiry pursu e d o n th e s e li ne s h as n o ch a nc e o f r e a chi n g

,

a c o n clusi o n T h e o n ly th e o ry o f k n o wl e dg e which is p o sitiv e :

an d
“
re al is d ra wn fro m th e hist o ry o f th e hum an mi n d
,
”
.

T h e l aws o ft h e mi n d are o n ly r e ve al e d in th e e x ami nati o n o f

th e succ e ssi v e pr o ducts o f its activity th at is t o s ay in its ,

b e li e fs and in its sci e nc e T h e re l ativity o f sci e n c e c an th e re

.

fo re o n ly b e st at e d at fi rst as a fact l e avi ng it fo r subs e qu e nt

, ,

i nquiry to d e t e rmi n e t h e re as o n o f th at fa ct T h e law o f th e .

thre e St at e s su ffic e s fo r this fo r it sh o ws th at m an b e g an by

,
 S c ie n ce 71

s e e ki ng fo r abs o l ut e k no wl e dg e T h e phil o s o phy to which

.

h e first turn s is a t t h e s a m e tim e th e m o st nai v e and th e m o st

, ,

a mbiti o us .But a ne c e ss a ry e vo l uti o n c aus e s him to ab and o n

t h e pursuit o fth e abs o lut e first in its th e o l o gic al fo rm and th e n
,

in t h e m e t aphysic a l fo rm H avi n g re ach e d th e p o sitiv e st ate

.
,

m an k n o ws th at his sci e n c e n e c e ss a rily r e l ativ e is limit e d t o

, ,

t h e syst e m atic c o o rdi nat i o n o f ph e n o m e na an d t h e k n o w

“ -
”
,

l e dge o fth e ir l aws .

T h e c o n d e m n ati o n which thus strik e s r e s e arch e s b e a ri n g

o n t h e abs o lut e is its e lf m o re o v e r o n ly r e l ativ e in ch a r act e r
, ,
.

I t pre j udge s no thi ng re sp e cti ng t h e u ltim at e s o l uti o n o f

qu e sti o ns P o sitiv e phil o s o ph y in no way t ak e s sid e s in
. .

re sp e ct to th e s e pr o bl e ms I t simply st at e s th at sci e n c e h as
.

m o re and m o r e cut th e m o ff fr o m th e n umb e r o f th o s e which

it st udi e s I nd e e d it is imp o ssibl e to apply th e p o siti v e m e th o d
.

to qu e sti o n s which c o n c e r n th e abs o lut e No w this m e th o d .

,

b e i ng th e o n ly o ne which o ur mi n d c an h e n c e fo rt h fo ll o w at ,

l e ast if it wish e s to m ai nt a i n th e l o gic al u n ity which is its

supre m e re quire m e nt it fo ll o ws th at th e s e pro bl e ms are in
,

fact ab and o ne d N o thi n g m o re an d n o thi ng l e ss

.
“
So und .

phil o s o phy s ays C o mt e s e ts asid e it is tru e i n s o lubl e

,
” “
, , ,

q ue sti o n s but in st ati ng th e m o tive o f th e ir r e j e cti o n it

“
,

av o ids d e nyi n g anythi n g r e sp e cti n g th e m which w o uld be ,

c o n tr adict o r y to th at syst e m atic disus e by which al o ne u n

c o n tro ve rtibl e o pi ni o n s must die o ut (C o mt e m e an s .

o pi n i o n s which do n o t c o m e withi n t h e r an g e o f p o sitive dis

c ussio n )
. T h e pro bl e ms r e l ati ng to t h e e ss e n c e o fth e s o ul o r
t o t h e subst an ti a pri m a will m e lt aw ay as t h e m aj o rity o ft h e
“
,

m e t aphysic al pro bl e ms which th e sch o l astics put to th e ms e l ve s

h ave alre ady dis appe ar e d .

Eve n to p o sitive sci e nc e we must b e c are ful no t to attribute

,

an abs o lut e ch a r a ct e r—th at is to say in a s e n s e slightly di f fe r e n t

fr o m th e pre c e di n g o ne b ut ve ry fre qu e ntl y with C o mte —a
,

d e fi n ite and immut abl e ch aracte r T h e l aws which we c an .

 T b e P /t ilosop/ty u u ste C o m te
7 2 f g
oA

d e te rmi ne are ne ve r tru e e xc e pt u n d e r c e rt ai n c o n diti o ns .

We h ave no right to c o nsid e r th e m as tru e absolu tely .

N e wt o n s law is d e m o n strate d fo r o ur s o l ar syst e m : but do

’

we k n o w th a t it is v e rifi e d in all th e syst e ms thro ugh o ut

sp ac e ? Do no t let us c o n fo u n d th e w o rld which we c an ,

study with th e u n ite d re s o urc e s o fo bs e rv ati o n and c alcu l ati o n

with th e u n ive rs e o f which we k no w sc arc e ly anythi ng and
, ,

which o utrange s all o ur p o w e rs I n spit e o f th e fa m o us .

pri n cipl e o f th e su ffici e nt re as o n th e abs e nc e o f m o tive s fo r

n e g ati o n d o e s n o t c o nstitut e t h e right o f af firm ati o n with o ut ,

a ny dir e ct pro o f Abs o lut e no ti o n s s ays C o mte s e e m to m e

.
, ,

so imp o ssibl e th at I w o uld n o t e v e n d ar e wh at e v e r pr o b ability ,

I m ay se e in it t o w arran t th e ne c e ss ary an d u nalte rabl e

,

pe rpe tuity o f th e th e o ry o f gravit at i o n re strict e d to th e

i n te ri o r o f o ur wo rld if o ne day (which is m o re o v e r v e ry
, ,

di ffi c ult to admit ) th e pre cisi o n o f o ur pre s e n t o bs e rv ati o n s

c am e to b e p e rfe ct e d as much as we h ave d o ne in c o mp aris o n
t o H ipp a rchu s .
1

I n th e s am e way must n o t attracti o n h av e s e e m e d t o b e

,

a n abs o lut e qu ality ( th at is to say an immut abl e o ne ) o f

b o di e s si nc e ne ith e r ch ang e o f sh ap e no r th e p ass age fro m
, ,

o n e physic a l c o n stituti o n to ano th e r n o r an C h e mic a l m e t a

y ,

m o rph o sis no r e ve n th e di ffe re n c e b e twe e n th e s tate o f life

,

an d d e ath c o uld m o di f y this qu ality so l o ng as th e i nt e grity ,

o fth e s ubst an c e was m a i n t ai ne d ? T h e N e wt o ni an c o n c e pti o n

c am e and d e stro y e d e n tire ly at a sig nal stro k e this ch ar acte r
whi c h must h ave app e are d so i n d e structibl e by sh o wi n g th at ,

t h e w e ight o f a b o dy is a ph e no m e no n pur e ly r e l ativ e t o th e

p o siti o n o f this b o dy in th e wo rld o r m o re pre cis e ly to its , , ,

dist ance fro m th e c e ntre o fth e e arth .

2

I n o rd e r th a t o ur p o sitive sci e n c e o f any p art o f n ature

sh o uld be abs o l ute th at is to say fi nal it w o uld h ave t o be
, , ,

c o mpl e t e .But as all thi ngs are c aus e d o r c ausi ng h e lp e d o r

, ,

C II 95 7 1 ”C
o urs II 8 7
, 1 -
. o urs, , 1 .
 S c ie n ce 73

h e lpi ng acc o rdi ng to P asc al s e xpre ssi o n all th e ph e no m e na

,
’

in a r e cipr o c al u nive r sal a cti o n all th e l aws r e l ative o ne ,

t o ano th e r o ur s c i e n c e will n e v e r b e c o mpl e t e o n an y p o i nt

,
.

I t o n ly fur n ish e s m o r e o r l e ss imp e rfe c t appr o xim ati o ns .

1

T h e dis c o v e ry o fn e w facts and n e w l aws is alw ays p o ssibl e .

H o w m any tim e s d o e s n o t p o sitive sci e n c e find its e lf o blig e d

to m o dify an d t o r e adju st a syst e m o f l o ng acquir e d n o ti o n s ,

in o rd e r to m ak e a pl ac e fo r n e w e l e m e n ts ? This is a w o rk
o ft e n v e ry l ab o ri ou s but fr o m which sci e n c e n e v e r dre a ms o f
,

shri nki ng k no wi n g th at it is m ad e li abl e to it so to spe ak by

, , ,

de fi n iti o n th at is t o say th at it is r e l ativ e

,
Ex ampl e s o f this
,
.

a bo u n d n o t o n ly in th e hist o ry o f physic al and n atur al

,

sci e n c e but e ve n in th at o f so c all e d e x act sci e nc e s Do we

,
-
,

no t h e a r M P o i nc aré d e cl ari ng in acc o rd an c e with H e rt z

.
,

th at giv e n th e syst e m o f G alil e o and o f N e wt o n in m e ch anics

it is im po sssible t o give a s atisfact o ry id e a o f m ass an d o f .

fo rc e ? 2

Thus th e d e fi n iti o ns and e v e n th e l aws e st ablish e d by

, ,

t h e p o sitiv e sci e n c e s are at e v e ry p e ri o d appro xim ati o n s

,

c o rre sp o ndi ng to th e k no wl e dge we h ave o f fac ts A nd .

as t his k no wl e dg e c an alw ay s be e n rich e d t h e appr o xim ati o n

m ay als o b e c o m e s t rict e r with o ut e v e r r e a chi n g its c o n fi n e s

,
.

L e ib n it z alre ady s aid t h at th e an alysis o f anythi n g re al

re ach e s to i nfi n ity This th o ught is with h im cl o s e ly
.
,

a lli e d to t h e wh o l e o f his m e t aphysi cs we fin d in C o mt e .

a n e xpr e ssi o n in s o m e way e qui v al e n t alth o ugh p o sitiv e ,

.

H e s ays a lth o ugh th e pr o gr e ss o f t h e sci e n c e o f n ature

,

c on sists in substituti n g as much as p o ssibl e th e r at i o nal

m e th o d to th e e xp e rim e n t al m e th o d th e limit c an ne ve r b e ,

a tt ai ne d we c an n e v e r af
, firm th at e xp e ri e n c e will no t bri n g
n e w e l e m e n ts which will o blig e us to m o dify t h e e dific e o f

sci e nc e T h e re l at ivi ty o f sci e n c e thus s e rve s to m ai nt ai n an

.

e qu al b a l an c e b e tw e e n t h e n e e d o f u n ity which c o m e s fr o m
1
C r IV 67 3
o u s, R, g 2 -
l d. Si 2
p t mb 897
e vu e
3 e ne ra e es c e nc e s, 0 se e re , 1 .
74 T b e P /z i losop/z f g
oA u u ste C om te

th e u n d e rst andi ng an d th e i ne xh austibl e dive rsity o f th e

,

w o rld o f re ality which this u nd e rstandi ng studi e s .

A s a fact th e n p o sitiv e sci e nc e is a lw ays re l ative

, ,
Rightly .
,

it c anno t b e o th e rwis e and this fo r two e ss e nti al re as o n s I t

, .

d e p e nds ne c e ss arily up o n o ur o rgan is ati o n and o ur

“ “

sit uati o n o r in o th e r w o rds it is re l ativ e b o th to th e

”
1 “
, ,

i ndividu al and to th e spe c i e s in its advanc e .

”

I t is re l ative in th e first pl ac e to o u r o rgan is ati o n H e re .

C o mte t ak e s up agai n an id e a which was d e ar to th e ph ilo so

h e rs o fth e X V I I I c e n tury a n d i n p articul ar t o Did e r o t I f
p . .

o u r o rg an is ati o n w e r e di f fe r e nt th e d at a which o u r sci e nc e

,

e l ab o r a t e s w o uld b e o th e r th at th e y a re With m o re o rga n s .

we might p e rh aps gr a sp ki nds o f pro bl e ms o f which we h a ve

n o i de a . I f we supp o s e o u r spe ci e s to b e bli nd astro no my ,

w o uld no t e xist fo r it A nd furth e r a n atur al law re quire s

.
,

th at th e m o re c o mpl e x and t h e high e r ph e no m e na in re g ard

t o th e ir c o n diti o n s o f e xist e n c e sh o uld b e sub o rdi nat e d to
,

t h e m o r e g e n e r a l an d t h e m o r e c o mm o n ph e no m e n a T he .

i nte ll e ctu al ph e n o m e na thus d e p e n d first up o n th e bi o l o gic al , ,

ph e no m e na and th e n up o n all th o se to which t h e bi o l o gic al

,

ph e no m e na are sub o rdi nate d I n this s e n s e

. th e re fo re , ,

sci e n c e is r e l ative to o ur o rg anis ati o n which is its e l f ,

re l ative in r e sp e ct to t h e mili e u in which we live But .

,

r e cipro c ally th e re pre s e nt ati o n o f th rs mili e u and o f this

,

o rg an is ati o n r e sts up o n i n te ll e ctu al l aws which imp a rt

t o sci e n c e a n e e d o f u n ity an d h arm o n y spe ci al to t h e

mi nd .

C o mte c o n clud e s th e re fo re th at to e nd e avo ur to app o rti o n

, ,

wh at b e l o n gs to t h e o bj e ct and wh at to th e subj e ct in
sci e ntific k n o wl e dge is a h o p e l e ss atte mpt We sim ply k n o w .

th at sci e n c e is no t t h e e xclusive pro duct e ith e r o f t h e subj e ct

o r t h e o bj e ct Gi vi ng to o much t o th e o bj e ct l e ads u s to
e mpiricism . F alli n g to th e o pp o sit e e xtre m e l e ads to
Di 1
l E p it p itif p
’
sc o u rs su r
5 s r os , . 1 .
 S c ie n ce 75
“
mysti c ism . T h e e ffo rts o f phil o s o ph e rs to c o n struct an
a bstr act th e o ry o f k no wl e dg e h a v e o n l y e n d e d in mis e r abl e

re sults We h ave no t go ne b e y o n d Aristo tl e s axi o m as

.
“ ’

c o rre c te d by Le ib n it z Nik i! est in in tellectu q uod n on pri us

.
”

fuerit in se nsu n isi ipse in tellectus We are o n ly c e rt ai n o f

, .

o ne thi ng : o u r sci e n c e ne c e ss arily c o nditi o ne d by o ur

,

o rg anis ati o n is als o n e c e ss a rily r e l ati v e

, .

But this is no t th e m o st d e cisi v e c o n sid e rati o n fo r it o n ly

m ak e s us se e th at o ur sci e nc e w o uld b e di ffe re nt if o ur ,

o rg an is ati o n w e re to ch an g e No w as a m atte r o f fac t o u r

.
, ,

o rg an is ati o n d o e s n o t ch an g e H um an n ature ac c o rdi ng to

.
,

C o mt e re m ai n s simil ar to its e lf in th e wh o l e c o urs e o f its

,

e v o luti o n. I t is this e vo luti o n which its e lf b e c o m e s a c aus e ,

a nd a d e cisiv e o ne o f r e l ativity f
, o r sci e n c e F o r if o ur .
,

o rg an is ati o n d o e s n o t v a ry t h e syst e m o f o u r c o n c e pti o n s a n d

,

o f o u r s c i e n c e n e c e ss arily v a ri e s acc o rdi n g to o ur ,

situ ati o n ,

th at is to say acc o rdi ng to th e p o siti o n which we o ccupy in

,

t his e v o luti o n which ac c o mplish e s its e lf a cc o rdi n g to l aws

, .

O ur c o n c epti o ns o ur re ligi o ns o u r phil o s o phi e s are no t

, , ,

o n ly i n di v idu a l ph e n o m e n a ; th e y are a ls o an d chi e fly s o ci al

phe no m e na m o m e n ts in a c o ll e ctive an d c o nti n u o u s life o f

, ,

which all th e ph as e s are i nt e rd e p e nd e n t We o n ly k no w in .

a giv e n o rd e r o f k n o wl e dg e wh at is c o mp atibl e at th at
,

m o m e nt with th e ge ne r ally admitt e d phil o s o phy with th e ,

k no wl e dge alre a dy acquire d in this and in th e o th e r o rd e rs

o f ph e no m e n a with th e gr e at hyp o th e s e s c o n sid e r e d as tru e
, ,

wi th th e m e tho ds in fo rc e e tc As s o o n as th e hum an mi n d
,
.

h as b e c o m e c o n sci o us o f t h e e vo l uti o n to which it is subj e ct ,

a s s o o n as it h as gr a sp e d its m o st g e ne r a l la w ( th e law o f t h e

thre e st ate s ) in a w o rd as s o o n as s o ci o l o gy is fo u nd e d
, , ,

sci e n c e c an no l o n ge r b e c o n c e i ve d as o th e r th an r e l ative .

F o r fro m th at m o m e n t t h e v a ri o us sci e n c e s app e a r as so

m any gre at s o ci al facts which v ary as so m any fu n cti o ns o f
,

t h e r e st o f civilis ati o n .
 T /z e P /z ilosopn
y of A ug u ste C o m te

O ur sp e cul ati o n s d e p e n di ng o n th e t o t ality o f s o ci al

,
“

pro gre ssi o n c an th e re fo r e n e v e r admit o f th at abs o lut e fixity

,

which m e t aphysici an s h ave supp o s e d T h e c o nti n u o us m o v e .

m e n t o f histo ry m o difi e s in th e l o n g run th e b e li e fs which

, ,

app e a r t o b e t h e m o st i mmut a bl e O ur th e o ri e s t e n d t o
.

re pre s e nt m o re an d m o re faithfully th e o bj e cts o f o u r

i n ve stigati o ns th at is to say th e l aws o fph e no m e na We are
,
.

thus bro ught b ack to t he id e a o f limit which is ne v e r ,

a tt ai ne d ,
t o w ards which we are adv an ci ng by m e ans o f
a ppr o xim ati o n s e v e r m o r e e x a ct .

T h e tim e is n o t ye t fa r dist an t wh e n a d o ctri ne o f this ki n d

,

c o uld n o t h ave b e e n advan c e d with o ut at o nc e b e i ng r ej e cte d

as s c e ptic a l . T h e hu m an mi n d is sc a rc e ly b e gi nn i ng t o
u n d e rst an d th at truth c anno t b e immut abl e M e n b e li e ve d .
1

th at truth must alw ays be id e ntic al with its e lf always ,

id e ntic al fo r all mi n ds at all tim e s and at all pl ac e s I t .

s e e ms that in l o si ng this ch ara cte r it must c e as e to b e tr uth ,

.

Th at is why phil o s o phy h as be e n so p e rsist e nt in th e pur suit

o f th e abs o l ut e I t was b e li e v e d t h at n o truth c o uld b e
.

c e rt ai n u nl e ss it re st e d ultim ate ly up o n an immut abl e

, , ,

fo u nd ati o n .

Sci e nc e was th e r e fo r e m ad e to h ang o n m e t aphysics A nd .

th e d e fe ats a th o us an d tim e s r e p e at e d o f m e t aphysics w o uld

, ,

n o t h av e disc o ur ag e d th e hum an m ind h ad n o t p o sitiv e

phil o s o phy at l ast sh o wn th at th e truth o f which we are

c ap ab l e b e c aus e it is re l ative d o e s no t c e as e to b e truth We
,
.

are no t c o n d e m ne d to ch o o s e b e tw e e n t h e pursuit o f an i nac

c e ssibl e abs o lute and th e crumbli ng d o wn o f all sci e nc e I t .

su ffic e s to u nd e rst an d th at hum an sci e n c e e v o lve s and th at

thi s e v o luti o n is subj e ct to l aws I t is n e v e r e nd e d : it .

alw ays be co me s I t is no t a st at e : it is a pro gre ss

“
. .

Th e re are th e re fo re pro visi o nal a nd if o ne m ay so sp e ak, , ,

t e mp o rary truths D o e s sci e nc e e ve r e st ablish any o th e rs ?

.

C 7 56 V I
1
o u rs .
, ,
 S c ie n ce 77

T he id e as which H ipp archus and th e Gre e k a stro no m e rs h ad

o f th e h e ave n s was n o t fals e in all re spe cts I t was th e .

a str o n o mic a l truth c o mp atibl e with t h e c o nditi o n s o f th e

s o ci e ty in which th e y live d Aft e r th e l ab o urs o fth e o bs e rv e rs
.

o f t h e Middl e Ag e s utilis e d by C o pe r nicus this id e a fad e d

, ,

b e fo r e ano th e r o ne which b e c am e m o re p e rfe ct with N e wt o n and

L apl ac e P e rh aps t his o ne will b e m o difi e d in its tu rn in
.
,

c o ns e qu e n c e o f ne w disc o ve ri e s ! Si mil arly it was th o ught

t h at th e e arth was a fl at surfa c e th e n a r o u n d disc , Th e n it .

was re pr e s e nt e d as a sph e r e a n d fi n ally as an e llips o id To .

day we k n o w th at this e llips o id is irr e gul a r .

Truth is th e n a t e ach p e ri o d t h e p e rfe ct l o gic a l c o h e re nc e

“
,

o r th e c o rre sp o nd e nc e b e twe e n o ur c o n c e pti o ns a nd o u r

o bs e rv a ti o n s. T h e hist o ry o f hum an th o ught is c o mp o s e d o f
a pro gr e ssiv e s e ri e s of alt e r nati n g p e ri o ds At a c e rt ai n .

m o m e nt th e mi n d h as pl ac e d wh a t it c o nc e ive s in a cc o rd an c e
with wh at it k no ws B ut by d e gre e s ne w facts are o bs e rve d
.
, , ,

k no w n facts are be tte r i n t e rpre t e d disc o ve ri e s burst fo rth , .

T h e h arm o ny b e twe e n th e c o n c e pti o n s an d t h e o bs e rvati o n s

th e n be c o m e s pre c ari o us Mi nds find a gr e ate r and gr e at e r
.

di fficul ty in fit ti n g all t h e acquire d k no wl e dg e i nt o th e

tr aditi o n al fra m e At l ast th e fr am e giv e s way Th e n th e
. .

h arm o ny is re e st ablish e d in a m o re c o mpre h e n siv e fo rm

-
,

which in its turn is d e sti ne d to b e c o m e insuffic ie nt H e r e .

‘

p o siti v e phil o s o phy re c o gn is e s a s o ci o l o gic al law I t gi ve s .

u p th e v ai n dre am o f immu tabl e truth I t n o l o n ge r r e gards .

t h e truth o ft o day a s a bs o lu te ly t ru e n o r t h e t ruth o f y e st e r

-
,

day a s abs o lut e ly fa ls e I t c e as e s t o b e critic al in r e g ard

.

t o t h e p ast .

T o c o n clud e t h e th e o ry o f sci e nc e c an th e r e fo re o n l y b e
a cc o mplish e d fr o m th e s o ci o l o gic a l p o i n t o fv ie wI t r e m a i n s im
,

p e rfe c t so l o ng as we h as no t b e e n substi tu te d to I th e u n i
“ ” “
,
”

v e rs a l subj e ct which is hum a n ity t o t h e i n d ividu a l subj e c t and a ,

phil o s o phic al hist o ry o fth e sci e n c e s to m e re r e fl e ctive analysis .

78 Tbe P /t ilosop/iy of A ug uste C om te

T o th e l o gi c al c o nditi o n s o f sci e n c e to d e fi ne it c o mpl e te ly

, ,

its bi o l o gic al and s o c i al c o nditi o ns m u st b e j o i ne d Th e n

.
,

but th e n o n ly it will b e u nd e rsto o d th at at e ac h p e ri o d

, , , ,

s c i e nc e is at th e s am e tim e tru e and r e l ative with o ut its

,

r e l ativity pl aci ng its truth in d ange r .

 C H A PTE R V
SC IE N C E (C O N TI N U ED )
PH E N O ME N A A ND LAWS
T H E p e rfe cti o n o f th e p o sitive syst e m t o wards whi c h i t ,

u n c e a si ngly t e n ds a lth o ugh v e ry pr o b ably it

,
m ay ne v e r

r e ach it w o uld b e to re pre s e nt all o bs e rvabl e ph e no

,

m e n a as p articul ar c as e s o f a si ngl e g e ne r al fact such ,

as ,
fo r e x ampl e th at o f gr av it ati o n
,
T h e fu n d a m e nt al .

id e ntity o f ph e no m e na th e re ducti o n o f p articul ar l aw s to a

,

supre m e law ; this is an id e al which we are fre e to

e n t e rt a i n C o mt e aft e r d A le m b e rt and S ai n t Sim o n ’
-
,
.
,

h a s fo rmul at e d it hims e lf at t h e b e gi nn i n g o f th e C o u rs
de p leilosop nie p ositive .
1

U nfo rt unate ly this id e al is no t re alis abl e We apply a v e ry .

w e ak i nte ll e ct to a v e ry c o mplic ate d w o rld 2

T h e u n ity .

which sc o rn i n g e xpe ri e nc e we might e st ablish w o uld

, , ,

natur ally b e v alu e l e ss F o r th e s e v e r al c ate go ri e s o f

.

ph e n o m e n a pro p o s e d to us s e e m i rre ducibl e I f this 3

.

b e th e c as e th e pursuit aft e r sci e n tific u n ity is

’

“
irrati o nal C o mt e e nd e d by tre ati ng it as an abs urd
.
” “

u t o pi a .
” 4

H o we v e r this ut o pi a is fo re ve r r e app e a ri n g ; fo r th e hum an

,

mi nd is s e cre t ly a tt ach e d to it I t is b e c aus e o n th e o ne .

,

h an d u nity pl e as e s it ab o v e all thi ngs and o n th e o th e r h and

, ,

b e c aus e th e r e is h e r e an illusi o n pro duc e d and m ai nt ai ne d by

a phil o s o ph y b o r n o f m ath e m a tic al i nspir ati o n D e sc a rte s ’
.

C I 4 1
Di
o urs, . . l E p it p itif p 2
3 sc o urs sur
’
s r os , . 2 .

C II 5 5 3
C
o urs, V I 648
. 0 .
4
o u rs, , .
80 Di e P nilosop/ty of A ug u ste C om te

disc o ve ry which all o w e d qu e sti o n s o f g e o m e try to b e d e alt

with by alge bra h as b e e n th e o cc asi o n o fa grave e rro r I t gave .

ris e to th e th o ught th at di ffe re nc e s o fqu ality c o uld b e r e duc e d

t o diff e r e n c e s o f qu an t ity H e n c e th e id e a o f re duci n g th e
.

vari o us c at e g o ri e s o f ph e n o m e n a to o ne ano th e r But this .

was a wro ng i n t e rpre t ati o n o f t h e pri ncipl e o f analytic a l

g e o m e try Eve n th e re we h ave a transl ati o n n o t re ducti o n
.
, , ,

T h e ge o m e tric al id e as o f fo rm an d o f situ a ti o n s ays C o mt e

”
,

—and Mr Re no uv ie r will re p e at it afte r him are no t

.

n a tur ally m o r e lik e n um e ric al n o ti o n s th an t h e o th e r r e al

c o nc e pti o n s E ve ry ph e no m e no n e ve n s o ci al w o uld c e rt ai nly

.
, ,

h av e its e q uati o n as a figure o r a m o ti o n if its law w e re

,

k no w n to us with su ffici e nt pre cisi o n .

A nalysis is th e r e fo r e but an i n strum e n t o f i n c o mp ar abl e

p o w e r fo r th e st udy o f ph e no m e na But fro m th e fac t th at
.
,

we c a n m ak e u se o f it it d o e s n o t in t h e l e ast fo ll o w th at t h e
,

ph e no m e n a m ay b e all bro ught b ac k to an id e ntic al t y p e .

Q u a lity is i n n o w ay by this m e ans r e duc e d t o qu an tity which ,

is s o m e thi n g e n tire ly abstract and this n o m o re t ak e s pl ac e

i n th e c as e o fg e o m e t ric al qu al i ty th an in t h e c as e o f any o th e r .

N e ith e r c an th e g e o m e tric al qu ality b e re duc e d to pure anal y sis ,

n o rth e physic al t o th e g e o m e tric a l n o rth e livi n g t o th e in o rg a n ic

, ,

n o r t h e s o ci a l t o t h e bi o l o gic al At e ve ry st ag e s o m e thi n g
.

qu alit ative ly ne w app e ars Wh e th e r o r n o we c an fo rmul at e

.

t h e re l ati o n s o f ph e no m e n a in t h e fo rm o f an e qu ati o n th e i r ,

h e t e r o g e ne ity subsists a lw ays irr e ducibl e .

Wh at is tru e o f ph e no m e na is als o true o fth e ir l aws E a ch .

o rd e r o f ph e no m e n a h a s it s sp e ci al l aws o v e r a n d ab o v e th o s e

whi ch r e sul t fro m its r e l ati o n s with t h e l e ss c o mpli c at e d and

m o re ge ne ral o rd e rs T h e id e a o f a supre m e law fr o m which
.

all t h e o t h e rs w o uld b e d e duc e d must th e r e fo r e b e fo rs a k e n .

Eve n withi n th e r ang e o f e a ch fu n d am e nt al Sci e nc e it i s ,

d o ubtful h o w far th e u n it y dre amt o f c o uld e ve r b e att ai ne d .

T h e n umb e r o f irre ducibl e l aws is far m o re c o n sid e rabl e th an

 S cie nce 8 1

is im agi ne d by a fals e appre ci ati o n o fo ur m e n t al po w e rs and o f

sci e ntific di fficulti e s F o r i nst anc e in physics h o w c an Optics
.
, ,

an d a c o ustics b e re duc e d to o ne ano th e r ? Physi o l o gic al

c o nsid e r ati o ns in d e fault o f o the r r e as o n s w o u l d b e o ppo s e d
, ,

to such a c o n fusi o n o f id e as L ik e wis e in bi o l o gy h o w c an

1
.
,

t h e l aws o f an im al life be r e du c e d t o th o s e o f l o w e r o rg an ic

li fe ? and in s o ci o l o gy th e l aws o f hum an s o c i e ty imp l yi ng a

,
-
,

c o urs e o f histo ry to th o s e o f anim al s o c i e ti e s wh ich do n o t

,

do so ?
I n ste ad th e re fo re o f c o nc e i v i ng a priori th e ph e no m e na
, , ,

and t h e l a ws as c ap abl e o f a re ducti o n which is in fact

“ ”
, ,

imp o ssibl e th e p o sitiv e m e th o d re q uire s th e d e te rmi nati o n o f

,

t h e g e n e r al ch ar a ct e rs o f th e s e ph e no m e na and o f th e s e l aws
by o bs e rv ati o ns I t first e st ablish e s th e fo ll o wi n g
.

1 . T ne m o re com
plex pne n o m en a beco m e, the m o re a lso ou r

m ea n s o f s tudy i ng tnem i ncrease in nu m be r .

I t is a n atur al but an i nsu ffi c i e n t c o mp e ns ati o n F o r .

th e di fficulty o f e st ablishi ng th e sc i e n c e o f ph e no m e na
gro ws much m o re quickly th an th e numb e r and th e p o w e r o f
o u r m e th o dic a l pr o c e ss e s H o w e ve r with o ut this c o m
.
,

e n sat io n sc arc e ly any fu n d am e n t a l sci e n c e w o uld e v e r r e ach

p ,

t h e p o sitiv e st at e Th us to th e m e th o d o f pure m ath e m atics

.
,

o bs e rv ati o n in a s t r o n o my c o m e s t o be a dd e d Exp e rim e nt a .

ti o n app e ars in physics th e art o fno m e n cl ature s in ch e mist ry

, ,

t h e c o mp ar ativ e m e th o d in bi o l o gy th e hist o ric a l m e th o d i n ,

s o ci al sci e n c e With this fi nal sci e n c e th e p o sitiv e m e th o d

.
,

is h e n c e fo rth c o mpl e t e .

2 W e m o re co m plex phe nom ena becom e t/z e m ore m odifia ble

. ,

We h av e no p o we r o ve r astro no mic a l ph e no m e na Eve n .

t h e p e rfe ct k n o wl e dg e o f th e ir l aws w o uld o n ly a ll o w us t o

fo re s e e th e m But we c an in a gre at n umbe r o f c as e s bri n g
.
, ,

ab o ut o r a rr e st physic a l and ch e mic al ph e no m e n a O ur in te rve n .

C V I 6 59 1
o urs, , .
82 T ue P /z ilosop/zy '

f A ug uste
o C om te

ti o n is still m o re e ffi c ac i o us if we are c o nc e r ne d with bi o l o gi c al

ph e no m e na as is su ffici e ntly p ro ve d by th e go o d and th e e v il
,

wro ught by m e dici ne and surge ry A nd it fi nally re ach e s th e

.

h e ight o fits p o we r in so c i al and p o litic al life S o much so th at .

e ve n c ultiv at e d m e n find it di f fi cu l t to p e rsu ad e th e m se l ve s

t h at so ci a l ph e n o m e n a are g o v e r ne d by i n va ri abl e l aws and ,

th at p o litics c an b e c o m e th e o bj e ct o fa s c i e nc e Exp e ri e nc e .

s e e ms to te ll th e m o n th e c o n trary th at th e ac tivity o f m an
, , ,

an d e s pe ci ally th at o f th e m an o f g e n ius is all p o w e rful in ,

-

this d o m ai n N e v e rt he l e ss it is n o t so as s o ci o l o gy by th e
.
-
, ,

m e re fact o f its e xist e nc e su ffici e ntly pro ve s But it re m ai n s .

tru e th at o fall th e p he no m e na o f natu re th e s o ci al and m o r al

, ,

phe no m e na are th o s e in which m an s i nt e rv e nti o n is at o nc e

’

th e e asi e st an d th e m o st e f fi c aci o us .

3 We m o re com plex t/z e p/z enom ena tlz e m ore im perfec t t/z y a re
. e .

We sh all p e rh aps b e surpris e d to se e C o mte app e ali n g to th e

id e a o f p e rfe cti on I t s e e ms th at h e o ught t o h av e e xclud e d
.

it as b e i ng s o m e thi ng m e t aphysic al Furth e r o n we sh all .

c o n sid e r his th e o ry o f fi nality At pr e s e n t le t us o nly say

.

th at if h e c o nsid e rs n atur al ph e no m e n a as imp e rfe ct it is in ,

t h e s e n s e in which H e l mh o lt z c a lls th e e ye a p o o r o ptic al

i nstrum e nt H e simply st ate s th at c e rt ai n e nds in fact be i n g

.
, ,

re ali z e d by a n atural arran ge m e nt o f a gro up o f ph e no m e na ,

t h e s am e e n d might be b e tt e r o r m o r e e c o n o mic ally r e ach e d ,

by o th e r arr an ge m e nts th at we c an e asily c o n c e iv e I n thi s .

s e n s e o u r s o l ar syst e m is imp e rfe ct but l e ss so t h an m any

,

li v i ng fo rms wh o s e o rg an ism might pre s e nt a much high e r

d e gre e o fadvan t age o us ad apt ati o n A n d ye t th e s e livi ng fo rms
.

a re th e ms e lv e s l e ss i mp e rfe ct th an s o ci e ti e s subj e ct a s t h e y

a re t o all s o rts o f p ath o l o gic al alt e r a ti o n s as hist o r y cl e arl y

,

sh o ws I t is r e m ark abl e th at th e m o st imp e rfe ct ph e n o m e na

.

sh o uld pre cis e l y b e th e m o st m o difi abl e and als o th o s e wh o se

,

study o nly b e c am e p o sitive in th e l ast st age .

 S cie nce 83

M o re l e ss c o mpl e x m o difi abl e a nd imp e rfe c t all ph e no

or , ,

m e na are subj e ct to l aws I t is th e supre m e p r i nc ipl e the

.
,

“
fu nd am e nt al d o gm a o fsci e nc e and o f p o sitive phil o so phy
”
.

C o mt e thus e nu nc i at e s it : Al l ph e no m e na wh ate ve r i no r
“
,

g an i e o r O rg ani c physic al o r m o ral i ndiv id ual o r s o ci al are

, , ,

a ll subj e c t e d in a c o n ti nu o u s m ann e r t o rig o r o usly inv ari abl e

l aws .
”1

U nd o ub te dly this pri ncipl e is no t ye t e xt e n d e d by th e ,

m aj o rity o f mi n ds t o all ph e no m e n a
,
Thi s is sh o w n c l e arly .

e n o ugh by th e ir m o d e o f r e aso n i n g in e thi c s an d in p o liti c s .

But it is h o w e v e r impli e d in th e ir ge ne ral c o nc e pti o n o f

, ,

n atur e . I t thus assum e s a u niv e rs al ch aract e r whi c h h as ,

c aus e d it to b e r e g ard e d by m any phil o s o ph e rs as an i n nat e ,

o r at l e ast a primitive no ti o n in t h e hum an mi n d ,

Ac c o rdi ng .

t o C o mt e this is e rr o ne o us
,
Lik e J o h n Stu art Mill wh o m h e
.
,

e xpr e ssly qu o t e s o n this p o i n t 2 h e s e e s in this pri c ipl

n e th e
,

r e sult o f a l o ng gradu al i n du c ti o n at th e s am e t im e in
, ,

d ividu al and c o ll e ctive Ex c e pt in t h e c ase o f th e m o st

.

famili ar ph e no m e na wh o s e r e g ul arity is m o st striki ng th e

, ,

hum an mi nd d o e s no t be gi n by be l ie vi n g in an i nv ari ab l e
o rd e r Ev e n th e mi nd s c o n c e pti o n s (th e o l o gic al and m e ta
’
.
,

physic al ) c o nc e al th e e xiste n c e o f l aws l o n g afte r o bs e rv ati o n

, ,

w o uld h av e m ad e it se e th e m w e r e it fre e d fro m bi as I t is , .

t ru e th at th e first ge rms o f th i s pri nc ipl e e xist as s o o n as

“ ”

hum an r e as o n b e gi ns to b e e x e rcis e d si n c e t h e d o mi n i o n o f ,

t h e o l o gic al phil o s o phy n e v e r c o uld b e abs o l u t e But th e se .

ge rms are o nly d e ve l o p e d ve r y sl o wly lik e th e p o sitive m e th o d ,

a nd c o n c e pti o n s th e ms e lv e s .

T h e i nd uc ti o n up o n which this pri n cipl e is fo u n d e d o nly

b e g an t o ac quir e s o lidity wh e n it was d e fi n it e ly v e rifi e d fo r a
w h o l e o rd e r o f imp o rt an t ph e n o m e n a th at is to say wh e n ,

C 1
V I 65 5
o urs, , Di . l p it p itif p
2
7 sc o urs sur
’
es r os , . 1 .
84 T ne P li ilosop/ty f g
oA u u ste C o m te

m ath e m atic al astr o no m y h ad b e e n fo u nd e d Ph e no m e na o f .

th e high e st imp o rt an c e fr o m th e th e o r e tic al as w e ll as fr o m

,

t h e practic al p o i nt o f vi e w c o uld th e n b e pr e dict e d with

,

p erfe c t c e rt ai nty T h e i nvari ability o f th e ir l aws h ad b e e n

.

pl ac e d b e y o n d d o ubt Fro m th at m o m e n t th e pri n cipl e must

.
,

h ave be e n e xt e nd e d by anal o gy to th e m o re c o mpl e x o rd e r s ,

o f ph e no m e n a e v e n b e fo r e th e ir o wn l aws c o uld b e k n o w n
, .

But acc o rdi ng to C o mt e this vagu e l o gic al anticip ati o n

“ ”

re m ai ne d v alu e l e ss and fr uitl e ss I t is o f no use to c o nc e ive .

in th e abstr act th at a c e rt ai n o rd e r o f ph e n o m e n a m us t b e
subj e ct to l aws This e mpty c o n c e pti o n c an no t o utw e igh th e
.

th e o l o gic al and m e t aph y sic al b e li e fs whi c h h ave th e fo rc e o f ,

h abit in th e ir favo ur I n o rd e r th at th e pri n cipl e o f l aws

.

sh o u l d b e r e ally e st ablish e d in an o rd e r o f ph e n o m e n a s o m e ,

l aws must i n fac t h ave b e e n disc o ve re d an d d e m o n strat e d in

it.

C o ns e qu e n tly whil e in th e a p ri ori d o ctri ne s th e p o ssibility

,

o f all sci e n c e r e sts up o n th e pri n cipl e o f l aws in C o mt e s ’

d o c tri ne o n t h e c o ntr ary it is th e pro gre ss o f p o sitive sci e n c e

, ,

which by d e gre e s fo u nds th e pri n cipl e an d which fi nally ,

bri ngs i t t o th e un ive r sal fo rm in which we find it to day -

.

U ntil th e cre ati o n o f s o ci o l o gy this pri ncipl e did no t ye t ,

p o ss e ss an e ffe ctive u ni v e rs ality si n c e th e m o ral and s o ci al ,

ph e no m e na w e re no t c o nc e i ve d as subj e ct to i n vari abl e l aws .

But wh e n th e l ast c o nqu e st o f th e p o sitiv e spirit is o nc e

a cc o mplish e d this gre at pri n cipl e at o nc e acquire s a d e cisive
“
,

ful ne ss and m ay b e fo rmul at e d as applyi n g u n iv e rs ally to all

,

ph e no m e n a . U nd o ubt e dly in e ach o rd e r we h av e o n ly

, ,

e st ablish e d fo r a few wh at h e n c e fo rth we af fi rm fo r all

ph e no m e na with o ut pre vi o us ve rific ati o n But we thi n k t h at .

l aws u nk n o w n to us n e v e rth e l e ss e x ist I n this we yi e ld

, , .

t o an
“
irre sistibl e anal o g y which h as ne ve r b e e n pro v e d
,
”

t o b e fals e .

Thus “
t h e m o st fu n d am e n t al d o gm a o f t h e wh o l e o f
'

,
 S c ie n ce 85

p o sitive phil o s o phy th at is to say th e subj e cti o n o f all

, ,

r e al ph e no m e n a to i nvari abl e l aws o n ly r e sult s with c e rt ai nt y ,

fro m an imm e n s e i n ducti o n with o ut r e ally b e i n g d e ducibl e ,

fr o m any n o t i o n wh at e v e r This imm e ns e i n ducti o n is a

1 ”
.

p r o gr e ssiv e su m o f i n du c ti o n s which h av e t ak e n pl ac e su c c e s

s ive ly in e ach c at e go ry o f ph e no m e na I t w o uld n o t b e .

a bsurd strictly sp e aki ng th at a c e rt ai n c at e go ry sh o uld no t

, ,

b e submitt e d lik e th e o th e rs t o i n v ari abl e l aws

,
But si nc e .
,

s o ci o l o gy h as b e e n fo u n d e d we k no w th at all are in fact so ,

s ubj e ct e d .

T h e l aws are k n o w n to us s o m e tim e s by e xp e ri e n c e s o m e , ,

t im e s by r e as o n i n g This dive rsity o f o rigi n in no way in

.

fl u e n c e s e ith e r th e c e rt ai n ty o r th e phil o s o phi c al dign ity o f

t h e l aws E ach o f th e six fu nd am e n t a l sci e nc e s give s e x
.

a mpl e s o f th e s e two disti n ct m o d e s o f adv an c e which mut ually

c o mpl e t e e ach o th e r Th e re is no t l e ss g e niu s in th e disc o v e ry

.

-
o fK e pl e r th an in th at o fN e wt o n T h e i n iti a l l aws o fm e ch an i c s
.

a n d e v e n o fg e o m e try r e st s o l e ly up o n o bs e rv a ti o n T h e l o gi c al .

p e rfe cti o n c o n sists in c o n firmi ng by o ne o f th e s e w ays wh at

m ust h av e b e e n fo u n d by t h e o th e r B ut o ne o ft h e t wo su f .

fic e s wh e n all th e c o n diti o n s r e quir e d by t h e m e t h od are ful

H o w sh o ul d th e l aws o bt ai n e d by i n ducti o n be re
1 ”
fille d .

g a rd e d as l e ss c e rt ai n th an t h e l a ws o bt ai n e d by de du c ti o n ,

s i n c e t h e pri n cipl e o f l aws its e lf r e sts up o n a n i n du c ti o n ?

In pro p o rti o n as th e s e ve ral o rd e rs o f ph e no m e na are c o n

c e ive d as g o v e r n e d by i n v a ri abl e l aws th e b e li e f in fi nal ,

c aus e s b e c o m e s w e a k e r and t e nds to dis app e ar T h e fi nal .

c a us e s are im agi ne d by th e mi n d t o e xpl ai n c e rt ai n c o mbi n a

t i o n s o f n atur al ph e no m e na Wh e n th e l aws o f th e s e .

1
L tt i d it M P p t 8 i 8 5 ( h i d l ié té p iti i t )
e re ne e a . a o , m a 1 1 arc ves e a so c os v s e .

C o u rs, VI , 66 2 .
86 T /t e P nilosop/ty f g
oA u u ste C o m te

phe no m e na are k no w n this e xpl anati o n b e c o m e s us e l e ss it

, ,

c e as e s to h ave curre ncy I t sh are s t h e fat e o f th e wh o l e o f

.

the o l o gic al and m e t aphysic al phil o s o phy o f which it is a p art , .

T h e d o ctri ne o f fi nal c aus e s is g e ne r ally r e g ard e d as a c o n

st itue n t p ri n cipl e o f r e ligi o us syst e ms A S p e ci al argum e nt .

in fa v o u r o f th e e xist e n c e o fG o d h as e v e n b e e n dr aw n fro m
it C o mte re m arks th at it is m o re p r o b ably a c o n s e qu e n c e o f
. ,

th e s e s yste ms S o l o n g as m an b e li e v e s in th e c o nti nu a l
.

acti o n o f t h e g o ds o r o fG o d in n atur e h e d o e s no t ne e d th e
, , ,

c o nsid e r ati o n o f fi n al c aus e s up o n which to fo u nd his b e li e f .

H e d o e s n o t e ve n dr e am o f it L ate r o n o n ly wh e n th e
.
,

r e ligi o us c o nc e pti o n o f th e w o rld h as b e c o m e w e ak e r wh e n ,

G o d h as s o far withdr aw n fr o m t h e w o rld as to b e n o l o ng e r

anythi n g but a s o v e r e ig n wh o r e ig n s but d o e s n o t g o v e r n , ,

th e n th e ne e d is fe lt to d e m o nstr ate H is e xiste n c e and th e ,

o rd e r o f n atur e b e c o m e s an argum e n t T h e c o n sid e r ati o n o f

.

fi nal c aus e s fro m this p o i n t o f v i e w is a sympt o m o f t h e

w e ak e ni ng o fth e th e o l o gic al spirit it is thus pre e mi ne ntly a -

m e t aphysic al d o ctri ne .

Wh at e ve r m ay b e t h e c as e e xp e ri e n c e wit ne ss e s ag ai n st it
, .

P o siti ve sci e n c e d o e s no t lay d o w n th at th e w o rld must b e

c o nc e i ve d as t h e w o rk o f an all p o w e rful i nte llige nc e F o r -
.

i nst anc e th e sci e n tific k no wl e dge o f o u r s o l ar syst e m h as

,

sh o w n in th e m o st o bvi o us m anne r and in v ari o us w ays , ,

th at th e e l e m e n ts o f thi s syste m w e re c e rt ai nly n o t

disp o s e d in th e m o st advant age o u s m anne r an d th at ,

sci e nc e all o w e d us to c o n c e i v e o f a b e tte r a rran ge m e nt 1

.

Astro no m e rs m ay admire a natural fi nality in th e o rg an is a

ti o n ofan i m als ; but th e anat o mists wh o k no w all its imp e r
fe c t io ns fall b ack up o n th e a rr ang e m e nts o f t h e st ars
, In .

wh at c o n c e r ns an im als a bli n d admir ati o n wo nd e rs e v e n at

,

e vid e n tl d e t rim e nt al c o mplic a ti o n s : it is t h e c a s e with t h e

y
e ye , with th e bl add e r e tc But it is an alm o st u niv e rs al
,
“
.
2

1
Co u rs,II 3 6
, . C III 3 6 2 o urs, , 2 .
 S c ie nce 87

dispo siti o n physi o l o gists to draw e ve n fro m the ir ig no r anc e

of , ,

as m any m o tiv e s f o r t h e admir a ti o n o ft h e pr o fo u n d w isd o m

o f a m e ch an ism which th e y d e cl a r e th e y c anno t u nd e rst an d

”
.

I n t ru th th e n atur al o rd e r so mu c h e xt o ll e d is e xt re m e ly
, , ,

i mp e rfe ct and we c an with o u t di fficulty c o n c e ive a be tt e r o ne

, .

T h e hum an w o rks s ays C o mt e fr o m t h e m o st simpl e m e c h an i

, ,

c al appli a nc e s to th e m o st sublim e p o litic al c o nstru c ti o n s ,

a re g e ne r ally f ar s up e ri o r e ith e r in e xp e di e n cy o r in simpli ,

city to e ve rythi ng th at th e m o st p e rfe ct natural e c o no my c an

,

o ffe r us O u r ge o m e t e rs and o ur physi c i ans su ffici e n tly

1
.

pre p ar e d w o uld do far b e tt e r th an nature if th e y d are d to “

.

t a k e th e dir e ct c o n c e p t i o n o fa n e w an im al m e ch an ism as t h e

o bj e ct o f an i n t e ll e ctu a l e x e rcis e This id e a o f artifici al

.

o rg an isms pl e as e s C o mt e and h e o fte n r e tur n s to it H e .

c o nsid e rs th at ficti o n s o ft his ki n d m ay b e us e ful in bi o l o gy

t o i n t e rc al at e i n t e rm e di ari e s b e tw e e n t h e s e v e r al k n o w n
o rg anisms in su c h a m a nne r as t o facilit at e c o mp aris o n in
,

m aki ng th e bi o l o gic al s e ri e s m o re h o m o ge ne o us and

c o n ti n u o us I n fact this is wh at Bro c a att e mpte d to do
2 .
,

wh e n h e e nd e av o ure d to c o nne ct m an with th e o th e r prim ate s

by hyp o the ti c al anthro p o ids Quit e re c e ntly M D e l age h as
. .

m ad e use o fa simil ar ficti o n in his T ra ito de Z oolog i e ’

C o mte s e ld o m miss e s an o pp o rtu n it y o f smili ng at th e

stupid admirati o n o fth o s e wh o be li e ve th at n ature h as d o ne
e ve rythi n g fo r th e b e st o r th at e v e rythi n g in it h as b e e n
“ ”
,

o rd e re d by a pr o vid e n ti a l wisd o m But we c an surpris e him

.

als o i n t h e v e ry ac t o f admirati o n ; n o t d oubtl e ss o n th e

subj e ct o f a stro no mic al o r bi o l o gic al ph e no m e n a but in th e ,

ch apte r which li e s ne are st to his h e art th at o f s o ci al fac ts , .

H e writ e s “
we c anno t e xpe ri e n c e to o much r e spe c t an d
,

admir ati o n wh e n we se e t his u n ive rs al n atural disp o siti o n ’

.

whi c h is th e prim ary b asis o f all s o ci e ty 3

and e ls e
”

wh e re C an o ne r e ally c o n c e ive in t h e wh o l e o f natur al ,

1
C o urs, vi, 83 3 .
2
iii 3 3 9 , 3 6 5
. .
3
C o urs, iv, 4 5 2 .
88 T ne P b ilosoplty of A ug u ste C om te

ph e no m e na a m o re m arve ll o us sp e c tacl e th an this re gul ar

,

an d c o nti nu o us c o nve rge nc e o f an imm e nsity o f indiv i

du als ”
1

H o we v e r the re is no t h e re a c o ntr adicti o n I n re al ity

,
.
,

alth o ugh C o mt e s ays th a t t h e c o n sid e r ati o n o f fi n al c aus e s

must be acc e pt e d alto ge th e r o r r ej e ct e d alto ge th e r h e d o e s

, ,

n o t hims e lf re j e ct it as e ntire ly a s h e s e e ms a t first t o do .

Wh at h e fo rm ally re j e cts is th e fi nalit y u nd e rst o o d in th e

,

th e o l o gic al o r m e taphysic al m anne r : C celi e na rra nt g loria m

Dei . H e d o e s n o t admit th at we c an “
e xpl ai n th e
”

n atura l o rd e r by a s u p e r n atur al wisd o m But h e in no way .

c o n te sts t h e fi nality which K an t c all e d i nte rn al This .

fi nality o r b e tte r this re cipro c al c aus ality app e ars in livi ng

, ,

be i ngs wh e re th e wh o l e and th e p arts are re cipro c ally e nd

,

a n d m e an s T h e tre e c o uld n o t subsist with o ut t h e l e av e s

.

a ny m o re th an t h e l e ave s with o ut th e tre e C o mte e x .

pr e ss e s this id e a in t e rms which are alm o st id e ntic a l with

th o s e o f K an t altho ugh h e did no t k no w th e m
,
We sh all .
,

h e s ays ,
c e as e d e fi n i n g a livi n g b e i ng by th e c o ll e cti o n o f its
o rg an s, as if th e s e c o uld e xist is o l at e d I n bi o l o gy th e
ge ne ral no ti o n o f th e b e i ng alw ays pr e c e d e s th at o f any o f
,

its p arts wh at e ve r I n s o ci o l o g y wh e re p arti al i n t e rd e p e n d

.
,

e n c e is l e ss i n tim at e alth o ugh wid e r it w o uld b e a s e ri o us ,

he re sy to d e fi ne hum anity by m an a fo rtio ri in bi o l o gy

we o ug ht no t t o c o nc e iv e th e wh o l e fr o m its p rts As s o o n
2 ”
a .

as we ris e ab o ve th e i no rg an ic w o rld th e first c o n diti o n f or ,

t h e study o f ph e no m e n a is t h e id e a o f th e ir co nsensus first ,

in bi o l o gy an d th e n in s o ci o l o gy
,
This conse nsus c o rre sp o nds
.

to K an t s i n t e r nal fi n ality
’
.

But th e disti n cti o n b e tw e e n i n t e rn al fi nality and e xte rnal

fi nality c ann o t b e strictly m ai n t ai ne d We will n e ve r affirm .

th at s o m e be i ngs w e re m ad e in vi e w o f o th e rs This w o uld .

b e in t h e high e st d e gr e e a th e o l o gic al e xpl an ati o n o f t h e

“ ”

1
C o urs, iv, 4 70 .
‘
1
P o l po s i, 64 1
. . .
 S c ie nce 89

first o rd e r But fro m th e p o sitive p o i nt o f V i e w we o bs e rve

.
,

t h at in o rd e r t o subsist o rg an isms n e e d n o t o n ly sp e ci al
, ,

i ntim ate structure but furth e r r e quire a c e rt ai n e quilibrium

,

o f e xt e r na l c o n diti o n s At e ach m o m e n t th e ir e xist e n c e

.

de pe nds at o n c e o n t h e ir c o n stit uti o n an d o n th e “

mili e u ”
.

This w o rd which was d e sti ne d to att ai n such p o pul arity and

,

th e th e o ry o f t h e mili e u which T a i ne h as re nd e re d n o l e ss
p o pul ar b e l o ng to C o mt e
,
U n d o ubt e dly th e id e a was
.
,

s ugg e st e d t o him o n t h e o ne h an d by M o n t e squi e u an d by

,

his succ e ss o rs and o n th e o th e r by th e l ab o urs o f Lam arck

,

and o f t h e c o n t e mp o r ary bi o l o gists H e als o dr e w i n spirati o n

.

fr o m Bich at s c e l e brat e d R ec/z erc/tes sur la vie et la m ort

’
.

But Bich at e spe ci ally i nsist e d up o n th e ant ago n ism be tw e e n

t h e livi n g b e i n g a n d t h e fo rc e s o f th e i no rg an ic w o rld which

pr e s s up o n hi m fro m all sid e s C o mt e thi n ks o n t h e

.
,

c o ntr ary th at th e ve rye xist e n c e o f livi ng b e i ngs is th e pr o o f

,

o f a su f fici e n t h arm o ny b e twe e n th e ir o rg an ism and th e mili e u .

A nd wh at we c anno t disput e is his m e rit in h avi n g ge ne r al

i s e d th e id e a sp e ci ally appli e d by M o nt e squi e u to s o ci al facts ,

a nd als o sp e c i ally appli e d by L am arck and Bich at to th e

ph e no m e na o flife .

I d e sig nat e by this w o rd mili e u s ays C o mte in e x c usi ng , ,

h ims e lf fo r th e n e w m e ani ng which h e give s it “

no t o n ly ,

th e fluid in which t h e o rg an ism is imm e rs e d but in g e n e r al , , ,

t h e t o t ality o f e xt e r n al circ u mst an c e s o f any ki nd wh ate v e r

”
n e c e ss a r yto t h e e xist e n c e o f e a ch d e t e rmi n e d o rg an ism .

Pro p erly sp e aki ng th e n C o mt e d o e s no t r e j e ct th e d o ctri ne

,

o f fi nal c a us e s ; h e o n ly tr an sfo rms it H e h ad d e cl ar e d this .

hims e lf in his opuscule in 1 8 2 2 T h e d o ctri ne o f fi nal c aus e s

.
“

h as be e n c o n v e rt e d by th e physi o l o gists i n t o th e pri n cipl e

o f th e c o n diti o n s o f e xist e n c e P o si t ive phil o s o phy ap
”
.

p ro priate s ,
with “
t h e u n d e r st an di n g o f a suit abl e ch an g e ,
”

t h e g e n e r al id e a s primiti v e ly i n v e n t e d by th e t h e o l o gic a l an d
1
C o u rs, iii , 2 35 .
90 Tb e P nilosopny of A ug uste C o m te

m e t aphysic al phil os o phi e s A S th e p o sitive no ti o n o f th e

.

m athe m atic al l aws o fph e no m e na aro s e o ut o fth e m e taph y

sic al c o n c e pti o n s o f th e P yth ag o ric ian s c o n c e r n i ng th e
pro pe rti e s o f n umbe rs so th e sci e ntific pri n cipl e o f th e c o n
,

ditio n s o f e xist e n c e spri n gs fro m t h e hyp o th e sis o f fi nal

.

c aus e s .
1

A n e x ampl e will all o w us to r e alis e this tr an sfo rm ati o n in

th e ac t .

T he st ability o f th e s o l ar syst e m r e n d e rs th e e xiste nc e o f

livi n g sp e ci e s o n th e e arth p o ssibl e A go o d e x ampl e o f .

fi nality it w o uld s e e m N e ve rth e l e ss this stability is simply a

.
‘

n e c e ss ary c o n s e qu e n c e a cc o rdi n g t o t h e m e ch an ic al l aws o f

,

th e w o rld o f s o m e c irc u m s tan e e s ch ar ac t e ristic o f o u r s y st e m

,

e xtr e m e sm all ne ss o f th e pl ane t ary m ass e s in c o mp aris o n

t o th e c e n tr a l m ass sm all e cc e n tricity o f th e ir o rbits slight
, ,

m utu al i ncli nati o n o f th e ir pl ane s e tc S i nc e in fa ct we e xist , .

, ,

it must b e th at th e syst e m o f which we fo rm a p art is ar

r ang e d so as t o all o w o f this e xiste n c e T h e so c a ll e d fi n al .
”
-

c aus e w o uld th e n re duc e its e l f h e re as o n all anal o go us o c ,

c asi o n s to this childish re m ark th e o n ly st ars i n h abit e d are

,

th o s e which are h abitabl e I n a w o rd we r e tur n to t h e .

,

pri n cipl e o f th e c o nditi o n s o f e xiste nc e which is th e tru e ,

p o sitive tr an sfo rm ati o n o f th e d o ctri ne o f fi nal c aus e s and ,

wh o s e be ari ngs and fe rtility are far sup e ri o r .

”2

I n o rd e r t o giv e th e fo rmul a o f this pri n cipl e we must h av e ,

re c o urs e to th e ge ne r al disti n cti o n e st ablish e d by de Bl ai n

vill e b e tw e e n t h e st atic p o i n t o f vi e w and th e dy nami c p o i nt
o fV i e w .

Eve ry a ctive b e i ng an d in p articul ar e ve ry livi ng be i ng

,
“

c an be an al y s e d fr o m th e s e two p o i n ts o f v i e w T h e st ati c .

analysis c o nside rs its e l e m e n ts in th e ir r e l ati o n s o f simul

’

tane o us c onne xi o n s T h e d y na mi c an al y sis dis c o v e rs th e

.

l aws o f the ir j o i n t e v o luti o n T h e first is th e sh are o f th e .

1
P l p i
o .App d i p 7
os
. v, C en ii 6 7
ce . 1 .
2
o urs, , 2 -
2 .
 S cie nce 9 1

ana o t mist th e s e c o nd th at o f th e physi o l o gist No w it

, .

is C l e ar th at th e s e two analys e s are c o mpl e m e nt ary t o

o ne ano th e r and are e v e n s e p ar at e ly u n i n t e lligibl e
, F or .

i nst anc e th e anat o mi st is c o n stantly guid e d by phy si o

,

l o gic al c o nsid e rati o ns C o nve rs e ly with o u t anat o m ic al

.
,

k no wl e dge th e re is no p o sitive physi o l o gy .

Th us th e s tatic a l an alysis e st ablish e s th e l aw s o f c o

,

e xist e n c e th e dy n amic an alysis th e l aw s o f suc c e ssi o n o r o f

,

m o vem e nt T h e pri n ci pl e o f th e c o nditi o n s o f e xi st e nc e

.

i s no thi ng e ls e th an the direct a nd g eneral conception of th e

necessa ry h a rm f th ese two
o ny o a na lyses , th a t i s to s ay , o f th e

ag reem e n t o f th ese two I f this

o rde rs o h arm o nfy la ws
in .
1
,

fact was n o t r e alis e d n o livi ng be i ng no natural syst e m

, , ,

o f ph e n o m e n a c o uld subsist Fro m th e p o i n t o f vi e w

.

o f th e o bj e ct this pri n cipl e a cc o u n ts f o r th e p e rm an e n c e o f

b e i ngs : fro m th e p o i n t o fvi e w o fth e subj e ct it e xpre ss e s th e

p o ssibility o f sci e nc e .

Why d o e s C o mt e say th at th e imp o rt anc e and fe rtility o fthis

pri ncipl e are far sup e ri o r to th o s e o f t h e d o ctri ne o f fi n al
c aus e s ? I t is b e c aus e this l atte r d o ctri ne cl aims to e xpl ai n “
.
”

I n r e fe rri n g t h e n atur al o rd e r to th e wisd o m o f a Pr o vid e n c e ,

it dispe ns e s in s o m e m e a sure with sci e n tifi c r e s e arch o r at ,

l e ast it d o e s no t re quire it T h e pri n ci pl e o f t h e c o nditi o ns

.

o f e xist e n c e o n t h e c o n tr ary is cl o s e ly a lli e d to th e p o siti ve

, ,

c o nc e pti o n o f natural ph e no m e na I t o n ly impli e s th e e xist .

e n ce o f l aws I t o n ly e st ablish e s th e c o nt inuity o f t h e '

re l at i o n s be twe e n th e s e l aws a c o n ti n uity v e rifi e d by e x

,

p e rie n c e
,
si n c e b e i n gs subsist and r e pr o duc e th e ms e lve s I n .

a w o rd it a ll o ws u s t o c o n n e ct th e l aws o f succ e ssi o n with

,

t h e l aws o f c o e xist e n c e e v e r y wh e r e N o w to c o nne ct is t h e .

,

e ss e nti a l fu n cti o n o f sci e n c e By m e an s o f this pri ncipl e no t

.

o n ly th e succ e ssive m o m e nts o f any n atu r al e v o l uti on

wh at e ve r are u n d e rsto o d as h av i n g s o lid arity with e ach o th e r
1
C o urs, iii, 3 66 .
9 2 Th e P h i losophy of A ug u ste C o m te

but th e wh o l e o f this e v o luti o n b e c o m e s i n te lligibl e by its

r e l ati o n to th e st atic al c o nditi o n s t o which it c o rr e sp o nds .

A nd in virtu e o ft h e r e l ativity o f sci e n c e o r if we pre fe r it

, , , ,

o f th e u n iv e rs al r e cipro c al acti o n o f all phe no m e na th e ,

pri n cipl e o f t h e c o nditi o n s o f e xiste n c e l e ads t h e hum an

mi nd to a sci e n tifi c i nve stig ati o n e ve r m o re e x act and ne v e r
c o mpl e te d .

This p o sitiv e tran sfo rm ati o n o fth e d o ctri ne o f fi nal c aus e s

h ad alr e ady b e e n cl e arly sk e tch e d by th e phil o s o ph e rs o f th e
X V I I I c e ntury wh o m C o mt e k ne w ve ry we ll by Did e r o t
.
,
'

by Hum e by d H o lb ac h H um e s ays fo r i nstan c e

,
’
.
1 “
It ,
.

is us e l e ss to i nsist up o n t h e us e s o f p arts in an im als o r in

pl ants an d o n th e ir c uri o us ad aptati o n o ne to ano th e r I
, .

sh o uld much lik e to k no w h o w an an im al c o uld subsist with

o ut this ad apt ati o n Do we n o t se e th at i f it c e as e s h e
.

p e rish e s at o nc e and th at th e m att e ro f whi c h h e was c o m

,

p o s e d t ak e s s o m e o th e r sh ap e ? A nd d H o lb ac h Th e s e “ ” ’

wh o l e s w o uld no t e xist in th e fo rm which th e y b e ar if th e ir p arts ,

c e as e d to ac t as th e y do ; th at is to say c e as e d to b e arrange d ,

in such a way as to l e n d th e ms e lv e s t o b e i ng mutu all y h e lpful

t o e ach o th e r .T o b e surpris e d th at t h e h e art th e br ai n th e , ,

e y e s th e art e ri e s e tc
,
o f an an im a l ac t as th e y do
, .
, o r th at a

tre e pro duc e s fruit is to b e surpris e d th at a tre e o r an

,

an im al e xists Th e s e b e i ngs w o uld no t e xist o r w o uld n o

.

l o nge r b e wh at t h e y are if th e y c e as e d to ac t as th e y do
,
°

this is wh at h app e n s wh e n t h e y die 2

.
”

C o mte m ak e s this criticism o f th e d o ctri ne o f fi nal c aus e s

his o wn But faithful to his m axim
.
“We o nly d e str o y
, ,

wh at we re pl ac e h e cl aims to substitut e a p o sitive pri ncipl e

,

t o this m e t aphysic al d o ctri n e which pr e s e rv e s th e e l e m e n ts

,

in it which are c o mp atibl e with t h e sci e n tific m e th o d I t is .

t h e pr1nc 1p le o f th e c o n diti o n s o fe xiste n c e I n virtu e o f this .

Di l g t1
l li g i
a o V III
u e s o n na ura re o n, .

Sy tem d l t II 8 7 s e e a na u re , . 1 .
 S cie n ce 93

pri n cipl e by th e v e ry fact th at such an o rg an is p art o f such

,

a livi n g b e i n g it ne c e ss a rily c o o p e rate s in a d e t e rm ine d

,
-

a lth o ugh p e rh aps u n k n o w n m ann e r with t h e t o t ality o f t h e ,

a cts which m ak e up its e xist e n c e : a n o rg an n o m o r e e xist s

with o ut a fu ncti o n th an a fu n cti o n with o ut an o rg an But i t ~

in n o way fo ll o ws fr o m this th at all th e o rgan i c fu nc ti o n s are

p e rfo rm e d as p e rfe c tly as we c o uld im agi ne the m to b e F o r .

i n st anc e p ath o l o gic al analysis d e m o n strate s th at th e disturbi n g

a cti o n o f e ach o rg a n up o n t h e wh o l e o f t h e e c o no my is v er y
far fr o m b e i n g alw ays c o mp e n s at e d fo r by its utility in th e
n o rm al st at e I f withi n c e rt ai n limits e ve rythi ng is n e c e s
.
, ,

sarily a rr an g e d in such a way as t o b e abl e to e xist we sh o uld ,

s e e k in v ai n in th e m aj o rity o f e ffe c tiv e arrang e m e n ts fo r

, ,

pro o fs o fa wisd o m sup e ri o r o r e ve n e qu al to hum an wisd o m 1 .

”

Ext e n di n g the s e c o n sid e rati o n s to t h e wh o l e o f th e

ph e no m e na k no w n to us C o mt e c o nclud e s in alm o st th e sam e ,

way as C o urno t will l at e r o n A n o rd e r e st ablish e s its e lf in .

n atur e si n c e it subsists si n c e it is i n t e lligibl e si n c e th e r e are

, , ,

l aw s .
2
D o e s no t th e v e ry id e a o f a law i n du c e at o n c e t h e
c o rr e sp o ndi ng id e a o fa c e rtai n sp o n t ane o us o rd e r ? But this “

c o n s e qu e n c e is n o t m o re abs o lu te th an th e pri n cipl e fro m

which it is d e ri ve d 3
T h e e xp e ri e n c e whi ch re v e als thi s
.
”

o rd e r t o us al s o sh o ws us th a t it is imp e rfe ct o fan imp e rfe cti o n ,

which gr o ws wi th th e c o mpl e xit y o f ph e no m e na Ev e ry .

tim e t h at th e ne c e ss ary an d su ffici e n t c o n diti o n s are re alis e d

fo r a n atur al s y s te m to b e abl e t o e xist this syst e m e xists i n ,

fact h o we ve r full o f imp e rfe c ti o n s it m ay b e in o th e r r e sp e cts

,
.

U nd o ubt e dl y an i ne v ita bl e ne c e ssity which li n ks t o ge th e r

,

a s e ri e s o f e v e n ts a nd a pr e m e dit at e d pl an which dir e cts th e m

, .
,

r e s e mbl e e ach o th e r v e ry much so far as th e c o n s e qu e n c e s

a re c o n c e r n e d But if th e ne c e ssity is e st ablish e d t h e re i s
” 4
.
, ,

n o n e e d t o supp o s e t h e pl an N o w th e pri n cipl e o fth e c o n .

C 1
III 3 6 3 4
o u rs. P l p
. II 4
-
C I V 74 2
o . os
. . 2
1
o urs. . 2 .

P l p App d i p 5 1
‘
o . o s. en ce , . 2 .
 '

94 T /z e P fiz losop/zy f g
oA u u ste C o m te

ditio n s o fe xist e n c e , in sh o wi n g th at all th at is indi spe ns ab l e ,

is at th e s am e tim e “
i ne vit abl e re nd e rs this supp o siti o n
,
”

sup e rflu o us .

A d o ubl e t e nd e nc y m ak e s its e lf fe lt in this th e o ry O n th e .

o ne h an d C o mte faithful to t h e spirit o f his phil o s o phy

, ,

r ej e cts all th at cl aims to g o b e y o nd e xp e r i e n ce th at is to say

-
,

t h e tr an sc e n d e n t al hyp o th e sis o f fi nal c aus e s an d o fOptim ism .

O n th e o th e r h and h e wish e s to acc o u n t fo r t h e o rd e r o f

,

n a tur e which is a f
,
act No w this o rd e r all imp e rfe ct as it is
.
, ,

impli e s n o t o nl y th e e xiste nc e o f l aws bu t m o re o ve r a pe r ,

m ane nt h arm o ny b e twe e n th e s e l aws “

T h e pr e s e n t is fu l l .

o f t h e p a st and big with th e futur e T h e pri n cipl e o f t h e

”
.
,

c o nditi o ns o fe xist e nc e e xpl ai ns this p e rm ane nc e o f o rd e r at ,

l e ast as much as it ne e ds to b e e xp l ai ne d fro m th e p o sitive

p o i nt o f vi e w F o r it st at e s th at e ve ry wh e re in fac t th e
.
, ,

d y namic al l aws are in h arm o ny with th e st ati c al l aws and ,

th at pro gr e ss is a d e v e l o pm e nt o f o rd e r
“
T h e p rinc ipl e .
”

o f th e c o n diti o n s o f e xist e n c e is n o m o r e a p rz orz th an t h e

’ '

pri n cipl e o f l aws Lik e it it is fo u n d e d up o n an imm e n s e

.
“

i nducti o n Lik e it ag ai n it o nly ac quire s its ful l p o w e r

.
”
,

wh e n s o ci al sci e n c e is cr e ate d and p o sitive phil o s o phy ,

e st ablish e d .

Sh o uld we no t b e te mpte d to se e in this d o ctri ne a ki nd

o f pr o j e cti o n o f an i d e a lism such as th a t o f L e ib n it z o n th e

li ne s o fp o sitiv e th o ught ? Just as Le ib n it z m ak e s m e ch anism

re st up o n a d e e p e r dy namism so C o mt e c o mpl e te s th e ,

pri n cipl e o f l aws by th e pri nc ipl e o f th e c o n diti o ns o f e x ist

e nc e. Tr ue be twe e n t h e s e t wo d o ctri ne s th e re li e s all th e
,

dist an c e which s e p ar ate s th e p o sitive fr o m th e m e t aphysic al

spirit But no ne th e l e ss b o th giv e symm e tric al so luti o ns o f
.

t h e s am e pr o bl e m which c o rr e sp o nd to o n e an o th e r th e o ne ,

a p rz o rz th e o th e r a p os teriorz
’ ’ '

.
 S c i e nce 95

All natur al l aws must b e c o nc e iv e d as rigo ro usly

,

i n v ari abl e ,
wh e th e r it b e a qu e sti o n o f m ath e m at ic al
or of s o c i o l o gic al l aws I f we c o uld c o n c e ive .
,

in any c as e th at u n d e r th e i nflu e n c e o f c o nditi o ns e x actly

,

simil ar th e ph e no m e na sh o uld no t r e m ai n p e rfe ct l y id e ntic al ,

n o t o n ly in ki n d but als o i n d e gre e all sci e ntific th e o ry

, ,

w o uld at o n c e b e c o m e imp o ssibl e This pri ncipl e is th e .

1

ve ry c o n d iti o n o fth e p o ssibility o f pre visi o n and c o ns e qu e ntly ,

o f p o sitiv e sci e n c e Cl aud e B e rn ard will c all it th e ab so l ute

“
.

d e te rmi nism o f ph e no m e na C o m te admits n o abs o lute : .

but h e c o nsid e rs ne ve rth e l e ss t h at th e i nv ari ability o f natural

l aws d o e s no t p e rmit o fe xc e pti o n .

I n th e c as e o f c e rt a i n l aws th e ir i n v ari ability c an b e dir e ctly

v e rifi e d S i nc e th e y c o m e b e fo re us in a m ath e m atic al fo rm
, .

S uch are fo r i nst anc e th e m e ch an ic al ast ro no mic al and

, , ,

physic al l aws O th e rs o n th e c o ntra ry such as t h e bi o l o gi c al

.
, ,

l aw s r e fuse to b e d e alt with by n umb e rs and c anno t b e re

,

duc e d to e qu ati o n s But this e vid e ntly c o m e s fro m th e ir

.

c o mpl e xi ty I f it w e re p o ssibl e rigo ro usly to is o l at e e ac h

o n e o f th e simpl e c a us e s which c o n cur in pr o du c i n g t h e sam e

physi o l o gic al ph e no m e no n e v e rythi ng t e nd s to sh o w t h at ,

u nd e r w e ll d e t e rmi ne d circ u mst an c e s it w o uld app e ar to b e ,

p o ss e sse d o fa ki nd o f i nflu e n c e and o f a qu an tity o facti o n as ,

e x actly fix e d a s we se e it t o b e i n u n iv e rs al gr avit ati o n

! ” 2
.

Eve ry e l e m e nt ary ph e no m e no n h as its c urv e .

I f the n in all c as e s we c o uld g o b ac k to th e e l e m e nt ary

phe no m e na we c o uld u nd o ubte dly als o fo rmul ate th e i r
,

m ath e m atic a l law I n this s e ns e

. m ath e m atic al analy ,

s is w o uld apply to all th e phe no m e na o f th e w o rld

with o ut e xc e pti o n But n e arly alw ays th e d e c o mp o siti o n o f
.
, ,

give n ph e no m e na i n t o e l e m e n t ary ph e no m e na is imp o ssibl e

C 1
III 3 5
o urs, C . 8 9 2 .
2
o urs, 1, 12 -
 T /z e P /z z tosop/zy f
’

9 6 o A u
g u ste C om te

to us At any r ate th e w o rk o f sy n th e sis o r o f t e c o mp o si

.
-

ti o n t ak e n in th e re ve rs e o rd e r is far b e y o nd o ur m ath e m ati c a l

p o we rs T h e o nly ph e no m e na to whi c h we apply th e analysis
.

with o ut to o much tr o ubl e are th e m o st simpl e o f all th e g e o ,

m e tric al and m e ch anic al ph e no m e na T he difli c ulty gro ws v e ry .

’

r apidly with th e c o mpli c ati o n o f a stro no mi c al physi c al an d , ,

e sp e ci a lly ch e mic al ph e n o m e n a Wh e n we re ach t h e r e a l m

.

o f livi n g n atur e th e e l e m e n t ary ph e no m e na e sc ap e u s a l

,

t o ge th e r Th e y are give n to us in a st ate o f alm o st i n fi nit e

.

c o mpl e xit y and in vi rtu e o f th e bi o l o gic al consensus cl o s e l y

, , ,

b o u n d up with o th e rs o f n o l e ss c o mpl e x a ch ar ac te r
Th e s e ph e n o m e na are in th e ms e lve s sy n th e s e s d e p e n di n g
up o n o th e r sy nth e s e s all in a st at e o f mut ual i nfl u e nc e and
o f c o n st an t i n st abilit y The n alt h o ugh in pri n cipl e it re
.
, , ,

m ai ns tru e th at id e ntic al ante c e d e nts c an o nly h ave id e ntic a l

c o n s e qu e nts in fact b e c aus e o f th e v e ry gr e at n umbe r o f
, ,

e l e m e nt ary a cti o n s which c o n cur i n t h e pr o ducti o n o f e a ch

ph e no m e no n th e re h ave pe rh aps ne ve r be e n th e re p e rh aps

, ,

n e v e r will b e t wo c a s e s rig o r o usly simil ar

,
.

I t fo ll o ws th at we must n o t c o nfus e th e sub o rdi nati o n

“

o fa ny e v e n ts wh at e v e r t o i nv a ri abl e l aws wit h th e ir irre sistibl e

ne c e ss a ry a cc o mplishm e nt Re l ativ e ly si ngl e ph e no m e na

1 ”
.

a pp e a r i n d e e d t o us to b e pro duc e d with an irr e sisti bl e

ne c e ssity : fo r i n st an c e th e facts o f gr avit ati o n
, But .

c o mpl e x ph e no m e na in virtu e o fth e m o re and m o re va ri e d

,

c o mbi nati o n s which th e ir s e v e r al n e c e ss ary c o nditi o ns admit

o fn o l o n g e r pr e s e n t this ch a r a ct e r Th e y are m o re m o difi .

abl e l e ss irre sistibl e I n o th e r w o rds as o ne

”
and .
,

c o nsid e rs m o r e e l e vat e d m o re c o mpl e x m o re , n o bl e ,

“

c ate go ri e s o f fa cts th e l aws be c o m e re m o ve d fro m th e t y p e

,

o f m ath e m a tic a l n e c e ssity an d a dmit m o r e o fan e ve r inc re a s

,

ing e l e m e nt o f c o nti n g e n cy P
”

T h e o r d e r o f t h e w o rld c an th e n b e c o n c e ive d as a m o difi

C III 64 o urs . 2 .
 S c ie nce 97

a b l e fat al ity .
1
I n th e e y e s o fth e g re at e r n umbe r o f pr e se n t
thi nk e rs s ays C o mte this fo rmul a will s e e m c o nt radi c t o ry
, , .

Thi s c o m e s fro m o ld h abit s o f mi n d which are no t e asily

b ro k e n with I n th e s am e way as we h av e h ad a gre at d e al
.
,

o f tr o ubl e in r e pre s e n ti ng truth t o o ur se l v e s o th e rwis e th an

as immut abl e so we a re u n willi n g to c o n c e iv e o rd e r o th e rwis e

,

th an as n e c e s sary Du ri n g a l o ng tim e th e sci e nc e o f m ath e

.

m ati e s h as b e e n th e o nly p o sitive s c i e nc e T h e id e a o f law .

fo rm e d its e lf in this sc i e nc e th at is to say ac c o rdi ng to th e ,

ne c e ss a ry re l ati o n s whi c h are d e m o n st rat e d in it I t c am e to .

be aft e rw ards tr an sfe rr e d j ust as it was i n t o t h e o th e r o rd e rs

, ,

o fph e n o m e n a as t h e p o sitiv e spirit pr o gr e s se d

,
But o rd e rs o f .

ph e no m e na di ffe r qu alit ativ e ly fro m o ne ano th e r All l aws .

o ught n o t t o b e c o n c e iv e d a c c o rdi n g t o th e si ngl e typ e o f

ge o m e tric al and alge braic al l aws I n o rd e r to o bt ai n a .

c o mpl e t e id e a o fa natu ral law we m ust no t c o n fi ne o urs e lve s ,

to th e m ath e m atic al o rd e r which is an e xc e p t i o n in this

“ ”
,

r e sp e ct All th e o rd e rs o f ph e no m e na must b e c o n sid e re d

. .

We th e n se e th at law must b e d e fi ned c o n st ancy in v ari e ty

“
.
”

I n fac t th e no rm a l typ e is ne ve r suit e d t o any but a

“
,

m e diu m st ate m o re id e al th an r e al aro u nd which e ffe c tive

, ,

e xist e n c e c e as e l e ssly o s c ill a t e s so l o n g a s t h e d e vi ati o n d o es

,

no t g o b e y o nd th e limits which a re c o mp atibl e with th e dur a

ti o n o f th e syste m O rd e r e ve n is o l ate d is n o m o re e t e rnal

.
, ,

th an it is abs o lute 2
I n this p as sag e C o mt e is sp e aki ng o f
.
”
,

a str o n o mic al o rd e r but t h e s am e c o n sid e r ati o n appli es t o all

'

t h e syst e ms o r gr o ups o fph e no m e na Ev e ry law is ne c e ss arily .

s o m e thi n g abstr act B e i ng i n disp e ns abl e to th e inte llig i

.

b ility o f th e r e al e ve ry law all o ws pr e v isi o n a nd sci e n c e to

,

e xist .
But it is no t an ad e qu ate e xpre ssi o n o f this re ality
whi c h n e ve r r e m ai ns id e ntic al with its e l f .

C o mte go e s so far as to say th at o ur re quire m e n t o f pre cisi o n

in th e study o fn atur al l aws must no t b e push e d t o o far F or .

P l p 1
oII 4 7 . os P l p
. .
43 x 2 .
2
o . os . .
 T ue P /z z losofi/zy ug uste C om te
'

98 f
o A

th e l aw s whi c h it h as b e e n p o ssibl e to e st ablish withi n c e rtai n

d e gree s o f appro xim ati o n v an ish if this appro xim ati o n is
push e d furthe r No t th at th e ph e no m e na c e as e to b e subj e ct
.

to l aws ; but th e s e l aws b e c o mi ng t o o c o mpl e x e sc ap e us , .

F o r i n st anc e it h as b e e n p o ssibl e t o e st ablish with o u r

,

th e rm o m e te rs th e l aws o f th e v ari ati o n o f t e mp e r ature o f a

b o dy u nd e r c e rt ai n c o n diti o ns With ve ry much m o re s e nsi
.

tive the rm o m e te rs th e v ari ati o ns be c o m e s in c e ss ant and v e ry

c o mpli c ate d T h e k no w n l aws dis ap pe ar witho ut o ur be i ng
.

in a c o n diti o n to e st ablish o th e rs 1
.

T h e o rd e r which p o sitive s c i e n c e sh o ws us in nature is

t h e n v e ry far fr o m be i ng abs o lut e I t is to sp e ak truly th e
.
, ,

o ut c o m e o f t h e c o mbi ne d activity o f o u r mi n d and o f thi n gs .

We c anno t se p arat e wh at b e l o ngs to e ach o f th e s e two fact o rs ,

but it ap pe ars fro m wh at h as j ust b e e n s aid th at th e mi nd pl ays

a gr e at p art th at th e e xt e r n al r e l ati o n s are f
,
ar m o r e c o n ti n g e n t

th an suits o ur bli nd i n sti n ct o f u n iv e rs al c o n ne cti o n ”2

.

N e ve rth e l e ss th e ph e no m e na are n o t irre ducibl e to o rd e r si n c e ,

sci e n c e and pre visi o n re m ai n p o ssi bl e But this o rd e r e ntire ly

.
,

r e l ative in re sp e ct to o u r u n d e rst andi ng is o n ly e st ablish e d

withi n c e rt ai n limits M o re p o w e rful m i n ds th an o urs w o uld
.

pro bably c o n struct rich e r and m o re c o mpl e x o rd e rs fo r

the ms e lve s F o r us b e yo nd a c e rtai n p o i n t o f c o mpl e x
.
, i ty
o u r visi o n b e c o m e s c o n fus e d an d o u r l o gic al r e quir e m e n t s are n o

l o n ge r s atisfi e d Limits w o uld thus s e e m to b e pl ac e d up o n

.

sci e ntific i nve stigati o n and th e s e in th e i nt e r e st o fsci e nc e its e lf

, .

Fi nally we re ach th e l ast c o n s e qu e n c e o f this th e o ry

fo u nd e d up o n e xp e ri e nc e th e pri ncipl e o f l aws and
,

t h e pri n cipl e o f t h e c o n diti o n s o f e xi st e n c e o n ly i n sur e a

pro v isi o nal o rd e r C o mte re adily admits th at it might no t

.

e xist This o rd e r might be c o m e so irre gul ar th at it might

“
.

e v e n e s c ape br a i n s sup e ri o r t o o urs Th e re is n o thi ng to

.

pre ve nt us fro m i m agi n i ng w o rds o utsid e o ur s o l ar syst e m ,

C 1 V I 69
o urs. P 1 p
. 0. I 5 88 2
0 . os
. . .
 S cie nce 99

alw ay s give n o ve r t o an i no rgan i c and e ntire ly di so rd e re d

a git ati o n whi c h w o uld no t e v e n all o w o f a g e ne r a l law o f
,

gravitati o n 1
. This is th e ve ry hyp o th e sis fo rmul ate d by
”

J o h n Stu a rt Mill i n a l m o st simil

,
a r t e rm s and in whi c h a ki n d ,

o f re ductz o a d a bsu rdu m o f his o wn th e o ry was th o ught to b e

'

fo u nd . I t is h o w e ve r c o mp atibl e with th e e xist e nc e o f a

, ,

sci e nc e whi c h d o e s no t cl aim to p o ss e ss an abs o lut e valu e .

M o re o ve r C o mt e at o nc e adds Still e ve n if o rd e r sh o uld

“
, ,

b e fo u n d to b e p arti c u l ar t o o ur w o rld in fac t it w o u l d b e in , ,

n o way ac cid e nt al in it si nc e it is th e first c o n diti o n f

, o r hum an

e xist e nc e I n vi rtu e o f th e pri n c ipl e o f th e c o n diti o ns o f

”
.

e xist e n c e t h e pr e s e n c e o f a b e i n g such as m an impli e s t h e

,

w h o l e o f th e l aws which g o v e r n o ur w o rld .

T he l aw s which fo r us c o nstit ut e th e o rd e r o fth e w o rld are

o f t wo ki nds S o m e are e st ablish e d by th e p o sitive m e th o d
.

in e ach o rd e r o f ph e no m e na s e p arat e ly c o n sid e r e d ; t h e

a str o no mic al l aws phy sic al l aw s c h e mic al l aw s e tc Th e y
, , , .

b e l o ng to th e d o m ai n o f s c i e n c e pro pe r l y so c all e d T h e -
.

o th e rs are appr e h e n d e d wh e n t h e mi n d l e av e s th e sp e ci al p o i nt

o f v i e w o f sci e n c e a n d pl ac e s its e lf at t h e u n iv e rs a l p o i n t o f
,

vi e w o f phil o so phy Th e y are fo u nd agai n in th e di ffe re n t

.

o rde f s o f ph e no m e na wh o s e r e l ati o n s th e y e xpr e ss with o ut

,

c o mpr o misi n g th e ir r e sp e ctiv e i nd e p e n d e nc e Th e y r e pre se nt .

th e m s e ve r ally c o nne ct e d o r acc o rdi ng to C o mt e s e xpre ssi o n

, ,
’

a s c o n v e rge n t C o mt e c alls th e s e l ast encyclopaea z c l aws ’

’
.
.

Th e y te n d to re alis e th e u n ity which th e mi n d cl aim s n o t in ,

rsu in g t h e chim e ric al r e ducti o n o f all l aws to a supr e m e law

p u é ,

but in sh o wi n g th at th e sy ste m s o f irre d ucibl e l aws are n e ve r

t h e le ss h arm o n i o us am o n g th e ms e lv e s .

G e ne rally sp e aki ng th e se l aws h ave b e e n k no w n fo r a l o ng

,

P ] p II 3 1
0 . o s. . 0
.
 T /z e P /cz tosofi/zy f gu u ste C om te
’

1 00 oA

tim e , b ut l y as sp e c i al l aws o fsuch and such an o rd e r o fph e

on

n o m e na .I t b e l o ngs to p o sitiv e phil o s o phy to give th e m th e ir “

e nc ycl o p aedic ch ar act e r th a t is to say t o m a k e th e m u n iv e rs al

, ,
.

F o r i n st anc e d A le m b e rt s pri n cipl e is k no w n in m e c h an ics as

’ ’
.

a law whi c h c o nne c ts q ue sti o n s o f m o v e m e n t with qu e sti o n s

o f e quilibrium Phil o s o phy fi nds a simil ar law in bi o l o gy

.

l io ns a re c o rr e l at e d t o an at o mic a l qu e sti o n s )
(p yh s io lo g ic a q u e st

and a ls o in s o c i o l o gy pro gre ss is t h e d e ve l o pm e nt o f

I t the n fo rmul at e s th e e nc yc lo paz dic law which g e ne ral is e s
th e s e thre e l aws th at is th e pri n cipl e o f th e c o n diti o ns o f
, ,

e xist e n c e .

Simil arly th e thre e gre at l aws o f m e ch an ics k no w n ,

u n d e r th e nam e o f th e l aws o f K e pl e r o f G alil e o and o f

'

N e wt o n must b e u n ive rs alis e d and b e c o m e e ncyc lo pze dic fo r

,

th e y are appli c abl e to all th e o rd e rs o f ph e no m e na T h e law l

o f K e pl e r in t h e first pl ac e e xpr e ss e s th e sp o n t ane o us t e n

, ,

de nc y o fa ll n atur al ph e no m e na to p e rs e v e r e i nd e fi n it e ly in
th e ir st at e if no disturbi ng i nflu e n c e sup e rve ne s a t e nd e ncy
,

wh e nc e are d e ri ve d i ne rti a in m e ch an ics h abit in livi ng ,

b o di e s and th e c o ns e rvati ve i n sti n ct in s o ci e ti e s T h e law o f

,
.

G alil e o which r e c o ncil e s e ve ry c o mm o n m o v e m e n t with th e .

v ari o us p arti c ul ar m o ve m e n ts a ppli e s to all th e o rganic an d ,

i no rg anic ph e no m e na F o r in any s y ste m we c an alw ay s

.
, ,

a s c e rt ai n t h e i n d e p e nd e n c e o f t h e s e v e r al activ e o r p a ssiv e

mutu al re l ati o n s with r e g ard to any acti o n which is e x actly

c o mm o n to th e v ari o us p a rts wh at e ve r m ay b e t h e ir ki n d and
,
.

d e gre e Fi nally th e u n ive rs al ch ar acte r o f N e wto n s law

.
’

(re acti o n is e qu al to acti o n) is e vid e n t at first sight I t is , .

.

e ss e nti ally th at th e s e l aws h av e a t first b e e n

,

m e ch anic al l aws Th e y c o uld h ave be e n e qu ally att ai ne d by

.

t h e study o f bi o l o gic al o r s o ci al ph e no m e n a I f th e sci e n c e .

:

o f m e ch an ics was t h e first t o fo rmul at e th e m it is b e c aus e i t

h as fo r its o bj e ct th e l e ss c o mplic at e d ph e n o m e na .

C l
! L 7 4 46 ; P l p
o urs, , I 494 5
0- o . o s. , ,
-
.
 S c ie nce I0I
i

A c o m pl e t e and r ati o nal syst e m o f e n cycl o p aedic l aw s

w o uld r e alis e t h e phil o s o phi a prim a which B ac o n diml y ”

fo r e s aw. I n th e a ctu al c o nditi o n o f th e sci e n c e s this w o uld

pro b ably be a r ash u nd e rt aki n g C o mt e att e mpt e d it in th e .

fo urth v o lum e o f th e P oli tiq ue positive O ne c an h a rdly say .

1

t h at t h e tri al was a d e cisiv e o n e I t is tru e th at at th at .

m o m e nt C o mt e was alr e ady e n tir e ly t a k e n up with r e ligi o us

pr e o ccup ati o n s .

H o w e ve r th e e ncycl o p ae dic l aws are d e sti ne d to pl ay

,

a p art in th e p o sitiv e phil o s o phy o f nature which m ay ,

b e c o mp ar e d in s o m e re sp e cts with th at o f th e c ate g o ri e s

“

, ,

i n Arist o tl e s phil o s o phy Th e y a re th e m o st ge ne r al

’
.

fo rms u nd e r which th e ph e no m e na gi ve n in e xp e ri e n c e
b e c o m e o bj e cts o f s c i e n tific th o ught fo r us As in e ach .

cl ass o f ph e n o m e na we d e t e rmi ne l aws pri n cipl e s o f o rd e r and ,

o fh arm o ny so t h e e nc yc lo pze dic l aws m ak e t h e o rd e r a n d t h e

,

h arm o ny o f t h e diffe re n t cl ass e s am o n g th e ms e lv e s The y .

a re so to sp e a k tk o la ws of la ws
, , Thro ugh th e m th e hum an .

mi nd which h as alr e ady r e ach e d u n ity o f m e th o d m ay s o m e ,

d ay rea ch a c e rt ai n u n ity o f k no wl e dg e But th is unity will . ,

a lw ays di f fe r by t wo e ss e n ti al ch ar a c te risti c s fr o m th at which

m e t aphysici an s h av e pursu e d up t o t h e pr e s e n t t im e : it will

re sp e c t t h e irr e du c ibl e ne ss o f th e v ari o us fu n d a m e n t a l sci e n c e s ,

a n d it will r e m ai n r e l ativ e b o th by t h e c o nditi o n s o f t h e

°

o bj e ct and by th o s e o f th e subj e ct up o n which it e qu ally ,

de p e nds .

O ur c o nc e pti o n o f u niv e rs al o rd e r re sults fro m a ne c e s sary

“

c o n curre n c e b e tw e e n th at which is with o ut u s an d t h at which ,

i s withi n . T h e l aws th at is to say th e g e ne r a l facts are n e v e r

, ,

a nythi n g but hyp o th e s e s c o n firm e d by o bs e rv ati o n I f h arm o ny .

i n no way e xist e d o utsid e us o ur mi n d w o uld b e e n tir e ly in

c ap abl e o fc o n c e ivi ng it but in no c as e is it ve rifi e d so much as
,

w e supp o s e it to b e z
We ne ith e r m ak e o rd e r no r p e rc e ive
.
”

P l p1
IV 73 8
o . o s. ,P ] .
, 133
-
0 .
F
O . .
 Tti e P nitosopny of A ug uste C om te

it e nti re l y By l o ng and ard uo us l ab o u r th e h um an i n te l

.

l e c t g rad ually dis e ng age s th e c o nc e pt o fo rd e r o ut o fth e fac t s

th at c o m e c ro wdi ng withi n its re ac h I t is an imp e rfe c t c o n
.
,

t in ge nt p e rish abl e o rd e r in a w o rd an o r d e r re l ativ e lik e th e

, , , ,

m ind itse l f I t is o rd e r ne ve rth e l e ss and a ne c e ssary c o nditi o n

.
,

fo r e thi c s as w e l l as fo r s c i e n c e
.
 C H APTER V I
S CI E N C E (C O N TI N U ED ) —P O S ITI V E L O GIC
L O GI C s ay s C o mt e
,
lm o st in th e t e rms o f D e sc arte s is t h e
,
a ,

so l e p o rti o n o f an ci e n t phil o s o phy whi c h i s c ap abl e o f still

p re s e nti ng s o m e app e ar anc e o f utility A nd d o e s e ve n this .

1

app e ar an c e c o rr e sp o n d t o a v e ry s o lid r e ality ?

I f we distinguish ac c o rdi n g to cust o m fo r m al l o gic fro m

, ,

appli e d l o gic C o mt e in h is sy st e m will fin d n o pl ac e f

,
o r th e

fo rm e r which e st ablish e s a p rio ri th e pri nc ipl e s and th e

,

m e c h an ism o fre as o n i ng A s to th e pri nc ipl e s which are th e

.
,

l aw s o f th e un d e rst an di ng p o sitive phil o so phy h as sh o wn th at

,

th e o n l y way to di sc o v e r th em is t o st u dy th e pr o d uc t s o ft h e

hum an i nte ll e c t th at is to say th e d e ve l o pm e n t o fth e s c ie nc e s

, , .

A nd it is a gai n fr o m th e s e sci e n c e s th at thr o ugh o b se rvati o n , ,

t h e th e o ry o f r e aso n i n g mu st be draw n F o rm al l o gi c as .
,

m e t aphysici ans h av e c o nstru c t e d it e sp e c i ally d e v e l o p s t he ,

di al e c tic al faculty th at is to say an aptitud e m o re h ar mful

, ,

th an u se ful fo r pro vi n g with o ut finding D e s c art e s s aid th e

,
2
.

s am e in sp e aki ng o f th e syll o gism th at it se rve s m o re fo r

, ,

e x pl ai n i n g t o o th e rs th e thi ngs which we k no w t h an to ,

disc o ve r th o se whi c h we igno re .

All th e utility which we c an attr ib ute to th e st udy o f l o g ic

p ro p e rly so c all e d is fo und agai n m o re e xt e nd e d m o re vari e d
-
,

m o re c o mpl e t e m o re lumi no us in m ath e m ati c al studi e s T h e

, , .

m e c h ani sm o f r e as o n i n g is e v e rywhe re th e sam e Wh ate ve r .

I
C III 3 36 7
o urs, S ynthe
-
. bj ti p 8 5 9
se su ec ve , . .
1 04 T /z e P /z i/osop/zy of A ug uste C om te

m ay be t h e ph e no m e na which are th e o bj e c ts o f a sci e nc e th e

n atur e o f d e ducti o n an d i n ducti o n n e v e r c h ang e s in th e m .

Thus in practisi n g th e s e fo rms o f r e aso n i n g in th e m o st

simpl e an d th e m o st g e ne ral ph e no m e n a th o s e wh o s e s c i e n c e ,

is m o st advan c e d we l e ar n to k no w th e m with th e m o st
,

e n tir e e vid e n c e an d in all t h e g e ne r a lity o f which th e y are

.

c ap ab le N o wh e re I S re as o n i n g so e x ac t so rig o ro u s as in
.
,

m ath e m atics Th e y accust o m th e mi nd no t to fe e d up o n

.

fals e r e as o n s and it is in th at sch o o l th at m e n o ught to

,

l e a rn th e t h e o ry and t h e pr ac tic e o f re aso n i n g .

But,if th e o ld p u re l o gic is th us re pl ac e d by m ath e m at ic s ,

must we no t at l e ast pre s e rve th e g e ne ral study o f th e

pro c e ss e s us e d in th e v ari o u s sci e nc e s whi c h is c all e d m e th o d ,

o l o gy ? H as n o t C o mt e hims e lf insist e d up o n th e irre du c ib l e

n e ss o f t h e s e v e r al o rd e rs o f l aw s t o o ne ano th e r and in ,

p arti c ul ar to th e m ath e m ati c al l aws ? I s no t th e l e gitim ate

o bj e ct o f l o gic t o d e fi n e t h e pr o c e ss e s o f i n v e stig ati o n an d o f

pro o f p articul ar to e ach o fth e fu n d am e nt al sci e nc e s ?

C o mt e d o e s no t thi nk so This applie d lo g ic d o e s n o t .

app e ar to him t o b e m o r e i n dispe n s ab l e th an fo rm al l o gi c .

I n th e first pl ac e th e fo rm e r in fac t supp o s e s th e l att e r

, , It , .

pro c e e ds fro m th e s am e phil o so phi c al c o nc e pti o n I n o rd e r

-
.

to d e t e rmi ne a p rio ri in a g e ne r al way th e r u l e s o f th e appli c a

, ,

t i o n o ft h e mi n d t o it s v ari o us sci e n tifi c o bj e c ts we sh o uld first ,

h av e to p o s s e ss a k no wl e dge o f th e l aws o f th e mi nd B ut
‘

.
,

ac c o rd in g to C o mt e this k no wl e dg e c an o n ly b e o bt ai ne d b y
,

th e o bs e rv ati o n o f th e m e th o d s whi c h th e mi n d h as i nd ee d
'

fo ll o w e d .M o re o ve r no art is t aught ab strac te dly n o t eve n

, ,

th e a rt o f r e as o n i ng w e ll n o r th at o fe xpe rim e nt in g o ffi ndi n g

, ,

hyp o th e s e s e tc I t h as ne ve r be e n su ffici e n t to k no w th e
, .

rul e s o f ve rsific at io n in o rd e r t o writ e tru e po e t ry A d ee p .

k no wl edge o f th e rul e s o f m e th o d will no t l e ad to

s c i e nti fi c dis c o ve ri es Wh at e ve r we l e arn o f an art it is
1
.
,

C VI 7 8 1
o urs, .
, 0 .
 S c ie n ce
(C ontinu ed ) —P osit i ve L og ic 1 05

practic e th at h as t aught us N o thi n g h e r e c an re pl ac e tim e .

,

n atu ral di sp o siti o n and e xp e ri e n c e ; ,

M e th o ds th e n c an no t be studi e d ap art fro m th e p o sitiv e

re s e ar c h e s in w h ich m e n o f l e a r n i n g m ak e use o f th e m .

Eve n supp o si ng t h at in th e far future wh e n th e sci e nc e s a re ,

advan c e d t h e m e th o ds and th e ir applic ati o ns c o uld b e t aught

,

by th e ms e lve s th e study w o uld run a gre at risk o f yi e ldi n g

,

p o o r re sults Up to th e pre s e nt tim e all th at h as b e e n s aid

.
1

o f t h e m e th o d c o nsid e re d in th e abst ract r e du c e s its e l f to

, ,

v agu e g e ne raliti e s Wh e n in l o gic we h av e th o ro ughly

.
, ,

e st abli sh e d th at all o ur s c i e nc e o f n atur e must b e fo und e d

u p o n o bs e rv ati o n th at we m u st pr o c e ed s o m e tim e s fr o m facts

,

t o pri n cipl e s s o m e tim e s fr o m pr in c iple s t o facts an d a fe w

, ,

o th e r simil ar aph o risim s we k n o w f ar l e ss o f t h e m e th o d th an

,

t h e m an wh o h as studi e d a si ngl e o ne o f t h e p o sitiv e sci e nc e s

so m e wh at d e e ply e ve n with o ut any phil o s o phic al purp o s e
,
.

I t is thus th at Ecl e ctic phil o s o ph e rs h ave im agi ne d t o

m ak e t h e ir psych o l o gy i n t o a sci e n c e thi n ki ng t h e y c o u ld ,
_

u nd e r sta nd and practice t h e p o sitive m e th o d b e c au se

th e y h ad re ad th e Novu m O rg a nu m and th e Discou rs
Bu t did n o t B ac o n P asc a l D e sc art e s and
’
de !a M eth od e
’

.
, , ,

t h e o th e r gr e at s c i e n tific l e ad e rs i nsist o n t h e us e l e ss ne ss

o f abstr act c o n sid e rati o n s ab o ut m e th o d ? Th e y n e v e r

se p ar at e d t h e rul e s th e y fo rmul at e d fr o m th e ir applic ati o n

t o p o sitiv e re s e arch .

C o mt e hims e l f th e ir succ e ss o r and th e ir h e ir us e s no o th e r

, ,

l an gu age I n his l o ng study o fth e fu nd am e n t al sci e n c e s h e

.

n e v e r fails t o disti nguish t h e c o n t e n ts o f t h e s c i e nc e fr o m its

m e th o d wh at h e c alls th e sci e n tifi c p o i n t o f vi e w and t h e

,
“

l o gic al p o i n t o f vi e w B ut whil e disti nguishi n g th e m h e

.
”
, ,

c o n sid e rs th at th e y are c o rre l ate d and cl o s e ly alli e d am o ng

th e ms e l ve s H e no m o re c o n c e iv e s m e th o d as s e p arate d
.

fr o m th e sci e nc e which h e studi e s th an sci e n c e as s e p arat e d ,

C I 3 1
o urs, , 2 .
1 06 T /i e P fii/osofi/zy f
o A ug u ste C o m te

fro m its m e th o d B o th c o nstitute o ne i nt e ll e ctu al re ality s e e n

.

u nd e r two aspe cts c l o s e ly al l i e d to o ne ano th e r 1 T o c o nclud e .

,

traditi o nal l o gi c is fast dis appe ari n g I n its th e o re tic al p arts .

it is sup e rann u at e d lik e th e m e t aphysi c al phil o s o phy wh e n c e

it pro c e e ds I n its appli e d p arts it is b arr e n if s e p arat e d
.

fro m th e prac ti c e o fth e sci e n c e s .

Th e re is h o w e v e r a p o siti ve l o gic and in it we c an als o .

disti nguish a th e o re ti c al and a practic al part .

T h e th e o re tic al p art d e als with l o gic al l aws Th e s e l aws .

which fi nally g o ve r n th e i nt e ll e ctu al w o rld are i nv ari ab l e

, , , ,

an d c o mm o n n o t o n ly t o all tim e an d pl ac e s b ut als o to ,

all subj e cts wh at e v e r with o ut an y disti ncti o n e v e n b e tw e e n

th o se wh ic h C o mt e c alls r e al an d chim e ric al Th e y are o bs e rv e d .

,

fu nd am e n t ally e ve n in dre ams

,
But this u nive rs al ity o f
.
2

l o gic al l aws is no t u nd e rst o o d by him in th e s e n s e in which

t h e r a ti o n a list phil o s o p h e rs u n d e rst an d it C o mt e is o n ly .

c o nc e rne d with a p e rm ane n c e and c o nti n uity pure l y hist o ric al

in ch ar act e r . T h e mi n d o f m an lik e th e r e st o f his n ature ,

re m ai ns id e ntic a l with its e lf thro ugh th e di ve rsity o f e p o ch s

,

a nd situ ati o n s I t e vo lv e s with o ut ch an gi ng fu nd am e n t all y

.

with o ut o th e r di ffe re n c e s th an tho s e o f gr adu ally d e ve l o p e d

m aturity and e xp e ri e nc e .
”

A n c i e nt phil o s o phy cl aim e d to disc o v e r th e i nt e ll e ctu al

l aws by r e fl e cti o n as i f t h e mi n d c o uld thi n k and at th e s am e
,

tim e se e its e lf thi n ki ng r e as o n and o bs e rve its re as o n i n g

,

C o mt e re j e cts this i ntro sp e ctive m e th o d which yi e lds no ,

sci e n tifi c r e sults I f we apply th e m e th o d o f p o sitive in

.

v e s tig at io n t o t h e i n t e ll e ctu al ph e n o m e na as t o all t h e o th e rs ,

t wo w ays o n l y are o p e n We c an l o o k at it fro m th e st atic

.

p o i n t o f vi e w th at is to say study th e c o nditi o n s up o n which

, ,

C 1
VI 7 9
o urs, , C 0 V 79
.
9
o u rs, ,
 S c ie nce (C o n tin u ed) —
P osit ive L og ic 1 07

t h e s e ph e no m e na d e p e nd and re fe r th e ph e no m e na to th e m
,

as we r e f e r g e n e r ally th e fu n cti o n t o its o rg an I n this s e n s e .

t h e study o f t h e i n t e ll e ctu al ph e n o m e na b e l o n gs t o bi o l o gy

O r e ls e fro m t h e dy namic p o i nt o f vi e w we c an c o n sid e r

, ,

th e s e ph e no m e na in th e ir e vo l uti o n by o bs e rvi n g th e ,

s ucc e ssive ph as e s thro ugh whi c h t h e y p ass A n d si nc e th e .

life o f th e i ndividu al is to o sh o rt fo r this pro gre ss to b e

“ ”

a ppr e ci abl e it must b e studi e d in th e li f

, e o f th e sp e ci e s So .

u n d e rst o o d th e sci e n c e o f th e i n t e ll e c tu al l aws c o m e s withi n

,

t h e sph e r e o f s o ci o l o gy .

No w high e r bi o l o gy which d e als with m o r al and i nt e ll e c tu al

,

ph e n o m e n a h as o n l y j ust b e e n fo u n d e d b y C ab an is and
,

G all C o m te disc o ve d th at it c o uld n o t b e c o n stitu te d as a

.

sci e nc e with o ut th e h e lp o fs o ci o l o g y I t is th e n t o this ne wly

.

b o r n study th at th e s e arch aft e r i n t e ll e ctu al l aws in e ve ry way

b e l o ngs .

P o sitive l o gic abst ai n s as we se e fro m sp e cul ati n g up o n

, ,

th e l e adi n g pri n cipl e s o f k n o wl e dg e pri n cipl e s o f id e n tity , ,

o f c o n tr adicti o n o f c a us a lity e tc Th e s e ki n ds o f pri n cipl e s

, .

are n o t o bj e cts o f e x a mi n a ti o n o r o f discussi o n C o mt e up o n .

this p o i n t is in full acc o rd with th e Sc o ttish s c h o o l No .

p o sitive sci e nc e qu e sti o n s its o wn pri n cipl e s fo r h o w c an we ,

submit th e ve ry pri n cipl e s o f all r e as o n i ng to c riticism ?

N o thi ng is l e ss in acc o rd an c e with th e po siti ve spirit th an an
att e mpt o f this ki n d .I t is simply m e t aphysic al an d h as no
ch an c e o f succ e ss .

T h e i n t e ll e ctu al l aws o f which t h e r e s e arch is p o sitiv e are

s uch as t h e law o f th e thre e st at e s (which is th e m o st
g e ne ra l o f all) o r such fo r i nst anc e as th e s e : th e hum an mi n d
, , ,

a lw ays m ak e s a n e f fo rt to pl ac e its c o n c e pti o n s in acc o rd an c e

with its o bs e rvati o n s ; in e v e ry c as e t h e hum an mi nd fo rm s
t h e simpl e st hyp o th e sis e tc Th e s e l aws which are d e ri ve d
,
.
,

fro m th e n ature o f th e hum an mi n d and wh o s e acti o n h as ,

a lw ays b e e n fe lt ,
c o uld o n ly b e disc o ve re d an d fo rmul ate d
1 08 T /z e P /z itosop/iy f g
oA u uste C o m te

quit e re c e n tly F o r bi o l o gy and s o ci o l o gy to which th e y are

.
,

r e l ate d c o uld no t b e c o nstitut e d be fo re th e m o re simpl e

,

fu nd am e nt al sci e nc e s w e re su ffi ci e ntly adv anc e d T o re ac h a .

sci e ntific k no wl e dge o f th e i nt e ll e c tu al l aws to fo u n d a ,

“
p o sitiv e l o gic no thi ng l e ss was ne e d e d th an th e l o ng
,

e v o l uti o n wh o s e t e rm is m ark e d by C o mt e s phil o s o phy

’
.

Appli e d l o gi c o r th e o ry o f m e th o d als o fi nds a ne w m e an

, ,

in g in th e p o sitiv e d o ctri ne . C o mte d o e s no t fall i nt o th e

mist ak e which h e h as criticis e d H e d o e s no t pr o p o s e to
.

t e ach an art ex professo and h e will no t fo rmu l ate th e r ul e s

,

whi c h p o sitive re s e arch must fo ll o w in o rd e r to b e pr o du c tiv e .

H e re ag ai n C o mt e will fo u nd his d o ctri ne up o n th e i nt e ll e c t ual

e v o luti o n o f hum an ity .

I n th e fir st pl ac e lik e th e sci e n c e s t h e p o sitiv e m e th o d s are

, ,

c o ll e c tive w o rks th e w o rk o f th e spe ci e s gr ad u ally d e v e l o pe d

“
,

in th e l o n g s e qu e nc e o f c e n turi e s C o mt e c o nsid e rs as im
1 ”
.

p e rti ne nt th e pre te nti o ns o f s o m e m o d e r n sci e ntists wh o ,

prid e th e ms e lve s up o n h avi n g i n v e nt e d th e c o mp arativ e

m e th o d in bi o l o gy As if Arist o tl e h ad no t already practis e d
.

it ! A nd Aristo tl e h ad no t b e e n th e first to do so T h e .

p ro c e ss e s o fth e p o sitiv e m e th o d s do n o t r e ve al the ms e lv e s all

at o n c e u nd e r a p e rfe ct and fi nal fo rm
,
Th e y gradu ally c o m e
.

t o light duri ng a l o ng p e ri o d o f gr o pi n g T h e hum an mi n d .

n o ti c e s t h e pr o c e ss e s which h av e succ e e d e d in simpl e c as e s .

I t e nd e av o urs to g e ne r al iz e th e m and t e sts th e m in ne w and

,

slightly m o re c o mpl e x c as e s I t s e e ks fo r th e r e as o n why in

.

c e rt a i n c as e s t h e e nd is r e ach e d in o th e rs it is mi ss e d
, .

M e th o d is thus i n s e n sibly fo rm e d by a ki n d o f pr acti c al i n du c

ti o n I ts e ss e nti al pro c e sse s are lik e th e l e adi ng id e as in
.
,

t h e sci e n c e s i n spir ati o n s fro m u n iv e rs al wisd o m

“ ”
T he
fic e o f gr e at m e n —and this is su ffici e n t fo r th e m to e arn
, .

of

o u r gr atitud e — is t o r e c o g n is e th e v alu e an d t h e fe cu ndity o f

t h e s e i nspir a ti o ns to se t th e m at w o rk and e sp e ci ally to
, ,

e nd o w th e m with an o ft e n i nd e fi n it e e xt e n si o n by s e p ar ati n g
 S cien ce (C onti nu ea
)
’ —P ositio e L og i c 1 09

th e m fro m th e c o n cre te c o nditi o ns in which th e y w e re at first

m an ife s te d .

Thus p o sitiv e phi l o s o phy l e ss ambiti o us th an its pre

,

de c e sso rs d o e s n o t t ak e up o n it se lf to l e gisl at e up o n m e th o d
, .

But n e ith e r d o e s it c o n fi ne its e lf t o th e m e re d uty o f m aki n g

st at e m e nts th at is to say to simply re gi st e r th e pro c e ss e s
,

m ad e use o f in th e sci e nc e s I s no t its pro p e r fu nc ti o n to

.

re pre se nt in hum an k no w l e dge th e u n ive rs ali z i n g mi n d

“ ”

which in C o mt e s l angu age is sy no nym o us with g o ve rn m e n t ?

’

H e hims e l f c alls th e fifty e ighth l e ss o n o f t h e C o u rs a e ph ilo

-
’

soph ic p osi tive his Disco u rs de la Al ec/ H e ris e s ab o ve 1

co de .

t h e n e c e ss a rily p e culi a r p o siti o n which b e l o n gs t o sp e ci alists ,

an d pl ac e s hims e l f at t h e c e n tr a l and u n iv e rs a l p o i n t o f vi e w

whi c h is pro p e r to th e phil o s o ph e r Th e n c e h e e mbr ac e s und e r

.

o ne p o i n t o f v i e w t h e e n tir e hi e r archy o f th e fu n d am e n t al
,

sci e nc e s O ut o f this we ll o rd e re d wh o l e h e w atch e s as th e y

.
-
,
-

a ris e first th e e ss e n c e o f th e p o sitiv e m e th o d and th e n t h e re

'

, ,

lat io n s o f th e v ari o us e l e m e n ts in this m e th o d t o o ne ano th e r .

I n its e ss e n c e t h e p o sitiv e m e th o d is o ne as sci e n c e i s o ne

, , .

F o r it e ve r t e nds t o w ards t h e s am e e nd : t h e e st ablishm e nt

o f t h e i nv a ri abl e r e l a ti o n s which c o n stit ut e th e e f fe ctive l aws
o f all o bs e r v a bl e e ve nts thus c ap abl e o f b e i ng r ati o nally
“
,

fo r e s e e n fro m o ne ano th e r T h e p o sitive m e th o d pr o c e e ds

.

t o this by m e an s o f a thr e e fo ld abstr acti o n I t first s e p arate s

.

t h e pr actic a l r e quir e m e n ts fr o m th e o r e tic a l k no wl e dg e t o b e ,

o nly c o nc e r ne d with th e l att e r it s e e ks fo r th e l aws o f

,

ph e no m e na with o ut t ro ubli ng its e lf at l e ast pro visi o nally , ,

with any p o ssibl e applic ati o ns I t al so puts asid e ae sth e tic

.

c o nsid e rat i o n s which o ught n o t to i nte rve ne in sci e nt ific

,

i nve stig ati o n Fi nall y—and h e re is th e c o n diti o n fo r

t h e v e ry e xis t e n c e o f sci e n c e —
.

t h e p o sitiv e m e th o d a lw ay s
c are fully disti nguish e s b e tw e e n th e abstract and th e c o n
c re te p o i n t o f vi e w .I t studi e s no t be i ngs but ph e no ,

C 1
VI 73
o urs, , 1
1 1 o Tno P nitosofi/zy of A ug uste C om te

m e na . E ve n in th e simpl e st c as e s in astro no my fo r ,

i n st an c e n o ge ne ral law c an b e e st ablish e d so l o n g as

,

b o di e s are c o n sid e r e d in t h e ir c o ncre t e e xist e n c e T h e .

pri n cip al ph e no m e no n h as h ad to b e d e t a ch e d so t o spe ak , ,

s o as t o submit it al o n e to an abstr act study afte rw ards ,

a ll o wi n g us t o r e tur n succ e ssfully t o th e c o n sid e r at i o n o f m o r e

c o mpl e x r e aliti e s This is wh at t h e an ci e n ts h ad k no w n h o w

.

t o do in g e o m e try ; a n d this is wh at C o mt e hims e lf h as d o ne

in t h e m o st c o mpl e x o f all sci e n c e s in s o ci o l o g y I n ste ad o f , .

st o ppi ng at th e c o n cre t e re ality o f hist o r y h e d e te rmi ne d , ,

by a b o ld abs t r acti o n th e law o f th e e ss e nti al m o v e m e nt in

,

hum an s o ci e ty l e avi ng to s ubs e qu e n t l ab o urs th e c are o f

“

bri n gi n g app are nt ano m ali e s i nto li ne with it .

”1

I n t h e m ai n t h e s e g e ne r al ch ara ct e ristics o f th e p o sitive

,

m e th o d bri ng it si ngul arly ne ar t o t h e C arte si an m e th o d .

C o mte s Thr e e fo ld gr adu al abstr acti o n s e e ms i nd e e d to

’ “

h av e fo r its e n d lik e D e sc arte s analysis to g o b ack to wh at

'

,
’

is simpl e st and e asi e st to k no w and th e n t o c o m e d o w n by a

, ,

sy n the tic an d pr o gre ssive ad van c e t o w ards th e r e ali ty which ,

is gi ve n to us in e xp e ri e n c e T h e o ne and th e o th e r o f th e s e
.

m e th o ds wit ne ss h e re to an e ffo rt t o w ards g e ne ralisi n g t h e

, ,

spirit o f th e m ath e m atic al m e th o d L e t us n e ve r fo rg e t writ e s.

,

C o mte th at th e ge ne r a l spirit o f p o sitive phil o s o phy was first

,

fo rm e d by th e culture o f m ath e m atics an d th at we must ,

ne c e ss a rily g o b ack so f ar in o rd e r t o k n o w this spirit in its

,

e l e m e n t a ry purit y T h e m at h e m atic al pr o c e ss e s a nd fo rmul ae

.

are r ar e ly c ap abl e o f b e i n g appli e d t o t h e e ff e ctiv e s t udy o f

n a tur al ph e n o m e n a wh e n we wish t o g o b e y o n d t h e m o st
,

e xtr e m e simplicity in t h e r e al c o n diti o n s o f th e pr o bl e ms .

But th e tru e m ath e m atic al spirit so disti n ct fro m th e

“
,

a lg e br a ic a l spirit with which it is too o ft e n c o n fo u n d e d is o n

, ,

th e c o n t r a r y c o n st an tl y o f v alu e
”2
, .

We must th e re fo r e n o t t ak e to o much no tic e o f C o mte s ’

C1
v1 7 4
o urs, c , 0 II 3 4 5
.
2
om , . 2 -
.
 S c ie nce (C o n t i n u ed —
P o s itive L og ic I11

u rgi ng and bitt e r ne ss wh e n h e criticis e s th e narro w ne ss o f

,

mi nd and th e im ph ilo so ph ism e o fge o m e t e rs U nd o ubt e dly

“ ”
.
1

h e n e ve r tir e s o f s afe gu ardi ng th e high e r sci e n c e s ag ai n st th e

e n cr o achm e n ts o f m ath e m a tics an d o f sh o wi n g t h e im , po s
sib ility o f a phil o s o phy fo u n d e d e xcl usive ly up o n their
pri n cipl e s B ut h e no ne th e l e ss re c o g n is e s th at this sci e n c e
.

p o ss e ss e s th e d o ubl e privil e ge o f h avi ng fur n ish e d hist o ri c ally ,

t h e first m o d e l o f t h e p o sitiv e m e th o d and o f pr e s e n ti n g still ,

t o day its fi ne st and pur e st e x ampl e s

-
.

H o we ve r C o mt e e ve n m o re th an D e sc art e s t ak e s c are no t
, , ,

t o tr an sfo rm t h e m ath e m atic al m e th o d i n t o a u n iv e rs al m e th o d

by a simpl e ge ne r alis ati o n N o thi ng w o uld b e m o re c o nt rary

.

t o th e p o sitiv e spirit F o r t h e d e v e l o pm e n t o f this spirit th e

.

study o f m ath e m atics is a n e c e ss a ry i n tro ducti o n I t is h o w .

,

e v e r but an i n tr o d ucti o n
,
T h e u se which m ath e m atics c an
.

m ak e o f d e d ucti o n o n acc o u n t o f th e e xtr e m e simplicity o f

,

t h e ir subj e c t pr o duc e s a v e ry fals e id e a o f th e p o we r o fo ur

u nd e rst andi ng and disp o s e s us to re as o n m o r e th an to o bs e rv e

, .

F ar fr o m pre p ari ng us fo r th e m e th o d which must b e fo ll ow ed

fo r t h e study o f t h e o th e r o rd e rs o f n atur a l ph e no m e n a t h e ,

e xclusive h abit o f m ath e m atics t e n ds r ath e r t o dr aw us fr o m

it I n a w o rd it is a d an ge ro us e rro r to t ak e this i n iti al de

.
“

gre e o f s o u n d l o gic al e duc ati o n fo r t e fi nal d e gre e

h 2
.
”

I n o rd e r t o gr asp t h e p o sitiv e m e th o d in its e n tir e t y we ,

must no t c o nsid e r o nly m at h e m atics but th e wh o l e s e ri e s o f ,

th e fu nd am e n t al sci e n c e s This m e th o d a lw ays fu nd a

.
,

m e n tally id e ntic al t ak e s p articul ar d e t e rmi nati o ns in ad apti ng

,

its e l f to e ach ne w o rd e r o f ph e n o m e na E ach o f th e s e o rd e rs .

i n tro duc e s so to sp e ak th e use o f s o m e o f th e pri ncip al pro

, ,

c e ss e s o f which th e m e th o d i s c o mp o s e d and it is alw ays at

“
,

th e ir s o urc e th at t he s e no ti o n s o f u n iv e rs al l o gic must b e e x

a m ine d . Thus t h e m ath e m atic al sci e nc e is th e o ne which
L tt aV l t p 9 3 ( 4 pt mb
1
e re s a a , . 2 se e re ,

C VI 7 5 2
o urs, . 12 -
1 .
 1 1 2 T ne P nitosop/zy o f g
A u u ste C o m t e

give s th e be st k no wl e dge o fth e e l e m e nt ary c o nditi o ns o fp o si

tive s c i e nc e I n it all th e art ific e s o fth e art o f re as o n i n g fr o m
.
,

t h e m o st sp o n t ane o us t o th e m o st sublim e a re c o nti n u ally

pr actis e d with far m o re v ari ety and fe cu ndity th an anywh e re

e ls e . Astro no my th e n t e ach e s us i n i ts i n iti al purity t h e art , ,

o f o bs e rv a ti o n a c c o mp a n i e d by th at o f f o rmi ng hyp o th e s e s .

I t sh o ws in wh at th e r ati o nal pro visi o n o fph e no m e na c o nsists ,

and th at sci e n c e a lw ays e n ds in a ssimil ati o n o r in c o m b in

ati o n . Physics i niti ate us to th e th e o ry o f e xp e rim e nti ng ,

ch e mist ry to th e ge ne ral art o f no m e n cl at ure s t h e s c i e nc e o f ,

o rg an i c b o di e s t o t h e th e o ry o f cl assific ati o n s Bi o l o gy spe ci .

all ym ak e s u se o f t h e c o mp ar ativ e m e th o d a nd fi n ally with ,

s o c i o l o gy app e ars th e transc e nd ant pro c e ss which C o mt e

“ ”

c alls th e hist o ric al m e th o d 1

.

P o sitive l o gi c e xte nds to all th e fu nd am e nt al sci e nc e s th e

u se o f t h e pr o c e ss e s at first p e culi ar to e ach o ne o f th e m .

E ac h gre at l o gic a l a rtific e o nc e studi e d in th e p o rti o n o f

,

n atur al phil o s o phy which sh o ws its m o st sp o n t ane o us an d

m o st c o mpl e t e d e v e l o pm e nt c an afte rwards b e appli e d with

, ,

t h e n e c e ss a ry m o dific ati o n s t o t h e pe rfe cti n g o f th e o th e r

,

sci e nc e s F o r i n st an c e th e c o mp arative m e th o d b e l o ngs in

.
,

t h e first pl ac e to bi o l o gy But wh e n bro ught b a ck to its pri n

.
,

c iple an d g e ne r alis e d it b e c o m e s a pre ci o us i nstrum e nt fo r

,

s o ci o l o gy fo r physics and e ve n fo r m ath e m atics I n e ve ry

, , .

sci e nce th e m e th o d is c o mpl e te d by t h e a uxili ary use o f th e

,

pro c e ss e s wh o s e p o w e r and wh o s e sph e re o facti o n h ave be e n

m ad e k no w n by t h e o th e r sci e n c e s B y the s e m utu al l o ans .
.

in e ach o n e o f th e m th e p o sitiv e m e th o d re ach e s its

,

m axim um o f pro ducti o n .

T o b e cultiv at e d in t h e m o st ra ti o na l m anne r p o ssibl e th e ,

sci e n c e s must th e n b e subj e ct to th e dire cti o n o f a ge ne ral

syste m o f p o sitive phil o s o phy th e c o mm o n b asis and t h e
“
,

u nifo rm c o mbi n i ng e l e m e n t o f all tr uly s c i e ntific l abo urs .

” o

C VI 7 q
1
o u rs, . C
2 0 s VI 74
.
2
o urs, . .
 S cience (C onti nu ed —
P ositive L og ic 1 1 3

T he s c i e nti fic m an must at th e s am e tim e b e a phil o so ph e r ,

si nc e phil o s o phy al o ne puts him in p o ss e ssi o n o f all th e

.

r e so u rc e s o f p o sitive m e th o d F o r i n st anc e this phil o s o phy

.
,

will sh o w th e g e o m e te r th at h e m ust at l e ast h ave a ge ne ral

k no w l e dge o f bi o l o gy and o f s o ci o l o gy Bi o l o gy wil l te ac h .

him the c o mp arative m e th o d o f whi c h h e c an m ak e u se wh e n

,

o cc asi o n o f fe rs and so c i o l o gy by sh o wi ng him th e hi st o ry o f

,

his sci e nce in th e ge ne ral d e ve l o pm e n t o f th e hu m an m ind ,

wi l l he lp him b e tte r to u nd e rst and it I f th e g e o m e t e rs h ad a

.

m o re phil o s o phic al mi nd th e ir sc i e nc e wo uld b e be tt e r t aught

, .

T h e gre at c o n c e pti o n s o f D e s c art e s o f L e ib n it z o f L agran ge

, , ,

w o uld be m o re i nte llige ntly e xp l ai ne d and bro ught to

light .

I f it is u s e ful fo r th e ge o m e te r to h av e studi e d th e o the r

fu nd a m e nt al sci e n c e s it is no t l e ss i ndispe nsab l e fo r o th e r
,

l e arne d m e n to h ave g o ne thro ugh th e study o f m ath e m atics .

As an i n iti al discipli ne this s c i e nc e c an b e ne gl e c t e d by no

“
,

o ne. I t is th e c o mm o n sch o o l o f p o sitivity fo r all mi nds I t is .

the re fo re to b e r e gr e tt e d th at th e sci e ntific e duc ati o n o f future

physi o l o gists sh o uld b e m ai nly m ad e up o f lit e rary studi e s
an d o f a f e w n o ti o n s o f physics an d ch e mistry T h e m o re .

c o mpl e x th e ph e no m e na wh o s e l aws th e y will h ave to s e e k ,

th e m o re n e c e ss a ry will it b e fo r th e m t o h av e be c o m e
famili ari se d in m athe m atics an d in astro n o my with th e pre ,

cis e id e a o f sci e n tific truth A nd as a m att e r o f fact u ntil

.
, ,

this c e nt ury th e s t udy o fth e e x a ct sci e n c e s h ad alw ays be e n

,

re gard e d as a pre limi n ary c o nditi o n fo r th at o f th e natural

sci e n ce s Bu ffo n and L am arck in th e ir day h ad still re c e iv e d
.

this discipli ne I f it h as b e e n so di ffi c ul t to c o nstitut e so ci al

.

sci e n c e it c o m e s am o n g o th e r re as o n s fro m th e l ack o f

, , ,

sci e ntific e duc ati o n am o n g th o s e wh o up to th e pre se nt t im e , ,

h ave wish e d to study s o ci al ph e n o m e na Wh e re fo r i nst an ce .

, ,

c o uld e c o no mists h av e fo u nd th e sci e ntifi c id e a o f wh at c o n

st it u te s natur al l aws ig no ri n g as m o st o f th e m did n o t o nly
,

8
1 14 Tlz e P nitosop/zy of A ug uste C om te

bi o l og y whi c h was be i ng fo rm e d besid e th e m b ut e ve n th e ,

sc i e nc e s whi c h h ad al re ady r e ac h e d a po s itiv e s t at e ?

T h e e x cl usiv e c u l tiv ati o n o f a si n gl e sc i e n c e is alway s a

d an ge r fo r th e i n te ll e c t N e ve rth e l e s s so l o n g as th e c h ie f
.
,

task o f th e p o sitive spi rit was to di so rganis e th e syste m o f

be liefs whi c h c o n stit ute d th e o l o gi c al and m e t aphys ic al ph il o
so phy , th e s pe ci ality o f t h e w o rks and o f th e m e th o ds was an

i nc o nve n i e nc e o f s e c o nd ary impo rt an c e I t m atte re d litt l e .

th at th e dis c o ve ri e s o f th e astro no m e rs th e phys ic i ans th e , ,

bi o l o gists sh o uld b e m o re o r l e s s c o o rdi nat e d and d ire c te d by

-

a un ive rs a l p o sitiv e m e th o d so l o ng as th e y did th e ir w o r k

,

a n d p re p are d th e futur e But wh e n th e p o sitive spirit h ad to

.
,

be c o m e o rg an ic i n st e ad o f c riti c al wh e n it h ad t o substit ut e a
,

ne w phil o so phy to t h e o n e whi c h it h ad o v e rthr o w n th e n it ,

was o b l ige d to subo rdi nat e t h e sp e c i al pro c e ss e s which it h ad

m ad e use o f u ntil th e n to a singl e u niv e rs al m e th o d Sh o uld .

sc i e ntific ana r c hy h ave l as te d th e pro gre ss o fth e p o si

“
th e ,

t ive spirit w o uld u n d o ubt e dly h av e le d t o t h e discre diti n g o f

th e m e t aphysic al régi m e but with o ut r e pl a ci n g it an d c o u s e
, ,

qu e ntly with o ut h avi ng d o ne with it By r e j e cti ng any ne w .

g e ne ral dis c ip l i ne m o d e r n s c i e ntific m e n w o uld un k no w

,

ing ly t e n d to re e st abli sh th e sy st e m whi c h th e y s e e m e d to

-

h ave sh att e re d fo r e v e r .

I n a w o rd t h e triumph o f th e p o sitiv e m e th o d to b e fi nal

, , ,

pre suppo s e s th e ac c e pt an c e o f th e p o sitive phil o s o phy by all

m e n o f l e arn i ng. T h e o ld l o gi c was b o u nd by t h e n arro w e st
ti e s to th e m e t aphy si c al d o c tr ine s which w e re th e n d o mi nant .

I n t h e s am e way p o sitiv e l o gic is b o u n d up with p o sitive

phil o s o ph y Spe aki ng m o re p re c i se ly it is an e xpre s si o n o f
.
,

t his v e ry phil o s o phy .

 S cie nce ( o nti n u e a
)
’
C -
Positive L og ic 1 1 5

I s th e ge ne r al m e th o d o f p o sitiv e phil o s o phy o bj e ctive o r ,

s ubj e ctiv e o r b o th at o n c e ?
,
As we k no w this qu e sti o n h as ,

r aise d p assi o nate discussi o n am o n g p o sitivists O utsid e th e

1
.

s c h o o l it h as b e e n s o lve d by s o m e hist o ri an s as if Auguste

C o mt e at t h e e nd o f his life h ad g o ne b ac k to a d o ctri ne
, ,

v e ry di ffe re nt fro m th e o ne se t fo rt h by him in th e C ou rs ae ’

p /z itosopnie p ositive I t su ffi c e s h o w e v e r t o disti n gui sh with

.
, , ,

him two succ e ssiv e p o i nts o f V i e w to se e h o w th e two

, ,

m e th o ds ant ag o nistic in a c e rt ai n s e n s e c an in ano th e r o ne

, , , ,

be v e ry w e ll r e c o n cil e d
!

I f we o n ly c o nsid e r th e pro c e ss fo ll o w e d by o ur mi nd
i n t h e e xpl an ati o n o f natur al ph e no m e na th at is t o say th e ,

o bj e ct o f p o sitiv e phil o s o phy t ak e n in th e strict s e n s e o f t h e

w o rd it is tru e th at two o pp o sit e m e th o ds are fo u nd fac e to

,

fac e T h e subj e ctive m e th o d go e s fr o m th e c o nsid e r ati o n o f

.

m an t o th at o f t h e w o rld th e o bj e ctive m e th o d g o e s fr o m t h e
,

k no wl e dge o f th e w o rld to th at o f m an T h e first giv e s r is e .

t o th e o l o gi c al and m e t aphysic al phil o s o phy th e l att e r t o ,

o sitiv e phil o s o phy T h e i n c o mp atibility o f t h e t wo phil o

p .

s o phi e s pro c e e ds fr o m th at o fth e m e th o ds which is irre d uc ibl e , .

I t all o ws us to say : This will k ill th at

“
I n this s e ns e t h e .
” 2
,

fi n al e st ablishm e nt o f th e o bj e ctive m e th o d which is c o m ,

le t e d by t h e fo u n d ati o n o f s o ci o l o gy impli e s th e e xclusi o n

p
-

, ,

a ls o fi n al o f t h e subj e ctiv e m e th o d
,
.

But h avi ng re a ch e d its full m aturity tru e phi l o s o phy

“
,

sh o uld i ne vit ably te nd to re c o n c il e th e s e t wo ant ago ni sti c

m e th o ds wro te C o mte in 1 8 3 8 in th e third v o lum e o f th e
,
”
,

C o u rs cte p /z ilosopnie p ositive th at is to say l o n g b e fo re th e , ,

t im e o f wh at h as b e e n wr o n gly c all e d his s e c o n d phil o s o phy .

3

This re c o n cili ati o n will be acc o mplish e d by m e an s o f th e

1
S ee a b
o ve , I ntro d uc tio n , pp .
2
A n allusio n to a a fm o us p assag e in Vi c to r H ug o s
’

N o tre Dm a e de P aris .
”
C o urs, III , 2 10 .
 1 16 Tli e P /z itosopfiy of A ug uste C om te

di sti n c tio n be wee n th e spe c i al po in t o f vie w o f th e sci e nces ,

an d th e u n iv e rsa l po i n t o f vi e w o f phi l o so phy T h e s c i e nti fi c .

i nves ti gati o n o f th e l aws o f n at ura l ph e no m e na c an o n l y be

m ad e by m ean s o f th e o bj e cti ve m e th o d : C o m te ne ve r
vari es in hi s th o ught o n this po i nt But th ese sci e n ce s are .

but th e pa rts in a gre a t e r who l e fo r whi c h th e subj e c tive ,

m e th o d al o ne is suita bl e .

T wo ar gu m e n ts es pe c i al ly pro v e thi s o n e be l o n gin g to th e ,

l o gi ca l th e o t he r to th e m o ral an d th e re li gi o us o rd e r
,
.

T h e supr e m e re quire m e n t o f o ur i n t e ll e c t is u n ity S h all .

we e v e r re ach this u n ity by usi n g th e o bj ec ti ve m e th o d in

th e sci e n c e s ? Evid e n tly n o t E v en in ea ch o rd er o f ph e no
.

m e na se p a ra te ly c o n sid e re d we do n o t se e h o w to re duce
t h e l aws which we k n o w t o a si n gl e law o f a m o r e ge ne ra l

ch ara ct e r A nd wh at are th e l aws k no wn t o us c o mpare d

.

wi th t h o se which e lud e o u r sea rch and whi ch pe rh aps m ay ,

do so fo r e ve r ? C o n sid e re d in it s o bj e ct ea ch o ne o f o u r ,

sci e n ce s re a ches so to spea k t o i nfi n ity far be y o n d o u r

, , ,

limite d h o riz o n I f t h e n in o rd e r t o s a ti sfy us a sing le c o n

.
, ,

c e pti o n o f th e w o rld is n e c e s sa ry w e sh all n e v e r o bta in such a

'

c o n ce pti o n fro m th e o bj e c t i ve po in t o fvi e w But i f we chan ge .

o ur po i n t o f vi e w if we r e fe r t h e wh o l e o f th e sci e n c e s t o m an
, ,

o r be tt e r t o hum an i t y as a c e n tr e we sh a ll t h e n be a bl e t o
‘

, , ,

re a li s e t h e u n it y whi ch we se e k T h is is pre cise ly wha t is m ad e

.

po ssibl e by so ci o l o gy by subo rdin ati n g th e hi e rarch y o f th e

,

po sitive sc i e n ce s t o th e fi n al sci e n ce o f hum an ity .

T o c o n sid e r th e o th e r fu n d a m e n t al sci e n c es as in dis pe nsa bl e

“

p re limin ari e s to re pre s e n t th e e v o luti o n whi ch h as bro ught

,
”1

th e m fo rth in tu rn as th e v e ry his t o ry o f hum an pro gress ; t o

ve rify th e law o f th e t hree sta te s in all o u r be li e fs and in all ,

o ur kn o wl e dge fi nally t o c o nt ro l all sci e nti fic re se a rch fro m

,

th e s oc i o l o gi ca l po in t o f vie w t h is is what C o mte un d e r

:

stands by th e c o n ci li ati o n o f th e t wo m e t h o ds .

1
C
o o rs , VI . 610 .
 S cien ce (C o n t in u ed
) -
P ositive L og i c 1 1 7

T he wh o l e d e v e l o pm e n t o f p o sitive s c i e n c e fro m m ath e

m at ic s t o s o ci o l o gy li e s be tw e e n t h e n e w u se which is m ad e
,

o f subj e ctiv e m e th o d a n d th at which was sp o n t an e o usly m ad e

o f it by th e o l o gic a l phil o s o phy Wh e n the o l o gic al phil o s o phy

.

c o n sid e r e d t h e k no wl e dg e o f m an an d th at o f t h e w o rld as

i n t e rd e pe n d e n t th e instin c t whi c h an im at e d it was a j u st o ne

‘

, .

B ut it was i m agi ni n g i n st e ad o f o b se rvi ng I t re pre s e nte d .

t h e w o rld as fill e d with c aus e s anal o go us to th e will o f

“ ”

m an an d e qu ally c aprici o u s T h e ne w subj e c tiv e m e th o d

.

re sts o n t h e c o n tra ry up o n t h e v e ry r e s ults o f th e p o sitiv e

, ,

s ci e n c e s br o ught t o a sy n th e sis in so c i o l o gy
,
I t t ak e s as e st a .

b lish e d th at th e i n t e ll e ctu al and m o r al ph e n o m e na d e p e n d up o n

t h e bi o l o gi c al l aws a n d th at th e bi o l o gic al l aw s th e ms e lv e s are
,

s ubo rdi n at e to t h e l aws o f th e i no rg an ic m ilieu But si nc e .

,

t he
“
fi nal syst e m atis ati o n o f all th e s e l aws 1
m ust alw ay s ”

re m ai n imp o ssibl e fr o m th e o bj e ctiv e po m t o f vi e w th e n e w ,

s ubj e ctiv e m e th o d u n d e rt a k e s it fr o m th e p o i n t o f vi e w o f

h um an ity as a c e n tre .

We c an thus disti nguish two gr e at p e ri o ds in th e i nt e ll e c tu al

a dv an c e o f hu m an ity .D uri ng th e first th e p o sitive spirit ,

s ucc e ss iv e ly a ppli e s t h e s c i e ntifi c th at is t o say o bj e ctive '

, ,

m e th o d to high e r and high e r o rd e rs o f ph e no m e na T h e

,
.

fo u n d ati o n o f s o ci o l o gy m arks th e t e rm o f this pr o gr e ss .

T h e n th e s e c o n d p e ri o d be gi n s T h e p o sitiv e spirit fr o m
.

s p e ci al h as b e c o m e u n ive rs al fro m analytic al sy nth e tic al

,
.

I t re acts up o n th e p articul ar s c i e nc e s and h e n c e fo rt h m ak e s ,

u se o f th e
“
re ge ne r at e d subj e ctive m e th o d to go ve rn th e
”
,

wh o l e o fth e m .

Fro m th e m o ral and r e ligi o us p o i n t o f vi e w o nc e so c i o l o gy ,

h as b e e n c o n stitut e d and p o sitiv e phil o so phy h as be e n

,

e st ab l ish e d,
t h e fu n cti o n s pr o p e r t o r e l igi o n app e ar T he .

i n te ll e ct re c o g n is e s th at its e nd d o e s no t lie withi n its e l f ,

a n d th at it is i n c ap abl e o f d e t e rmi n i ng its o wn ru l e an d aim .

1
P l p o :I 44 7 os .
, . .
1 1 8 Tli e P /z ilosop/cy of A ug uste C om te

I t s ubmit s to a dire ct ing auth o rity whi c h wi ll g uid e its e ffo rt s ,

and fix th e ir o bj e c t T o ac t from afiec tio n a nd to t/z in/l i n

.
,
:

o rde r to a ct But if th e mi n d u n d e rst and s th at it is d e sti ne d

.

t o b e us e d in th e s e rvi c e o f hum an ity it s e e s at th e s am e ,

tim e t h at in th e c o mpl e te p o sitive d o ctri ne which c o nt ai n s

'

r e ligi o n th e o bj e ctive m e th o d giv e s pre c e d e nc e to th e sub

,

r r ath e r th at th e y mutu ally supp o rt e ach o th e r f

j e c t iv e o ,
I .

we w e re pur e i nt e ll e cts we sh o uld pr o b ably alw ays g o fr o m

t h e w o rld t o m an But in us th e i n te l l e c t is o nly a m e ans
. .

Lo ve is th e pri nc ipl e acti o n is t h e e nd and it is to m an fi n ally

, , ,

th at o u r stud y o fth e w o r l d m ust b e re fe rr e d .

T o w ards th e e nd o f his life C o mt e re pl ac e d th e l o gic o f

,

t h e mi n d e sp e ci a lly guid e d by artifici al sig n s by th e l o gi c

“ ”
, ,

o f t h e h e art fo u nd e d up o n th e dire ct c o nne cti o n o f th e fe e l

“

i ngs .
” 1
We sh all n o t h e re i nsist up o n a c o n c e pti o n which is
cl o s e ly alli e d to his r e ligi o us syst e m We will o nly c o nc lud e .

th at fro m th e phil o s o phic al po m t o f vi e w th e t wo m e th o ds

,

o bj e cti ve and subj e ctiv e in C o mt e s th o ught are e asily r e c o n

’

, ,

c il e d pro vid e d th at b o th h ave b e e n syst e m atic ally r e ge ne r

,

at e d.
”
No w th e r e ge ne rati o n is o bt ai ne d as s o o n as s o ci o l o gy
,

is fo u nd e d O n th e o ne h an d as a m atte r o f fact it furn ish e s

.
, ,

t h e sci e nc e s fo rm e d by t h e o bj e c tiv e m e th o d with a pri ncipl e

o f u n ity si nc e h e n c e fo rt h th e y are all sub o rdi nate d to th e

,

si ngl e sci e nc e o f H um anit y A nd o n th e o the r h and th e

.
, ,

subj e ctive m e th o d acq uire s th e p o sitivity which it l ack e d ,

fo r s o c i o l o gy h as substitut e d to t h e a rbitra ry “
i ndividu al
subj e c t th e u nive rs al subj e ct th at is to say agai n
,
” “
,
”
,

H um an ity .

1
P o l po s
. .
, II . 1 0 1 -2
 BO O K II

T H E P H I L O S O P H Y O F T H E S C I E NC E S
 I N T R O D U CT I O N

TH E Phil o so phy o fth e S c i e nc e s is o ne o fth e l e adi ng p art s o f

C o mte s wo rk N 0 o th e r bri ngs o ut m o re c l e ar l y th e e ss e nti al
’
.

di ffe re nc e s whi c h di sti ngui sh his d o c tri ne fro m pre vi o us

syst e m s .

I n C o mt e s e y e s th e phil o s o phy o fth e sci e n c e s is i nse p ar abl e

’

fro m th e phil o s o phy o fhist o ry and fro m th e th e o ry o f pro gr e ss .

F o r t h e s ci e n c e s are gre at s o ci o l o gi c al facts and as such are

, ,

subj e ct in th e ir e vo luti o n to i n v ari ab l e l aws T h e m e th o d

, , .

o f th e phil o so phy o f th e s c i e n c e s c o uld th e r e fo re o n ly b e t h e

p o sitive m e th o d e ve r lik e to its e l f

, .

M o re o ve r —and this is an imm e di ate c o n s e qu e nc e o fthis first

,

c o n sid e r ati o n —t h e o bj e ct o f th e p o sitiv e phil o s o phy o f t h e

,

sci e nc e s is in no way to e xpl ai n wh at th e sci e n c e s th e m

“ ”

se lv e s do n o t e xpl ai n T h e s c i e n c e s as is w e l l k no w n do no t
.
, ,

inquire i n t o th e ir d at a and th e ir pri n cipl e s Th e y c o n sid e r

.

th e m as su ffi c i e ntly e st ablish e d by th e implicit c o n s e n t o f all

m e 1 o r at l e ast by t h e u n iv e rs al us ag e o f l e a r ne d m e n T he
.
,

ge o m e te r l e av e s to o th e rs th e c are o f sp e cul ati ng up o n th e

e ss e n c e o f sp ac e o r up o n t h e a pri o ri ch ar a ct e r o f his de fin i
,

t i o ns . T h e physicist if h e fo rm an id e a o f m att e r fo r hims e lf

, ,

u nh e sit ati ngly ad o pts th e o ne which app e ars to b e th e m o st

i mm e di ate l y adv an t ag e o us th at is to say th e o ne which is
, ,

be st in acc o rd anc e with wh at h e k no ws o f its pro p e rti e s and

o f it s l aws H e attribut e s n o m o r e v alu e th an th at o f a simpl e
.

h y p o th e sis to this id e a .

Up to th e pre s e nt th e busi ne ss o f s o l v i ng th e qu e sti o n s

which th e sci e n tifi c m an d o e s no t e x ami ne h as b e l o n ge d to
1 2 2 Tne P nitosop/zy of A ug uste C om te

th e phil o s o ph e r—un d e rst an d by this t e rm th e me t aphys ici an .

I t is fo r him to s e e k wh at m atte r tim e m o ve m e n t sp ac e e tc

, , , , .
,

“
in th e ms e lv e s Wh e th e r h e d e s c e nds fro m m e t a
”
m ay b e .

physics t o th e p o sitive s c i e nc e s o r asc e nds fro m t h e l atte r to

,

m e t aphysi c s h e alw ays e nd e avo urs to sh o w th at such and

,

such a transc e nd e nt al hyp o th e sis is m o re in acc o rd an c e th an

any o th e r with wh at we k n o w t o day o f t h e l aws o f natu re -
.

I n a w o rd ; t h e phil o s o phy o f th e s c i e n c e s h as b e e n in ,

ge ne ral an e ffo rt to i nte rpre t sc ie ntific k no wl e dg e m e ta

,

physic ally This e xpl anati o n r e m ai n s in re sp e ct to such a

.

k no wl e dge an e xtri nsic d e no mi nati o n

“
I t e xpl ai ns but .

d o e s no t t o uch it .

No w a cc o rdi n g to C o mt e th e r e are no t t wo fo rms o f

, ,

k no wl e dge th e o ne p o sitive and pro p e rly sp e aki ng sci e nti fi c

,

th e o th e r m e t aphysic al an d pr o p e r l y c all e d phil o s o phi c a l .

T he w/z ote o fo u r r e al k n o wl e dg e in t h e e nd b e ars up o n spe ci al

o r ge n e r al facts Th e re c an th e re fo re b e n o qu e sti o n o f
.

a phil o s o phy which sh o uld b e e ss e n ti ally disti n ct fr o m p o sitive

k no wl e dge A ny atte mpt to e xpl ai n by e ss e nc e s c aus e s

.
, ,

pri ncipl e s o r e nds is e xclud e d by th e p o sitiv e m e th o d

,
.

M e t aphysic al pro bl e ms c an no l o n ge r b e se t and in this s e ns e , ,

wh e n th e y dis app e ar th e phil o s o phy o fthe sci e n c e s dis app e ars

,

with th e m .

But o n th e o th e r h and as we h av e already s e e n th e

, , ,

p o sitive sci e nc e s are n o t s e lf sufli c ie nt Th e y ne e d to be

-
.

cro w ne d and o rd e re d by a phi l o s o phy I f th e n a phil o s o phy .

is i ndisp e ns abl e and if at th e s am e tim e this phil o s o phy

, , ,

must be p o sitive re l ative lik e th e s c i e nc e s th e ms e lve s and

, ,

no m og eneous with th e m o n ly o n e s o luti o n r e m ai n s p o ssibl e

,
.

T h e phil o s o phy o f t h e sci e n c e s will c o n si st in substituti ng t h e

p o i n t o f vi e w o f th e wh o l e to th at o f th e p arts I t will still .

b e a pr o duct o f th e p o sitiv e spirit ; but in it this spirit fro m

spe c i al will h ave b e c o m e ge ne r al fro m p articul ar it will h ave
b e c o m e un iv e rs al .
 I n trodu cti on 12 3

This u n ive rs al ch aract e r r e m ai n s c o mm o n to C o mt e s ’

phil o s o phy and to th at o f his pre d e c e ss o rs But C o mt e d id .

no t un d e rst an d it as th e y d id F o r m e t aphysici an s in ge ne r al
.
,

and still f o r K an t u nive rs ality is th e disti n ctive sig n o f

,

k no wl e dge which d o e s no t c o m e fro m e xp e ri e nc e which is ,

th e re fo re ne c e ss ary and a priori C o mte wh o d o e s n o t k no w

.
,

o f any a p riori in t h e K an ti an s e n se c alls th at k no wl e dge

,

u n ive rs al which r e m ai ns r e l ativ e a n d which is fo u n d e d up o n

,

ind uc ti o n but which r e gul at e s th e o th e r fo rms o f k no wl e dg e

,

in t h e o rd e r o f ge n e rality Thus th e pri n cipl e o f l aws is

.

un iv e rs a l T h e e ncycl o p ae dic l aws o f ph e no m e n a are u n ive rs al

. .

T h e p o i n t o f V i e w o f hum an ity is u n iv e rs al b e c aus e fr o m ,

this p o i n t o f vi e w a sy n th e sis o f th e wh o l e o f o ur k no wl e dge

is p o ssibl e A nd as u n iv e rs ality is a re l ative thi ng we
.
, ,

c o n c e ive u n ive rs aliti e s o f di ffe re n t o rd e rs .

H e n c e fo rth th e phil o s o phy o f th e sc i e nc e s is e asily d e fi n e d .

A re we c o n c e r ned with a c e rt ai n sci e nc e c o n sid e re d by its e lf ?

T h e phil o s o phy o f this sci e n c e c o n sists in e mbr aci ng at a
gl anc e th e wh o l e t h e o bj e ct and th e m e th o d as o pp o s e d t o
, ,

t h e sp e ci al p o i n t o f vi e w o f t h e sci e n tifi c m an wh o fo ll o w s

th e disc o v e ry o f m o r e o r l e ss sp e ci al l aws in a br an ch o f this

sc i e n c e but such a phil o s o phy n e c e ss a rily r e m ai n s imp e rfe c t

,

an d fr agm e n t a ry T h e phil o s o phy o f a sci e n c e is o n ly re ally

.

e st ablish e d in th e g e n e r a l phil o s o phy o f th e sci e n c e s th a t is ,

t o say by a vi e w a t o n c e sy n th e tic an d si ngl e o f all t h e

s c i e n c e s in which are c o o rdi nate d th e o bj e cts which th e y

,
-

study th e l aws which th e y disc o ve r th e m e th o ds which th e y

, ,

m ak e use o f and th e e nds which th e y sh o uld p u rsu e

,
.

I t h as b e e n s aid th at this is n o t a phil o s o phy o f th e sci e nc e s

but simply a sy n th e sis o f th e m o st ge ne ra l r e sults o f th e
“

p o sitive sci e nc e s C o mt e p a rt ly acc e pts and p artly re j e cts

.

t h e o bj e cti o n I f h e is r e pro ach e d with no t h avi n g c o nstructe d

.

a phil o s o phy o f t h e sci e n c e s a cc o rdi ng t o th e o ld spirit th a t ,

i s to say a n e ffo rt at e xpl an ati o n which g o e s be y o n d th e ,

”
1 2 4 T /z e P nitosop/cy o f A ug uste C om te

p o i n t o f vi e w o f p o sitive sci e n c e h e grants th e o bj e cti o n

,
.

H e c o n sid e rs all phil o s o phy o f this ki nd as o ut o f th e qu e sti o n .

I s it s aid th at th e re is n o di ffe re nc e b e tw e e n his p o i nt o fvi e w

an d th at o f th e sci e n tific m an pr o p e rly so c a ll e d u n l e ss it be
,

th at h e succ e ssive ly g o e s thro ugh all th e fu nd am e nt al sci e nc e s ?

C o mt e c alls o ur a tt e n ti o n to th e fact th at it is n o t e no ugh to
pl ac e th e s e sci e n c e s sid e by sid e to o bt ai n th e ir phil o s o phy .

A ne w p o i n t o f vi e w truly u n ive rs al alth o ugh alw ays re l ative

, , ,

i s ne e d e d H o w r o uid C o m t e h ave disti nguish e d o t he rwise

.
,

in e a ch sci e n c e wh at is l asti n g and in c o n fo rmity with t h e

,

p o sitive spirit fro m wh at is d e c ay i ng and still b e ars th e m ark

o f th e th e o l o gic al and m e t aphysic a l spirit ? C o uld h e
e sp e ci a lly h av e fix e d t h e r e l ati o n s which t h e sci e n c e s sh o uld

m ai n tai n am o ng th e ms e lve s and c o uld h e h av e imp o s e d u po n

,

th e m a discipli ne wh o se pri n cipl e was n o t to b e fo u nd in any

o n e o f th e m ?

Thus u n til Auguste C o mt e s tim e th e phil o s o phy o f th e

,
’

sci e n c e s h ad b e e n a m e t aphysic al c o nc e pti o n j o i ne d m o re o r

,

l e ss c l o s e ly to th e wh o l e o f p o sitive k no wl e dge C o mt e .

e n d e av o ure d t o fo rm a c o n c e pti o n o f this wh o l e which sh o uld

,

b e phil o s o phic al whil e r e m ai n i n g p o sitiv e I t is this c o n

.

c e pt io n which is e sp e ci ally se t fo rth in th e thr e e first v o lum e s

o f th e C o u rs de p / z itosop /
t ie
posi tive
. Fro m th e st ati c p o i nt o f
vi e w it is fo u n d e d up o n th e hi e rarchy o f th e sci e n c e s th e un ity ,
,

o f th e m e th o d ,
an d t h e h o m o g e n e ity o f k no wl e dg e Fro m .

t h e dy n amic p o i n t o f V i e w it e n d e av o urs to sh o w t h e
,

pro gre ssiv e c o n ve rge n c e o f all th e sci e nc e s t o w ards s o c i o l o gy ,

th e fi n al a n d u n iv e rs a l sci e n c e With this guidi ng thre ad

“ ”
.
,

C o mt e will b e abl e to e st ablish in tur n th e phil o s o phy o fe ach

fu n d am e ntal sci e n c e with o ut e ve r l o si ng sight o fth e r e l ati o n
,

w hich it b e ars t o th e wh o l e o fth e o th e rs .

 C H APTE R I
M AT H E M AT I C S

I N th e e ye s o f phil o s o ph e rs m ath e m ati c s h as al w ay s

,

o c cupi e d a privil e ge d pl ac e am o n g th e s c i e nc e s Pl ato

.

l o c at e d th e ir o bj e ct in an i nt e rm e di ate re gi o n be tw e e n th e
w o rld o f s e nsibl e ph e no m e na and th at o f i n t e lligibl e re aliti e s ,

O n th e o ne h an d m ath e m atic al o bj e cts a n d in p a rticul a r th e

,

ge o m e tric al figure s app e al to th e im agi nati o n as s e nsibl e

,

thi ngs o n th e o th e r h an d m ath e m atic al t ruths lik e id e as and

,

th e r e l ati o n s b e tw e e n id e as are ch ar act e ris e d by i mm ut abl e

,

and e t e r na l fix ity . This is why th e study o f m athe m atics is

an e xc e ll e n t pre p ar ati o n f o r phil o s o phy which is th e sci e n c e o f
,

id e as Whil e still l e avi n g to th e mi nd th e h e lp o f dire ct

.

s e n sibl e p e rc e pti o n it a ccusto ms it to p e rm ane n t truth

,

Duri n g th e wh o l e o f an tiquity th e sci e n c e o f m ath e m atics as ,

t h e n am e i n dic at e s was p re e mi n e n tl y tne sci e nc e

,
-
T he .

sci e nc e o fphysics l e ss sure o fits o bj e ct and o f its m e th o d was

, ,

h ardly disti nguish e d fr o m phil o s o phic al sp e cul ati o n and l e nt,

it se lf with di fficulty to th e pure ly sci e n tific fo rm .

F o r Pl at o th e n , an d fo r th o s e wh o fo ll o w e d hi m
m athe m atics h as ch ar act e ristics which disti nguish it
fro m th e stud y o f ph e no m e na I n a c e rt ai n m e asure it
.
,

p artak e s o f th e n ature o f sci e n c e c o n c e iv e d as b e ari ng up o n

,

w/z a t is U p o n t h e abs o lute r e ality which is n e ith e r subj e ct to

,

ch ange n o r to m o ti o n . I t is tru e th at th ey start fr o m

d efi n iti o n s an d hyp o th e s e s But o n c e th e pri n cipl e s are
.
,
1 2 6 l e P nitosopn
y o f A ug u ste C om te

e st ablish e d th e y are d e ve l o p e d a p riori by a succ e ssi o n o f

,

n e c e ss ary d e m o n str a ti o n s lik e t h e di al e c tics o f id e as .

This c o n c e pti o n o ffe rs a mixt ure o f m e t aphysic al and

p o sitive e l e m e nts I t impli e s th at th e o bj e ct o f sci e n c e is
.

r e ality such as it is in its e lf ; but at th e sa m e tim e it s e e s in

,
-
,

th e d e m o n str ati o n th e e ss e n t i al ch ar ac t e r o f sci e n c e A l o ng .

e v o luti o n which culmi n at e s in C o mt e s d o ctri ne h as drive n

’

, ,

t h e m e t aphysic al e l e m e n ts o ut o f sci e n c e whil e t h e o th e r

e l e m e n ts subsist in it still F ar fro m s ay i n g with Pl at o o r

.

with his succ e ss o rs th at th e re is no sci e nc e o ft h e ph e no m e no n

o r o f th at which p ass e s aw ay C o mt e thi n ks o n t h e c o n tr a ry
, ,

th at th e o nly o bj e ct o f s c i e n c e is ph e no m e nal re ality so far as

it is subj e ct to l aws Sci e nc e h as no t to s e a rch fo r c ause s
.

o r subst an c e s ; it su ffi c e s fo r it to d e te rmi ne i nv ari abl e

re l ati o n s.

I f th e m ath e m atic al sci e nc e s h ave l o ng b e e n th e only

sci e nc e s pro p e rl y so c all e d and if to day th e y a re still m o re
,
-

a dv an c e d th an any o th e rs it is b e c aus e th e g e o m e tric al and

,

m e ch anic al ph e no m e na are i nd e e d th e simpl e st o f all and ,

th o s e which are m o st naturally c o nne cte d am o ng th e ms e l ve s .

T h e p e ri o d duri ng whi c h th e y c o uld b e st udi e d by o bs e rv a

ti o n c o uld th e re fo re b e v e ry sh o rt so sh o rt th at it is e ve n ,

n o t absurd t o m a i n t ai n th at it n e v e r e xist e d and th at in this , ,

c as e rati o nal k no wl e dge was no t pre c e d e d by th e e mpiric al

,

e st ablishm e n t of facts But th e di ffe re nc e b e tw e e n

.

m ath e m atics an d t h e o th e r sci e nc e s n o ne t h e l e ss r e m ai n s o ne

o f d e gr e e a nd n o t o f ki n d T h e S c i e n c e o f M a th e m atics is in
.

a dv an c e o ft h e o t h e r sci e n c e s b ut all w o rk o n c o mm o n gr o u nd .

I n a w o rd lik e all o th e r sci e n c e s it is a natur a l sci e n c e

, .

This e nd e avo ur to pre se nt th e wh o l e o f th e sci e n c e s as

h o m o ge ne o us th at is to say to avo id two disti nct c l ass e s
, ,

be i ng fo rm e d o f m ath e m atics o n th e o ne h and and o f th e ,

sci e nce s o f nature o n th e o th e r h ad alre ady b e e n atte mpte d

,

b e fo re C o mt e This e nd e avo ur im po se d itse lf so to sp e ak

.
, ,
 M z e m a tics
a t/ 12 7

up o n m o d e rn phil o s o ph e rs fro m th e t im e wh e n D e sc arte s

,

s o ught f o r a u niv e rs al m e th o d fo r sci e n c e c o nc e iv e d as a wh o l e .

C o mt e wh o saw ve ry w e l l th e d e fe ct in th e C art e si an c o n
,

c e p t io n in which t h e a sc e n d e n cy o f m ath e m atics was still t o o

,

m uch fe lt did n o t h o w e ve r d e ny th a t h is o wn c o n c e pti o n

, , ,

pro c e e d e d fro m th at o f D e sc art e s I n ano th e r fo rm th e id e a .

,

o f t h e h o m o g e ne ity o f t h e sci e n c e s is a ls o fo u n d in L e ib n it z

a n d e v e n in K an t D o e s n o t th e C ritiq ue de la ra ison pu re
.

sh o w t h at m ath e m atics o n th e o ne h an d and physi c s o n th e ,

o th e r e q u ally r e st up o n pri n ci l e s which are sy n th e tic a p riori ?

,
p
I n t h e P ro/eg o m en es a to u te m e tap /iysig ue fu tu re j ust as th e
’

c h apt e r c o rre sp o n di ng to l est/i e tique tra nsce nden tale is e ntitl e d

’ '

H o w a re pur e m ath e m atics p o ssibl e a p riori ? so th e ch apt e r

c o rr e sp o n di ng to th e L og ique tra nscenden tale b e ars as its titl e
H o w are pure physics p ossible a p rio ri ? O n an o th e r pl an
C o mte s th e o ry is p ar all e l t o K an t s
’
H e re as th e re ’
.

m at he m atics as w e ll a s physics r e sts up o n sy n th e tic pri n cipl e s

sup e ri o r to e xp e ri e nc e s ays K ant—pro c e e di ng fro m

,
”

e xp e ri e nc e s ay s C o mt e T h e l att e r it is tr ue did no t k no w
,
.
, ,

K an t s th e o ry and h ad h e k no w n it h e w o uld no t h ave

’

, ,

a cc e pt e d it But th e anal o gy o f t e n d e ncy subsists no ne th e

.

l e ss be ne ath th e div e rsity o f d o ctri ne s .

T h e i mm e di at e an t e c e d e nt o f C o mt e s th e o ry is fo u nd in
’

T h e au th o r o f t h e Disco u rs p reli m i na ire h ad

’

d A le m b e rt
’
.

s aid We will divid e th e sci e nc e o fnature i nt o physics and

,
“

m a th e m atics .

Ev e ry sci e n c e h as its o rigi n in th e art c o rr e sp o ndi ng to it .

M ath e m atics aro s e o ut o f th e art o fm e asuri ng m ag n itud e s .

I n d e e d this art w o uld b e v e ry rudim e n t a ry i f we o n ly

practis e d dire ct m e asure m e n t Am o ng th e m ag nitud e s which
.
.

i n te re st us th e r e are ve ry fe w which we c an m e as ure thus .

1 2 8 Tb e P /z itosop/iy of A ug uste C om te

C o nse qu e ntly th e hum an mi nd h ad to s e e k s o m e i ndire ct way

o f d e t e rmi n i ng m ag n itud e s .

I n o rd e r to k no w th e m ag n itud e s which do n o t all o w o f

dire ct m e asure m e n t we must e vid e ntly c o nne ct th e m with
,

o th e rs which are c ap abl e o f b e i n g imm e di at e ly d e t e rmi ne d ,

an d a c c o rdi ng to which we su c c e e d in dis c o ve ri n g th e fo rm e r ,

by m e an s o fth e re l ati o n s which e xist b e tw ee n th e m and th e

l atte r . S uch is th e pre cis e o bj e ct o f m ath e m atic al sc i e nc e
“

in its e n tir e ty We se e imm e di ate l y h o w e xtre m e ly v ast it

.
” 1

is I f we must i n s e rt a l arg e n umb e r o f i n te rm e di ari e s

.

b e tw e e n th e qu antiti e s which we d e sire to k no w and th o s e ,

which we c an m e asure imm e di at e ly th e o p e rati o ns m ay ,

b e c o m e v e ry c o mplic at e d .

Fu nd am e n t all y acc o rdi ng to C o mt e th e re is no q ue sti o n

, , ,

wh at e v e r it m ay b e which c anno t b e fi nally c o n c e ive d as

,

c o n sisti ng in d e te rmi n i n g o ne qu an tity by ano th e r and

'

c o ns e qu e ntly which d o e s n o t d e pe n d ultim ate l y up o n m athe

m at ic s I t will b e s aid th at we must t ak e i nt o acc o u nt no t
.

o n ly th e qu an tity but als o th e qu ality o f th e ph e no m e na

, .

This o bj e cti o n d e cisi v e in th e e ye s o f Arist o tl e wh o

, ,

c o uld no t c o n c e iv e th at we c o uld l e gitim at e ly “w fidk a

k w g D O w yé o g n o l o nge r h o lds go o d fo r m o d e r n thi n k e rs

’ ’

e ec c v , .

Si n c e D e sc arte s tim e th e y h ave s e e n an alysis appli e d to

’

ge o m e tric al m e ch an ic al and physic al ph e no m e na Th e re is

,
.

n o absurdity in c o nc e ivi ng th at wh at h as b e e n d o n e f o r th e s e

ph e no m e na is p o ssibl e fo r th e o th e rs We must b e abl e to .

r e pre s e n t e ve ry r e l ati o n b e twe e n any ph e no m e na wh ate ve r by

a n e qu a ti o n a ll o wi n g f fi di g this qu ti
‘
o r t h e difl ic ult o f n n e on
, y a

a nd o f s o lvi n g it As a m att e r o f fact we are quickly

2
.
,

st o pp e d b y th e c o mpl e xity o f th e d ata I n th e pre s e nt st ate .

o f t h e hum an mi n d th e r e a re o n l y t wo gr e at c at e g o ri e s o f

ph e no m e n a o f which we r e gul arly k n o w th e e qu ati o n s the s e

a re g e o m e try and m e ch an ics .

C I1
o u rs, C ,I 1 01 4 .
2
o urs, ,
12 1- .
 M atfiem atics 12 9

Th is b e i ng e st ablish e d th e wh o l e o f m ath e m ati c al sci e nc e

,

is divid e d i nt o two p arts : abstrac t and c o nc re t e m ath e m ati c s .

T h e o ne studi e s th e l aws o f ge o m e tr ic al an d m e ch an i c al
ph e no m e na T h e o the r is c o nstitute d by th e calculus whi c h
.
, ,

if we t ak e this wo rd in its l arge st s e nse appl i e s to th e m o st,

sublim e c o mbi nati o n s o f transc e n d e nt analysis as w e ll as to ,

th e simp l e st n um e ri c al O p e r ati o ns I t is p ure l y inst r um e nt al

“ ”
. .

Fu n d am e ntally it is no thi n g e ls e th an an imm e nse adm irab l e

,

e xt e nsi o n o fn atur al l o gic t o a c e rt ai n o rd e r o f d e d ucti o n s

”
.

This p art o f m ath e m ati c al s c i e n c e is i n d e p e n d e nt o f th e

n atur e Of t h e o bj e cts which it e x ami ne s an d o n ly b e ar s up o n
,

th e n um e ri c al r e l ati o n s which th e y pr e s e n t C o ns e qu e ntly it

.
,

m ay h app e n th at th e s am e r e l ati o ns m ay e x ist a m o n g a gr e at

n umb e r o f di f fe r e n t ph e n o m e na N o tw ithst andi ng th e i r

.

e xtr e m e div e rsity th e s e ph e no m e na wil l b e c o nsid e re d by th e

m ath e m ati c i an as pre s e n ti ng a si ngl e anal yti c al qu e sti o n ,

which c an b e s o l ve d o nc e fo r all
.
“
Th us fo r i nst an c e th e
.
, ,

sam e law which r e ig n s b e tw e e n sp ac e and tim e wh e n we

e x ami ne th e v e rti c a l fa l l o f a b o dy in vacuo is fo u nd ag ai n , .

fo r o th e r ph e no m e n a which pre se n t no anal o gy with t h e

fo rm e r n o r am o ng th e ms e l ve s ; fo r it als o e xpre sse s th e
r e l ati o n b e twe e n th e ar e a o f a sph e re and th e l e n gth o fits
di am e t e rs it e qu ally d e t e rmi ne s th e d e c re as e in i nt e nsity o f
light o r o fh e at by re as o n o fth e distanc e o f th e Obj e cts lighte d
a n d h e a t e d e tc
,
.
1 ”
We h av e no ge ne ral m e th o d whic h s e rve s
i ndi ffe re n tly fo r e st ablishi ng th e e qu ati o n s o f any n atural
ph e n o m e na wh at e v e r : we ne e d sp e ci al m e th o ds fo r th e
s e ve r al cl ass e s o fg e o m e tri c al o ptic al m e ch an ic al phe no m e na
, , ,

e tc. But wh ate ve r m ay b e th e s e ph e no m e na o nc e th e e qu a

, ,

ti o n is e st ablish e d th e m e th o d fo r s o lvi ng it is uni fo rm I n

, .

this s e ns e abstr act m ath e m atics I S re ally an o rg anon

,
.
”

G e o m e try and m e ch anics o n th e c o ntr ary sh o uld be

, ,

r e g ard e d as r e al natural s c i e nc e s r e sti ng as th e o th e rs do

,

1
Co urs,I , 1 12
1 30 l e P nilosopn
y o f A ug uste C om te

u p o n Obs e rvati o n But adds C o mte th e s e two sci e nc e s

.
, ,

pre s e nt this p e culi arity th at in th e pre s e nt st at e o fth e hum an

,

m i nd th e y are alre ady us e d and will c o n ti n u e to b e us e d

, ,

a s m e th o ds f a r m o r e th an as dir e ct d o ctri ne I n this way .

m ath e m atics is in fa ct i n strum e nt al no t o nly in abstract

“
,

p arts but als o in its r e l ative ly c o ncre t e p arts

,
I t is .

e n tire ly us e d as a t o o l by th e m o re c o mplic ate d sci e n c e s

“
,

such as astro n o my and physic s I t is truly th e r e al

.

l o gic o f o ur ag e .

I n th e phil o s o phic al study o f abstr act m ath e m atics C o mt e ,

pro c e e ds succ e ssive ly fro m arithm e tic al to alg e br aic al c alcul a

t i o n an d fr o m t h e l att e r t o th e tr an sc e n d e n t an a lysis o r
,

diffe re nti al and i nt e gral c alculus Aft e r h avi ng st ate d th e

.

m an ne r in which this c alculus i s pre s e n te d a cc o rdi n g to

L e ib n it z and to N e wt o n h e ad o pts th at o f L agrange which
, ,

a pp e ars t o him t h e m o st s atisfact o ry I t is t ru e th at .

a t t h e e n d o f his life his admir ati o n f o r t h e a uth o r o f t h e

M e ca n ig u e a n a lytiq u e h ad gr e a tl y dimi n ish e d With o ut h e re

’

e n t e ri n g i n t o th e d e t ail o f qu e sti o n s we will limit o urs e lve s

,

t o t h e i ndic ati o n o f a c o n sid e r a ti o n up o n t h e b e ari n gs o f

a bs t r a ct m a th e m a tics which a pp e a rs t o b e Of c api t a l imp o rt

,

a n c e t o C o mt e. Wh e th e r it b e a qu e sti o n o fo rdi n a ry an al y sis ,

o r e sp e ci ally o f tr an sc e n d e n t al anal y sis C o m te bri n gs o u t at ,

o n c e t h e e xtr e m e imp e rfe cti o n o f o u r k n o wl e dg e an d th e e x ,

t rao rdinary fe cu n dity o f th e ir applic ati o n s H e c an o n ly s o lv e .

a v e ry sm all p art o f th e qu e sti o n s which c o m e b e fo r e us in

t h e s e sci e n c e s H o w e ve r in th e s am e way as in o rdi nary

“
.
,

a n alysis we h a v e succ e e d e d in utilisi n g t o an imm e n s e d e gr e e

a v e r y sm a ll a m o u n t o f fu n d a m e n t al k n o wl e dg e up o n t h e

s o l uti o n o f e qu at i o n s so h o w e ve r littl e a dv a n c e d g e o m e te rs
.

, ,

m ay b e up to t h e pr e s e n t tim e i n th e sci e n c e o f i n t e gr ati o n s ,

t h e y h av e n o ne th e l e ss dr aw n fr o m t h e s e v e ry fe w abstr a ct
,

n o ti o n s t h e s o l ut i o n Of a multitud e o f qu e sti o n s Of t h e first

i mp o rt an c e in g e o m e t ry in m e ch an ics in th e rm o l o gy e tc
, , , ,
.
,
 M ath em atics 1 31

e tc .
” 1
r e aso n Of this is th at th e l e ast abs tract k no w
T he
l e dge naturally corre sp o n ds to a qu an tity o fc o ncre t e r e s e arc h e s .

T h e m o st p o w e rful e xt e nsi o n o f i nt e ll e ct ual m e an s which m an

h as at his disp o s al fo r t h e k no wl e dge O f n atur e c o n sists in his
r isi ng t o th e c o n c e pti o n o fm o r e an d m o r e abstr ac t id e as which ,

a re n e v e rth e l e ss p o sit ive Wh e n o ur k no wl e dge is ab strac t with

.

o u t b e i n g p o sitiv e it is fictiti o us o r m e t aphysic al Wh e n

“ “ ”
, .

i t is p o sitive with o ut b e i ng abstr act it l acks g e ne r ality and , ,

!
d o e s n o t b e c o m e r ati o nal B ut wh e n with o ut c e asi ng t o b e
.
,

p o sitiv e it c an r e ach t o a high d e gre e o f abstr acti o n at t h e

, ,

s am e tim e it att a i n s th e g e ne r ali ty an d a l o n g t h e li n e s o f its , ,

furth e st e x te n si o n t h e u ni ty which are th e e nd o f sci e n c e

, .

H e n c e th e i mp o rt an c e o f D e s c art e s fine m ath e m atic al

’

d isc o v e ry and als o Of t h e i nv e nti o n Of diffe r e n t i a l and i n t e gral

,

c alculus which m ay b e c o n sid e re d as t h e c o mpl e m e nt to

,

D e sc art e s fu nd am e n t al id e a c o n c e r ni n g th e g e ne ral analy t ic al

’

r e pr e s e n t ati o n o f n atur a l ph e no m e n a I t is o nly s ays C o mt e .

, ,

s i n c e t h e i n v e nt i o n o f th e c alculus th at D e sc a rt e s disc o v e ry
’
,

h a s b e e n u n d e rst o o d an d appli e d to th e wh o l e o f its e xt e nt .

No t o n ly d o e s this c alculus pr o cure an admirabl e facility

“

fo r t h e s e a rch aft e r th e n at ur al l aws o f a ll th e ph e n o m e na ;

b ut t h an ks t o th e ir e xtr e m e g e ne r ality t h e diffe re nti al fo r
, ,

m u la e c an e xpr e ss e ach d e t e rmi ne d ph e n o m e n o n in a si n gl e

e qu at i o n h o w e v e r v ari e d t h e subj e cts m ay b e in which it is

,

c o n sid e re d Thus a si n gl e diffe re n ti al e qu ati o n give s th e

.
,

t ang e nts o f all curve s ano th e r e xpre ss e s th e m ath e m ati c al

”

law o f e v e ry v a ri e ty in m o ti o n e t c ,
.

I n fin ite sim al an alysis e sp e ci ally in th e c o n c e pti o n O f L e ib

,

n it h as t h e r e fo r e no t o n ly fur n ish e d a g e ne r al pro c e s s fo r th e

z ,

i n d ire ct fo rm ati o n o f e qu ati o n s which it w o uld h av e b e e n '

i m p o ssibl e t o disc o ve r dire c tly b ut in th e e y e s o fth e phil o s o ph e r

,

it h as ano th e r a nd a n o l e ss pre ci o u s adv an tag e I t h as .

a ll o w e d u s t o c o n sid e r in t h e m ath e m ati c al study o f n at u r al

,

C I 56 1
o urs, , 2 .
1 3 2 Tli e P nilosop/zy of A ug ustus C om te

ph e no m e na a ne w o rd e r Of m o re ge ne ral l aw s Th e s e l aws
,
.

are c o n st an tly th e s am e f o r e ach ph e no m e no n in wh at e v e r ,

o bj e cts we study it and o n ly c h an g e wh e n p assi ng fr o m o ne

,

ph e no m e no n to ano th e r wh e re we h ave b e e n abl e m o re o v e r ,

in c o mp ari ng th e s e v ari ati o n s t o ris e s o m e tim e s by a still

, ,

m o re ge ne ral vi e w to a p osi tive c o mp aris o n b e twe e n s e ve ral

,

c l ass e s Of v ari o us ph e no m e na acc o rdi ng to th e anal o gi e s

,
.

pre s e nt e d by th e diffe re nti al e xpre ssi o n s o fth e ir m ath e m atic al

l aws 1 C o mt e c anno t c o n t e mpl at e this i mm e n s e r an ge o f
.
”

tran sc e nd e nt analysis with o ut e nthusi asm H e c alls it th e “

.

high e st th o ught to which t h e hum an mi nd h as att ai ne d up to !

th e pre s e n t tim e T h e high e st b e c aus e b e i n g th e m o st

”
.
, .

pro fo u ndly abs t ract am o n g all th e p o sitive no ti o n s this ,

th o ught re duc e s th e m o st c o mpre h e nsive range o f c o n cr e t e

ph e no m e na to rati o nal u n ity .

As th e c o nsid e rati o n o f analyt ic al g e o m e try sugge ste d to !

D e sc arte s th e id e a o f u n ive rs al m ath e m atics which li e s at

“
,

t h e b asis o f his m e th o d so we c an thi n k t h a t phil o s o phic al

,

re fl e cti o n up o n tr an sc e nd e n t al anal y sis le d C o mte to th e id e a

o f th o s e e n cycl o p ae di c l aws which h o ld such an imp o r tan t
“ ”
,

pl ac e in his ge ne ral th e o ry o f nature F o r th e s e e nc yc lo .

m d ic l aws an al o g o us as th e y are to t h e di f f e re nti al fo rm ulze

p ,

sp o k e n o f by C o mt e are e qu ally v e rifi abl e in o rd e rs o f

,

o th e rwis e i rr e ducibl e ph e n o m e n a an d all o w u s t o c o n c e iv e

,
.

th e m as c o nve rge nt .

G e o m e try is th e first p o rti o n o f c o n cre te m ath e m atic s .

U n d o ub te dly t h e facts with which it d e als are m o re c o n ne c te d

a m o n g th e ms e lv e s th an t h e facts studi e d by t h e o th e r sci e n c e s ,

an d t his a ll o ws us e asily t o d e duc e s o m e o f t h e s e f acts o n c e

th e o th e r s are gi v e n But th e re is a c e rt ai n n umb e r o f prim ary

.

1
C o urs , I , 1 9 5 -7 .
 M z e nz atics
at/ 1
33

p h e n o m e n a which n o t b e i ng e st ablish e d by any r e as on i n g

, ,

c an o n ly b e fo u n d e d up o n o bs e rv a ti o n and which s t and a s ,

t h e b asis O f all g e o m e tri c al d e ducti o n s Alth o ugh v e ry 1

.

s m all thi s p ar t o f o bs e rv a ti o n is i n disp e nsabl e b e c au se it is

,

t h e i n iti al o ne and ne v e r c an quit e v an ish

,
.

I n this way m e t aphy s i c al discussi o n s up o n th e o rigi n o f

,

g e o m e tr ic al d e fi n iti o n s an d s p a c e a re se t asid e C o mt e h e r e .

ad o pts d A le m be rt s o pi n i o n T h e l att e r h ad s aid : “

T he
’ ’
.

t ru e pri nc ipl e s o fth e sci e n c e s are simpl e r e c o g nis e d fac ts which ,

d o no t s upp o s e any o th e rs an d wh ich c o n s e qu e ntly c an ,

ne ith e r b e e xpl ai ne d n o r qu e sti o n e d : in g e o m e t ry th e y are

t h e pr o p e rti e s o f e xt e n si o n as appr e h e n d e d by se n s e Up o n .

t h e natur e o fe xt e nsi o n th e r e are no ti o ns c o mm o n to all m e n ,

a c o mm o n p o i n t a t which all s e cts are u n it e d as it w e r e in

spite o f th e ms e lve s c o mm o n and simpl e pri ncipl e s fro m

,

whi c h u n aw a re s t h e y all st art T h e phil o s o ph e r will s e i z e

.

u p o n th e se c o mm o n primit iv e n o ti o n s t o m ak e th e m th e b asis

O f th e g e o m e tr ic al tr uths
2 ”
.

Exte nsio n is a pro p e rty o fb o di e s B ut i nste ad o fc o nsid e r .

,

i ng this e xte nsi o n in th e b o di e s th e ms e l v e s we c o nsid e r it in an ,

i nd e fi n it e mili e u which app e ars to us to c o n t ai n all th e b o di e s ,

o f th e un iv e r se an d which we c all sp ac e
“
L e t us thi nk fo r .
,

i nst anc e o f th e impr e ssi o n l e ft by a b o dy in a fl uid in whi c h

,

it m ight be imm e rs e d F ro m th e ge o m e tri c al p o i nt o f vi e w

.

t hi s impr e ssi o n c an quit e c o n v e n i e n tly b e substitut e d to th e

b o dy its e l f Thus by a ve ry simpl e ab stracti o n we dive st
.
, ,

m att e r o f all its s e n sibl e pr o p e rti e s o nly t o c o n t e mp l ate in a ,

c e rt ai n m ann e r its ph an t o m acc o rdi n g t o d A le m b e rt s e x

’ ’

p r e ssi o.n Fr o m th a t m o m e n t we c an study no t o n ly t h e g e o

m e tric al fo rms re alis e d in n ature but als o all th o s e whi c h c an b e

,

i m agi ne d . G e o m e try assum e s a r at io nal ch ar ac t e r .

S imil arly it is by a simpl e abstr acti o n o f th e m ind th at

,

C I 86 71
o urs, , 2 - .

El m t d ph il ph i I p 3 3
2
e en s e o so c, , . 1 2 -
.
1 34 Tli e P nilosopn
y f
o A u
g u ste C om te

g e o m e try re gard s l ine s as h avi ng no th ick ne ss and sur fac es ,

a s b e i n g with o ut d e pth I t su ffi c e s to c o nc e ive th e dim e nsi o n

.

t o b e dimi n ish e d as b e c o mi ng gr adu a lly sm all e r and s m alle r r

u ntil it re ach e s such a d e gre e o fthi nne ss th at it c an n o l o nge r

fi x t h e att e nti o n I t is th us th at we natura lly acquire th e
.
:

r e al id e a o fsurfac e th e n o f th e li ne and t he n o f t h e p o i n t
”
, ,

Th e re is th e r e fo re n o ne c e ssity to app e a l to t h e a p riori -

.

Thus c o n stitut e d th e o bj e c t o f g e o m e t ry is th e m e asure

,
- 1

m e nt Of e xt e n si o n But si nc e this m e asu re m e nt c an h ardly

.

e ve r b e dir e ctly t a k e n by sup e rp o siti o n t h e aim o f g e o m e try ,

is to re duc e th e c o mp aris o n o fall ki nds o fe xt e nsi o n s vo lum e s , ,

surfac e s o r li ne s to simpl e c o mp aris o n s o f str aight li ne s t h e o nly ,

o n e s r e g a rd e d as c ap abl e O f b e i ng imm e di a t e ly e st ablish e d

” 1
.

T h e o bj e ct o fg e o m e try is o f u nlimit e d e xt e n t fo r t h e n umb e r ,

o f diff e r e nt f o rms subj e ct to e x act d e fi n iti o ns is u nlimit e d .

I n r e g ardi ng curv e d li ne s as g e ne r at e d by th e m o v e m e n t o f
a p o i n t subj e ct to a c e rt ai n law we c an c o n c e i v e as m an , y
c urve s as l aws .

T h e hum an mi nd in o rd e r t o c o v e r this imm e n s e fi e ld

,

t h e e xt e n si o n o f which it was v e ry l at e in appr e h e ndi ng m ay ,

pursu e t wo diffe re nt m e th o ds P e rfe ct g e o m e try w o uld .

,

i nd e e d be th e o ne which w o uld d e m o nstr at e all th e pr o pe rti e s

,

o f all im agi n a bl e fo rms and this c an b e o bt ai ne d in t wo

,

w ay s Eith e r we c an succ e ssive ly c o n c e ive e ach o f th e fo rms

.
,

t h e tri angl e s t h e c ircl e th e sph e r e t h e e llips e e tc an d s e e k

, , , , .
,

fo r th e pr o p e rti e s o fe a ch o ne o f th e m O r e ls e we c an gr o u p .

t o ge th e r th e c o rre sp o ndi ng pro pe rti e s o f v ari o us g e o m e tric al

fo rms in such a way as t o study th e m to g e th e r and so to
, , ,

sp e ak to k no w b e fo re h an d th e ir applic ati o n to such and such

,

a fo rm which we h av e n o t ye t e x a mi ne d I n a w o rd s ays
“
.
,

C o mte th e wh o l e o f ge o m e try c an be o rd e re d e ith e r in r e l a

“
, ,

ti o n to b o di e s which are b e i ng studi e d o r in r e l ati o n to ,

.

ph e no m e na which are t o b e c o n sid e re d T h e first pl an is .

”

1
Co u
rs, i, 2 98 . sq .
 M a t/
z em ati cs 1 35

th at of th e ge o m e try o f th e anc i e nts o r sp ecial ge o m e try ; ,

th e s e c o n d is th at o f th e g e o m e try si n c e D e sc art e s o r g enera l ,

ge o m e t ry .
1

At its o rigi n ge o m e try c o uld o n ly b e sp e ci al T h e anc i e n ts .

,

fo r i n st an c e studi e d t h e circl e t h e e llips e th e p ar ab o l a e tc

, , , ,
.
,

e nd e av o uri n g in t h e c as e o f e ach g e o m e tric al fo rm t o

, ,

add t o t h e n umb e r O f k n o w n pr o p e rti e s But if this li ne o f .

,

a dv an c e h ad b e e n th e o n ly o ne which c o uld b e fo ll o w e d th e ,

pro gre ss o f ge o m e try w o uld ne ve r h ave b e e n a v e ry r apid

o ne . T h e m e th o d i nv e n t e d by D e sc art e s h as tr ansfo rm e d
this sci e n ce by e n abli n g it to b e c o m e g ene ral and t o ab and o n
, ,

t h e i n dividu al study o f g e o m e tric al fo rms fo r t h e c o mm o n

study o f th e ir pro p e rti e s This re vo luti o n h as n o t always

.
“

b e e n w e ll u nd e rst o od O fte n in te achi n g m ath e m ati c s its

.
,

b e ari ngs are no t su ffici e ntly sh o w n Fro m th e m anne r in which .

it is us ually pr e s e nte d t his admirabl e m e th o d w o uld at

“
,
”

first se e m to h ave no o th e r e nd th an th e simplific ati o n o f th e

study Of c o n i c se cti o n s o r o f s o m e o th e r c urve s alw ay s c o n ,

s ide re d o n e by o ne a cc o rdi n g t o t h e spirit o f an ci e n t g e o m e try .

This w o uld n o t b e o f gre at imp o rt anc e T h e disti nc tive .

ch aract e r o f o ur m o d e r n ge o m e t ry c o n sists in stud y i ng in a

ge ne ral way t h e vari o us qu e sti o n s r e l ati n g to any li ne s o r
su rfac e s wh ate v e r by tran sfo rmi ng g e o m e tric al c o nsid e rati o ns
an d r e s e arch e s i n t o an alytic a l c o n sid e rati o n s an d r e s e arch e s
’

.
2

All ge o m e tric al id e as ne c e ss arily re l at e to t h e thre e un i

ve rs al c ate g o ri e s ; m ag n itud e fo rm p o siti o n M agn itud e
, ,
.

a l r e ady b e l o n gs t o th e d o m ai n Of qu an tity F o rm c an b e re .

du c e d t o p o siti o n si n c e e v e ry fo rm c an b e c o nsid e r e d as th e
,

r e sult o f th e advan c e o fa p o i nt t h at is to say O f its s uc ce s si ve

,

p o siti o n s T h e pro bl e m is th e re fo re to br ing all id e as o f

.

sit uati o n wh at e ve r b ack to id e as o f m agn itud e H o w did .

D e s c arte s s o lve it ? By ge ne ralisi ng a pro c e ss whi c h we

I
C O W S , i: 3 1 4 4 6 . C o urs, i, 3 8 3 -4 .
1 36 l e P lz ilosoplzy o f g
A u u ste C om te

m ay say is tu ral to th e hum an mi nd si nc e it c o m e s spo n

na ,

t aneo usly int o be i n g und e r th e str e ss Of ne c e ssity I n d ee d .

,

i fwe must i ndi c at e th e s itu at io n o fan o bj e c t with o ut sh o w ing

it imm e di ate ly do we no t re fe r it to o th e rs whi c h are k no wn
,
,

by st ati n g th e m ag n it ud e o f g e o m e tric al e l e m e nts by wh ich

we c o nc e ive th e O bj e ct to be c o nne c t e d with th e m ? G eo
g raph e rs ac t in t h e s am e way in th e ir sci e nc e t o d e t e rmi ne
t h e l o ngitud e and l at it ud e o f a pl ac e and astr o n o m e rs to ,

d e te rmi ne th e right asc e nsi o n and th e d e cli nati o n o f a st ar .

Th ese ge o graphi c al and ast ro no mi c al c o o rdi nat e s fulfil th e -

sam e o f fic e as th e C art e si an c o o rdi nate s T h e o nly diffe re nc e

-
.
,

b ut it is a c apit al o ne c o nsists in th e fac t th at D e s c art e s

,

c arrie d this m e th o d to th e high e st d e gre e o fabstract ge ne ral ity

th us giving it its m ax imum o ffe rti l ity and p o w e r .

Alth o ugh g e ne ral ge o m e try is i nfi n ite l y sup e ri o r to sp e c ial

ge o m e t ry it c anno t ne ve rth e l e ss alt o ge th e r disp e ns e with th e
, ,

l atte r A s th e anci e n ts did so it will al w ays b e ne c e s sary

.
,

t o be gi n w ith sp e ci al g e o m e try F o r g e ne r al g e o m e t ry r e st s
.

u p o n th e u se o f c al c ul ati o n But if as C o mte h as s aid

.
, ,

g e o m e t ry is truly a sc i e nc e o f fac ts c alcul ati o n will e vid e ntly

n e ve r b e abl e to supp l y u s with th e fir st k no wl e dg e o f th e s e

fac ts . I n o rd e r to lay th e fo und ati o ns O f a n atur al s c i e nc e

s imp l e m ath e m atic al analysis w o uld ne ve r suffic e n o r c o ul d ,

i t giv e a fre sh d e m o n str at io n o f it wh e n th e s e fo und ati o ns ,

h ave alre ady bee n l aid B e fo re all thi ngs a dire c t

.

s tudy O f th e s ubj e c t is ne c e ssary un til th e p re c is e r e l ati o ns

,

are dis c o ve re d T h e app l i c ati o n o f m ath e m atic al anal y sis

“
.

c an n e ve r be gi n any sc ie nc e w h at e v e r sinc e it c o ul d ne v e r ,

t ak e pl ac e e x c e pt wh e n th e sc i e nc e h as b e e n su f fic i e nt l y
e l abo rat e d to e st ablish in r e l at io n to t h e ph e no m e na u nd e r
,

c o ns id e rati o n s o m e e qu ati o n s whi c h might s e r v e as a st art ing

,

po i nt fo r anal yt ic al w o rk I n a w o rd th e cre ati o n o f

1 ”
.
,

anal yt ic al g e o m e t ry d o e s n o t pr e v e nt g e o m e t ry fr o m r e m ai n
C i 3 1
3 0urs, . 2 2 - .
 jl/at/z e m atics 1 37

ing t r l sc ie nc e
a na u a . Eve n wh e n it h as b e c o m e as pure ly
rati o nal as p o ssibl e it , n o ne th e l e ss r e m ai n s r o o t e d in e x pe ri

e nc e.

T he c
se o nd p art o f c o nc re te m ath e m atics (m e ch an ic s ) 15
als o o ne o f th e n atur al sci e nc e s whi c h o w e s its m a rv e l l o us

pro gre ss to analy si s H e re agai n we m ust disti n gui sh th e

.
‘

d at a wh ic h are at th e b asi s o f s c i e nc e and which are facts , ,

fro m th e ab strac t d e ve l o pm e nt u nd e rgo ne by this sc ie nc e

be c aus e o fth e simpli c ity o f th e s e fac ts and th e pre c isi o n Of
th e r e l ati o ns whi c h e x ist b e t we e n th e m T h e disti nc t io n .

b e tw e e n wh at is r e ally physic al and wh at is p ure ly

l o g ic al
” 1
is n o t alwavs an e asy o ne We m ust h ow e ve r .
, ,

se p ar at e f acts fur n ish e d by e xpe ri e n c e fr o m artific ial c o nc e p ,

t io ns wh o se o bj e c t is to fac ilit at e th e e st ablishm e nt o fge ne r al

l aws o fe quilibri um and o fm o ti o n .

O nly to c o nsid e r ine rti a in b o di e s is a fi c t io n o f this ki nd .

Physi c al l y th e fo rc e o f ine rti a d o e s no t e xist N ature no .

wh e re sh o w s u s bo di e s which are d e vo id o f i nte r nal ac tivity .

We t e r m th o se wh ich are no t alive i no rg an ic but no t i ne r t ,

.

W e re gr avit ati o n al o ne c o mm o n to all m o l e c ul e s it w o ul d ,

su f fi c e to pre v e n t th e c o nc e pt io n o f m att e r as d e vo id o f fo rc e .

Ne v e rt h e l e ss m e c h ani c s o nly c o nsid e rs th e i ne rti a o f b odi e s

,
.

Why ? B e c aus e thi s abstrac ti o n pre s e nt s m any adv ant ag e s

fo r th e st udy “
wi th o ut m o re o ve r O ffe ri ng d is advant age s in
, , ,

t h e a ppl ic ati o n I nd e e d if m e c h an i c s h ad to t ak e into

”
.
,

a c c o u n t th e i n t e r nal fo r c e s o f bo di e s and th e v ar iat io ns o f

th e se fo r c e s th e c o mplic ati o ns wo uld imm e di at e l y be c o m e

,

s uch th at t h e fac t s c o uld ne v e r be s ubmitt e d t o c al cu l at io n .

M e ch an ic s wo uld run th e r isk o f l o si ng its c h ar ac te r as a

m ath e m at ic al sc ie n c e A nd o n t h e o th e r h an d as it o nly
.
, ,

C i 4 q
1
o urs, . 2 2 . s .
 T ee P m losop/cy f A ug uste C om te
'

1 38 o

c o nsid e rs th e m o ve m e nts in th e ms e lv e s re g ard l e s s o f th e i r ,

m o d e o fpro du c ti o n it is alw ays l awful fo r m e c h an ics to re

,

pl ac e if ne c e ss ary th e i nte r nal fo rc e s by an e quival e nt e xt e r nal

, ,

fo rc e appli e d to th e b o dy T h e i ne r ti a o f m atte r is th e re
”
.

fo re an abstr ac ti o n t h e e n d Of which is to s e c ur e th e p e rfe ct

,

h o m o g e ne ity o f m e ch anic al sci e nc e by al l o wi ng us t o c o n ,

s id e r all m o vi n g b o di e s as id e ntic a l in ki n d an d all fo r c e s as ,

Of th e s am e n ature .

T he “
physic al ch arac te r o f this sci e nc e is agai n e vid e nt
”

fro m t h e c o n sid e r ati o n o f th e thre e fu nd am e nt al l aws upo n

which i t re sts .
1

T h e fi rst c all e d K e pl e r s law is thus d e fi n e d All m o ve

’

, ,

m e n t is natur ally r e c t ili ne ar and u nifo rm th at is to say any ,

bo dy subj e ct t o th e acti o n Of a si ngl e fo r c e which acts up o n

it i nst an t an e o usly m o ve s c o nst an tly in a straight li ne wit h
,

i nv ari abl e sp e e d .I t h as b e e n s aid th at t his law is d e riv e d

fr o m th e pri n cipl e o f su ffici e n t re as o n T h e b o dy must .

c o nti n u e in a straigh t li ne b e c au s e th e re is n o r ea s o n why it

sh o uld d e vi at e fro m it m o re o n o ne sid e t h an o n t h e o th e r .

But answ e rs C o mt e h o w do we k no w th at the re is no re as o n

, ,

fo r t h e b o dy t o d e vi at e e xc e pt pre cis e ly b e c aus e we se e th a t

,

it d o e s n o t d e vi ate ? T h e re as o n i n g re d uc e s its e lf to th e
“

re p e titi o n in abstract t e rms o fth e fact its e lf and to s ayi ng t h at ,

b o di e s h ave a nat ural t e n d e n cy to m o ve in a str aight li ne ,

whi c h is pre cis e l y th e pro p o siti o n which we h ave to e st ablish .

”

I t is by simil ar argum e nts t h at th e phil o s o ph e rs o fantiquity ,

an d e sp e ci ally Arist o tl e h ad o n th e c o ntrary be e n le d to

, ,

r e g ard circ ul a r m o ti o n as n atural to th e st ars in th at it is th e ,

m o st p e rfe ct o f all a c o nc e pti o n which is o n ly t h e abstr ac t

e n u n ci ati o n o f a i mp e rfe ctly an alys e d ph e no m e no n T he .

te nd e n cy o f b o di e s to m o ve in a straight li ne with c o nst ant

sp e e d is k n o w n t o us by e x pe ri e n c e .

T h e s e c o nd fu nd am e n t al law o f m e ch an ics c all ed N e wto n s ,

’

1
C o urs, 1,
 M nem
at atics 1 39

law, xpre ss e s th e c o nst an t e qu ality o f ac ti o n and re acti o n

e .

I t is pre tty g e ne rall y agre e d t o d ay to c o nsid e r this law as

re su l ti ng fro m th e o bs e rvati o n o f facts N e wto n hims e lf .

u nd e rst o o d it so .

Fi nally th e third law e st ablish e s th at e ve ry m o ve m e nt

“

e x a ctly p o s se ss e d in c o mm o n by all t h e b o di e s o f any syst e m

d o e s no t alt e r t h e p articul a r m o ve m e nts Of th o s e di ffe r e nt

b o di e s in r e sp e ct to e ac h o th e r ; but th o s e m o v e m e nts c o n
ti nne to t ak e pl ac e as i f th e wh o l e O f th e syst e m was m o ti o n
l e ss
.
”
This law o f th e i n d e p e nd e n c e o r o f th e c o e xiste nc e
“

o f m o v e m e n ts was fo rmul at e d by G alil e o I t is no m o re a

”
.

p ri ori th a n t h e t w o pr e c e di n g o ne s H o w c o uld we b e sur e

. ,

if e xp e ri e n c e did n o t sh o w it to us th at a c o mm o n m o ti o n
,

c o mmu nic at e d to a syst e m o f b o di e s m o vi ng in re l ati o n to

o ne a n o th e r , w o uld ch ang e n o thi ng in th e ir p articul a r
m o ti o ns ? Wh e n his law was m ad e k no w n by G alil e o o n all ,

h ands th e re ar o s e a cl o ud o f o bj e cti o n s t e n di n g to pro v e a,

p riori th at this pr o p o siti o n was fals e and absurd I t was .

o n ly a dmitt e d l at e r wh e n in o rd e r t o e x ami n e it t h e l o gic a l

, ,

p o i nt o f vi e w was se t asid e fo r th e physic al p o i nt o f vi e w .

I t was th e n s e e n th at e xp e ri e nc e a lw ays c o n firm e d this law ,

a nd th at i f it c e as e d to o p e rate th e wh o l e e c o no my o f
, ,

th e u n iv e rs e w o uld b e thr o w n i n t o utt e r c o n fusi o n F or .

i nst anc e th e m o ve m e n t o f th e tran sl ati o n o f th e e arth in

,

n o way a ff e cts t h e m e ch an ic al ph e n o m e na which t ak e pl ac e

up o n th e surfac e o r withi n th e gl o b e As th e law o f th e .

in d e p e n d e n c e o f m o ti o n s was u nk no w n wh e n t h e th e o ry o f
C o p e r nicus app e are d an o bj e cti o n was put to him which was
,

th o ught to b e dr awn fro m e xp e ri e n c e H e was t o ld th at if th e

.

e arth m o v e d r o u n d t h e su n all t h e m o v e m e n ts which t a k e pl ac e

u p o n it o r withi n it w o u l d b e m o difi e d by th e ac ti o n L at e r .

o n wh e n G al il e o s law b e c a m e k n o w n t h e fact was e xpl ai ne d

’

a nd t h e o bj e cti o n dis app e ar e d .

O nc e th e se thr e e l aws are e st ablish e d m e ch an i c s h as ,

1 40 n o P /z ilosopny f
o A ug uste C om te

s ufli c ie nt fo u n d ati o n H e nc e fo rth th e sci e ntific e dific e c an

.

b e c o nstru c t e d by simpl e l o gic al Op e rati o ns and with o ut any ,

furth e r re fere nc e to th e e xte rn al w o rld B ut this pure ly .

r ati o nal d e ve l o pm e n t n o m o r e tr ansfo rm s m e c h an i c s i nt o an

a p riori sci e n c e th an t h e a pplic ati o n o f ana lys is d e priv e s

ge o m e try o f its ch arac t e r as a n atural sci e nc e Wh at pr o ve s .

this in o ne c as e as in th e o t he r is th e p o s sibility o f p assi n g

, ,

fro m th e abstr act to th e c o nc re te and o f applyi n g th e re sults

O bt ai ne d t o re al c as e s m e re ly r e sto ri n g th e e l e m e nts which
,

s c i e n c e h ad b e e n c o mp e ll e d to se t asid e I f it w e re p o ssibl e .

e n tir e ly t o c o n stit ut e th e sci e n c e o f m e ch anic s a c c o rdi n g t o

simpl e an alytic al c o n c e pti o n s we c o uld n o t im agi ne h o w su c h

,

a sc i e n c e c o uld e v e r b e c o m e applic ab l e t o th e e f fe c tive study

o fnatur e Wh at gu arantee s th e re ality o f r ati o nal m e c h anic s
.

is pr e c is e ly its b e i ng fo u nd e d up o n so m e ge ne r al fac ts in a ,

w o rd up o n th e d at a o fe xp e ri e nc e
,
.

C o mt e c o uld as sur e dly no t fo re s e e th e c o ntro v e rsi e s

which to day b e ar up o n th e pri ncipl e s o f m e c h an ics and
-

whi c h h ave be e n summ e d up by M r P o i nc aré in an .

a rticl e u p o n H e rt z s m’
ec h an ic al th e o r ie s 1
Mr P o i n c aré . .

says th at t h e pr in cipl e s o f Dy na mics h av e b ee n st at e d in

m any w ays but no b o dy su ffi c i e ntly di sti nguish e d be twe e n

,

wh at is d e fi niti o n wh at is e xp e rim e nt al truth and wh at is

, ,

m athe m ati c al th e o r e m Mr P o i nc aré is satisfi e d ne ith e r with

. .

th e
“
c l ass ic al c o n c e pti o n o f m e ch an ics wh o s e i nsu ffici e n cy ,

h as b e e n sh o w n by H e rt z n o r wit h t h e c o nc e pti o n with whi c h

,

H e rt z wi sh e s t o re p l ac e it I n any c as e it is a high phil o

.

s o phi c al l e ss o n to se e th e c l assi c al sy st e m o f analyti c al

m e ch an ics —a syst e m c o nstr ucte d with s uc h admirabl e
accur acy an d m ad e by L apl ac e to aris e alt o g e th e r as C o mt e

s ays o ut o f a s ingl e fu nd am e ntal law —

, ,

, to se e it aft e r a ,

c e ntu ry l ab o uri ng u nd e r grav e di ffic ulti e s no t u nc o nne cte d ,

with th e pro gre s s o f physics .

R gé é l d p t ppliq é pt mb 1 8 9 7
1
e vue n ra e i
es sc e nc e s ure s e 3 a u e s, 0 se e re .
 M at/
z e m atics 14 1

Might no t this rgum e n t in supp o rt o f th e th e o ry

be an a

o f d A le m b e rt an d o f C o mt e o n t he n atur e o f c o n c re t e
’

m athe m atics ? G e o m e try and m e ch an ics w o uld o nly diffe r

fro m th e o th e r n atur al sci e n c e s by th e pre cisi o n o f th e re l ati o n s
b e twe e n th e ph e no m e n a o fwhich th e y t re at b yth e facili ty which,

t h e y h av e fo r d e ali n g with th e s e r e l ati o n s by m e an s o fc alculus

an d an alysis an d c o n s e qu e n tly by assumi ng a n e n tir e ly r ati o na l

, , ,

and d e d u ctiv e fo rm F o r th e e xtrao rdi nary p o we r o f th e

.

i nstru m e n t sh o uld no t hid e fro m us th e natur e o fth e sci e nc e s

which m ak e use o f it Th e s e lik e th e o th e rs b e a r up o n
.
, ,

n at ur al ph e no m e na O nly as t he s e ph e no m e na are th e m o st
.
,

simpl e th e m o st ge ne r al and th e m o st c l o s e ly a lli e d o f all

, ,

th e s e sci e nc e s are als o th o s e which r e sp o n d in th e b e st way to

th e p o sitiv e d e fi n iti o n o f sci e n c e Th ey h av e v e ry e asily
“
.

and v e ry quickly r e pl ac e d e mpiric al st at e m e n t by r ati o nal

pre visi o n The y are c o mp o s e d o f l aws and n o t o f fact s

.
”
.

But c o n fo rmi ng in this ag ai n to th e p o sitive d e fi niti o n o f

,

s c i e nc e th e y are e mpiric al in th e ir o rigi n a nd th e y re m ai n

, ,

r e l ative in th e c o u rs e Of t h e i r d e v e l o pm e nt .

Thus p o sitive phil o s o phy h avi ng re ach e d th e full c o nsci o us

,

n e ss Of its e l f r e acts u p o n th e c o n c e pti o n o f t h e sci e n c e s which

,

h av e m o st c o ntribut e d to its fo rm ati o n Wh e n th e phil o .

S o phy is u n ive rs ally acc e pte d t h e id e a th at a sci e n c e c an b e a

rio ri t h at is b o th abs o lut e an d i mm ut abl e will h ave dis
p , ,

a pp e ar e d Pre cis e ly b e c aus e it i s th e m o st p e rfe ct typ e

.

o fa p o siti ve sci e n c e m ath e m at ics will n o l o n g e r cl aim th e s e

,

ch ar act e ristics and its anci e nt c o nne cti o n with m e t aphysi c s

,

will b e fi nally s e v e re d .
 C H APTER I I
AS TR O N O M Y

TH E bj e ct o f a str o no my is th e disc o v e ry Of th e l aws o f

o

t h e g e o m e tric al a nd m e ch a n ic al ph e no m e n a pr e s e n t e d by

th e c e l e sti al b o di e s ; an d by th e k no wl e dg e o f th e s e l aws t o
,

Ob tai n th e pre cis e and rati o nal pre vis io n o f th e st ate o f o ur

syste m at any giv e n p e ri o d wh at e ve r I t is in a w o rd th e
.
“
,

applic at o n o f m at h e m at ics t o c e l e s t i al ph e n o m e n a
”
i
1 .

Mr H Sp e n c e r h as t ak e n o cc asi o n Of this d e fi n iti o n to

. .

cri ticis e th e pl ac e assig n e d by C o m te to astro no my in his

cl assific ati o n o f th e sci e n c e s H e m ak e s him c o n tradict
.

hims e lf H e s ays : yo u t e rm fu nd a m e n t al sci e n ce s th e

.

abstr act sci e n c e s which do n o t study b e i n gs in n atur e but ,

t h e l aws which g o v e r n ph e no m e n a in th o s e b e i ngs ; by

wh at right is astro no my pl ac e d am o ng th e s e sci e nc e s ,

b e tw e e n m ath e m atic s an d physics ? I s n o t th e o bj e ct o f

a s t r o no my th e study o f c e r ta i n b e i n gs in n atur e ? I n wh at
d o e s th e applic at i o n o f m ath e m atics to c e l e sti al ph e no m e n a
di ffe r fro m t h e ir applic at i o n to o th e r c as e s ? I t app e ars
e vid e n t t h at h e r e C o m te i ntr o duc e s i n to t h e s e ri e s o fa bs t r a ct

sci e n c e s a sci e n c e which is re ally c o n cre t e o r at l e ast ac c o rd

, ,

ing t o M r Sp e nc e r s e xpr e ssi o n abstr act c o n cr e t e

’
-
. .
,

C o mt e h ad fo re s e e n th e o bj e cti o n T h e an sw e r which h e
.

m ak e s thro ws a str o n g light up o n t h e s e n s e in which h e

u nd e rs tands th e w o rds abstr act and ge n e ra l as appli e d
“ “ ” ”

t o t h e sci e n c e s . H e p artly a cc e p t s th e Obj e cti o n T he .

1
P l p
o . I 4 99 5 7
o s. ,
-
0 .
 A stron o m y 1 43

t ru e astro no mic al n o ti o ns h e s ays o nly diffe r fr o m pure l y

, ,

m at h e m atic al n o ti o n s by th e i r sp e ci al r e stricti o n to t h e
c e l e st i al c as e ; and this at first sight must app e ar c o ntrary
, ,

t o t h e e ss e nti ally abstr act natur e o f t h e sp e cul ati o n s which

b e l o ng t o th e first phil o s o phy But o n th e o th e r h and th e se
.
,

sp e cul at i o n s b e ar up o n t h e ph e n o m e n a giv e n in e xp e ri e n c e ,

and t h e o rd e r o f t h e abstr a c t s c i e n c e s sh o uld r e p r o du c e th e

r e al o rd e r o f d e p e nd e nc e o f th e ph e no m e na Thus th e first .

o f t h e s e s c i e n c e s m ath e m ati c s d e t e rmi ne s th e e ss e n ti al l aws

, ,

o f t h e m o st g e ne r a l ph e no m e n a which a re c o mm o n t o all
,

m at e ri al b e i ngs (fo rm p o siti o n m o ve m e nt ) N o w are no t th e

, , .
,

m o st g e ne ral ph e n o m e na afte r the s e th o s e o f which th e

“
,

t h e c o n ti n u o u s a sc e n d e n cy i ne vit ably d o mi nat e s t h e c o urs e o f

all t h e o t h e r ph e n o m e na ? I n o th e r w o rds b e fo r e p assi n g

”1
,

t o t h e study o f physic al ch e mic al bi o l o gic al ph e n o m e na e t c

, , , .
,

it is i n disp e nsabl e to k no w th e g e ne ral l aws o f th e m ilieu in

which t h e s e ph e n o m e na are m an ife ste d O utsid e O f this .

m ilieu ,
the y w o uld b e im po ssibl e o r at any r at e it so , ,

c o nditi o n s th e m t h at w e re it o th e rwis e th e s e ph e no m e na
, ,

w o uld als o b e diffe re n t fro m wh at th e y are .

T h e ch aract e r o f g e ne rali ty which with th at Of abstr acti o n , ,

is m ad e u se o fto i nstitut e th e hi e rarchy o f ph e no m e na is t hu s

r e duc e d to th e id e a o f d e p e n d e n c e I t is t h e c o n sid e rati o n
.

o f t his d e p e n d e n c e which assign s t o astro no my its pl ac e

b e tw e e n m ath e m a tics an d phy sics in th e e n cycl o p ae dic
l add e r o f th e sci e n c e s C o n sid e re d si ngl y in th e ms e lve s th e
.
,

ph e no m e na stud ie d by astro no my are pur e ly g e o m e tric al and

m e ch an ic al Th e y w o uld n o t th e re fo r e c o nstitu te th e o bj e ct
.
, ,

o fa sci e n c e disti n ct fr o m m ath e m a tics But p o sitive phil o .

s o ph y c o nsid e rs e ve ry thi n g fro m t h e p o i n t o f vi e w Of

hum an i ty No w fo r hum an i ty this sp e ci al c as e is o f
.
,
“
,
”

u ne q u all e d impo r tan c e All th e o th e r ph e no m e na give n t o

.

us by e xpe ri e nc e (e xc e pt th e m ath e m atic al ph e no m e na)

C V I 7 49
1
o urs, , .
1 44 Tli e P /i ilosop/iy of A ug uste C om te

d e p e nd in a m o re o r l e ss dire ct m anne r up o n astro no mi c al

.
,

ph e no m e na T h e k no wl e dge o f astro no mic al l aws is th e re

.

fo re th e ne c e ss ary c o nditi o n fo r th e k no wl e dg e o f all th e

o th e rs
. Thus th e i n fri nge m e nt o f th e pri n cipl e O f th e
,

hi e rarchy o f fu nd am e nt al s c i e nc e s is o nly app are nt A n .

anal o g o us c ase is fo und in ch e mistry T h e analy si s o f air

.

a nd w at e r is i n c o rp o rat e d in abstrac t c h e mistry b e c aus e air ,

and w at e r c o nstitut e s th e g e ne r al m ilie u in which all ult e ri o r

“
,

ph e no m e n a o ccu r ”1

T h e pl ac e giv e n to astr o no my is th e re fo r e j ustifi e d This .

sci e nc e m o r e o ve r re m ai ns abstract F o r it to b e a c o ncre te

, ,
.

sc i e n c e all asp e c ts o f th e e xist e nc e o f c e l e sti a l b o di e s w o uld

,

h av e to b e studi e d and c o nsid e re d in th e ir re l ati o ns to e ac h ,

o th e r in it . But o n th e c o n trary astro no my o nly studi e s th e

, ,

ge o m e tr ic al and m e c h anic al ph e no m e na in th e c e l e sti al b o d ie s ,

all physic al and ch e mic al c o nsid e r ati o n s e tc b e i n g e limi nat e d , .

, .

C o mte c o nclud e s th at in p assi ng o n to th e c e l e sti al c as e

m ath e m ati c s d o e s no t l o s e its abstract nature I t o nly .

b e c o m e s m o re d e v e l o p e d in the c as e o f a sp e ci al e x ampl e ,

wh o s e e xtre m e imp o rt anc e d e m ands su c h a sp e ci alis ati o n .

T h e abstr act ch ar act e r o f astr o no my b e l o ngs to it

al m o st a p rio ri T h e fac t s up o n which it r e sts are o nly
.

r e ve al e d to us by o ne o f o ur s e nse s th e m o st i nte ll e c t ual ,

o f th e m i nd e e d but by which we are o nly i n fo rm e d o t

,

t h e m ath e m atic al pr o p e rti e s Of b o di e s O ur e y e s al o ne .

t o uch the st ars Th e re is no astro no my fo r a bli nd rac e

. .

D ark st ars if such th e re b e a re fo r e v e r hidd e n fr o m us Al l

, , .

th at is give n to us th e re fo re is t h e sh ap e th e p o siti o n and

, , ,

t h e m o ti o n o f visibl e c e l e sti al b o di e s We c an ne v e r by any

.

m e an s k no w h o w to study the ir ch e mic al c o mp o siti o n n o r ,

the ir mi ne ral structure no r a fortiori th e n atu re o fthe o rg anic

,

b o d i e s which m ay liv e up o n th e m C o mt e might h ave .

fo rmu l ate d in l e ss c ate go ric al t e rms affi rm ati o n s whi c h w e re

C III 9 31
o urs, ,
.
 A stronom y 1 45

s o o n to b e c o ntradi c te d by sp e c tral analysis and by ph o to

gr aphy B ut h e was c o nfirm e d in th e e ntire l y abstr act and
.

m ath e m atic al c o nc e pti o n whi c h h e h ad o f astro no m y by his

p e rsu asi o n th at n o disc o ve ri e s o fso far re achi ng a nat ure we re -

p o ssibl e .

Th us astro no my app e are d to b e an e xc e ll e n t type O f a

,

p o sitive sci e n c e b e c aus e i t is at o nc e n atural and abstrac t

, ,

an d in it th e s e two ch ar ac t e risti c s are e qu ally app ar e n t which ,

was no t th e c as e in m ath e m ati c s I n this sci e n c e t h e sh are

.

o f o bs e rv ati o n is so limit e d so tr an si e n t th a t it b e c o m e s in
, ,

a ppr e ci abl e . I n astro no my o n th e c o n trary d e t e rmi nati o n O f

, ,

c e rt ai n facts e vid e n tly pl ays a p art in th e sci e n c e But at .

,

t h e s am e tim e n o wh e r e do we se e m o r e cl e arly th a t sc i e nc e
,

d o e s no t c o nsist in th e m e re appre h e nsi o n o f facts H e re .

th e y are so simpl e and m o re o v e r so u n i n t e re sti ng th at th e ir

, ,

c o nne xi o n and th e k no wl e dge o f the ir l aws al o ne d e s e rve s th e

n am e o f s c i e n c e .I n ge n e ral wh at is an astr o n o mi c a l fac t ?
,

N o ne o th e r th an this : su c h a st ar h as b e e n s e e n at su c h a
pre ci se i n st ant and u nd e r such an an gl e duly m e asure d T h e
, .

m o re o r l e ss pr o fo u nd e l ab o rati o n o f th e s e o bs e rv ati o n s 18
i n disp e ns ab l e to s c i e nc e e ve n in its m o st imp e r fe c t st ate
, .

Astro no my s ays C o m te did no t re ally c o m e i nt o b e i ng wh e n

, ,

t h e pri e sts o f Egypt o r Ch ald e a m ad e a s e ri e s o f m o r e o r

l e ss e x act e mpiric al Obs e rv ati o n s in th e h e ave ns ; but o nly

wh e n th e first Gre e k phil o s o ph e rs b e gan to re du c e th e ge ne ral
ph e no m e no n o f diurnal m o ti o n to a fe w ge o m e tric al l aws 1
.

O f all th e natural sci e nc e s aft e r m ath e m atics astro no my

, ,

is als o th e m o st p e rfe ctly fre e fr o m all th e o l o gic al and

m e taphysic al c o nsid e rati o ns Fro m e v e ry p o i n t o f vi e w it
.

is p o sitive Astro no m e rs no l o nge r h ave re c o urs e to a

.

Pro vid e n c e which as t h e i nt e llige n t c au se o f th e o rd e r

,

o f th e c e l e sti al w o rld w o uld in its t ur n wit ne ss to th e

, ,

e xist e n c e o f this c aus e The y do no t i nquire any m o r e

.

C 1
II 6 7
o urs, , 1 -
1 .

10
 Tli e P nz losopliy of A ug uste C om
'

1 46 te

in to th e intim at e t r o f fo r c e s (grav it at io n attracti o n

na u e , ,

Astro no my is c o n te n t to d e te rmi ne th e i nvari abl e

r e l ati o ns o f phe no m e na with th e gre at e st p o ssibl e pre c isi o n .

I t is h e re th at phil o s o phic al mi n d s c an study th e e ss e n ti al

c h a r ac t e risti c s o f a p o sitive sci e n c e I n it th e y will als o se e.

h o w d isi n t e r e st e d it must b e in o rd e r to b e c o m e us e ful .

With o ut th e high e st sp e c ul ati o ns Of ge o m e t e r s up o n c e l e sti al

m e ch an i c s which h ave so gre atly i n cre ase d th e pre c is io n o f
,

a str o no mi c al t a bl e s it w o uld b e imp o ssibl e to d e t e rmi ne t h e

,

l o ngitud e Of a ship with th e d e gre e o f ac c uracy which is n o w

a tt a i n abl e
1 ”
.

Fi nally no sci e nc e h as e x e r c ise d a gre ate r influ e nc e u p o n

t h e e v o l uti o n o f th e h um an m i n d th an this o n e T h e gre at .

e p o c hs in astr o no my are als o th o s e in c o s m o l o gic al phil o s o phy .

T h e d e sp e rat e r e sist anc e which was O ffe re d by th e o l o gic al

d o gm atism t o G alil e o s dis c o v e ry r e sp o nd e d t o a j ust ap
’

pre h e nsi o n o f th e c o n s e qu e n c e s i nvo lve d in this disc o ve ry ,

.

T o admit th at th e e arth was n o t th e c e ntr e o fth e w o rld was to

t ak e a first and a d e cisi v e st e p in th e way which l e ads aw ay

fr o m th e an thro p o c e n tric pre j udic e I t was lik e pl e dgi ng .

o n e se l f t o substitut e s o o n e r o r l at e r t h e r e l ativ e p o i n t o f vi e w

t o t h e abs o lut e o ne in phil o s o phy I t was i n tro duci ng th e

.

po sitive spirit t o d ay in sp e cul ative physi c s to m o rro w in

, ,
-

s p e c ul ativ e e thi c s .

Alth o ugh astr o no my is an e mi ne ntly m ath e m atic al “

s ci e n c e t h e m e th o d o f w o rki n g by o bs e rv ati o n is us e d in it
,
.

T h e a str o n o m e r o bs e rve s b e fo re c alcul ati ng and h e Obs e r ve s ,

a g a i n a ft e r h av i n g c a lcul at e d T h e a rt o f o bs e rvati o n fo r
.

which th e re is n o u se in m ath e m atics app e ars h e re th e n ,

a n d with it t h e i n ducti v e m e th o d
, , .

I nd e e d th e re is n o abs o lut e s e p arati o n be twe e n o b se rv

“

C II 4 5 1
o urs, , 1 -
1 .
 A stronom y 14 7
re as o ni ng T h e mi n d d o e s n o t first O b se rv e fa ct s
'

i ng and
1

i n a r e c e ptiv e o r p assiv e m anne r in o rd e r to w o rk o u t”

,

c o mbi nati o n s o f th e s e fac ts aft e rw ards I n r e al ity e v e ry .

o bs e rv ati o n is a c o mbi nati o n an d this is p articu l arly tru e in ,

a str o no mic al O bs e rv ati o n T h e facts which we Ob se rv e

.

a re re ally c o nstruct e d We c an o nly se e simu l t ane o u s

.

o r suc c e ssi v e d ire c ti o n s ac c o rdi n g t o which th e m in d must

,

c o n str uc t th e fo rm o r t h e m o v e m e nt wh ic h t h e e e c o uld
y
no t tak e i n T h e ne c e ss ary an d c o n st ant ass o c i ati o n
.

“
be tw e e n pre visi o n and insp e cti o n is m o re i ntim at e and ”

m o r e e vid e n t h e r e th an in any o th e r sci e nc e .

I n th e s am e way hyp o th e sis (which is i n se p ar abl e fr o m

,

o bs e rv at i o n ) c an b e st udi e d in astr o n o my in its m o st simpl e

fo rm . H e re it is pre s e nt e d in its cl e ar e st asp e ct and i f o ne , ,

m ay say so in th e o ne which m o st r e v e als its e ss e n ti al n atur e

, .

No w hyp o th e sis in astro no my s e rve s to fill up th e ne c e ss ary

,

aps in Obs e rv ati o n I t pr o vis io nally suppl e m e n ts t h e k no w

”
g .

l e dge —no t i n d e e d o f c aus e s fo r p o sitiv e sci e n c e s e e k s no thi ng

,

o f this ki n d —but o f facts and l aws whi c h we ig no r e F or .

i n st anc e th e simp l e ge o m e tric al sk e tch o f a diurnal m o ti o n

,

w o uld r e m ai n i mp o ssibl e with o ut an abstr act hyp o th e si s whi c h

b e i n g c o mp are d with t h e c o ncr e t e sp e c t acl e pr e s e n t e d by
t h e m o v e m e n t its e l f e n ab l e s us t o c o nne ct t o g e th e r t h e .

v ari o us c e l e sti al p o siti o n s M o d e r n as tro no my which h as .

,

d e str o y e d primi tiv e assump t i o n s r e g ard e d as r e al l aws Of

t h e w o rld h as m ai n t ai n e d th e ir p e rm ane n t v alu e fo r c o n
,

v e n ie n tly r e pr e s e n ti n g ph e n o m e n a pr o visi o n all y A nd as .

,

w e are n o t d e c e ive d as to t h e r e ality o f such ass umpti o n s

we c an use with o ut scrupl e any o ne which s e e ms to us m o s t
a dv an t ag e o us
2
.

T h e u se o f hyp o th e sis as it is e mpl o y e d in a str o no my, ,

m ust b e c a rri e d i n t o th e o th e r sci e n c e s This m o d e o f p ro .

c e dure e v e rywh e r e r e m a i n s lik e to its e lf alth o ugh we do no t

.
,
P l p I 5
1
o . Co s. II 5 3
. 00 . 2
o urs, , 1 .
1 48 T ue P nilosoplzy f
o A ug uste C om te

a l w ay s c o nc e ive it so cl e ar l y I ts n o rm al d o m ai n c o i ncid e s
.
“

with th at o fObs e rv ati o n A n hyp o th e sis c o mpl e te s by anti

.
”
-

c ipat io n wh at we k no w o f facts a nd O f th e ir l aws C o nse .

qu e ntly it is subj e ct to b e m o difi e d c o rre cte d o r c o ntr adi c t e d

, , ,

by a wid e r o r d e e p e r k no wl e dge Of facts Hyp o th e s e s th e n .

are o n ly v alid duri n g th e tim e wh e n th e y are adv an t ag e o us

?

th at is to say as lo n g as th e y s e rve to u nit e and c o o rdi nate

,
-

o u r o bs e rv ati o n s As h as b e e n s aid th e y l ab o ur to re nd e r
.
,

th e ms e lve s us e l e ss But th e y are i n disp e n s abl e and sci e n c e

.
,
r

with o ut t h e m c o uld ne ith e r adv anc e no r e ve n b e gi n F ar

, .

fro m gi vi ng t o o sm all a sh are to hyp o th e sis lik e B a c o n , .

C o mte w o uld r ath e r i nc ur th e re pr o o f o f h avi ng give n it to o

l arge a o ne H e m ad e to o much use o f it hims e lf at th e e nd
.

o f his li f But t h e th e o ry which h e gave o f it in th e C ou rs !

e
'

dc p ltilosop /i ie p ositive and o f which c e rt ai n fe atur e s app e ar

ag a i n in Cl aud e B e r n ard s I n tro ductio n a l e tu de de la m e deci ne
’ ’ ’ ’

ex p erim en tale was a c are ful study o f its natur e a n d fu ncti o n

, .

Astro no my o r at l e ast th at p art o f astro no my which b e ars

,

th e n am e o f c e l e sti al m e ch an ics o f all t h e physic a l sci e n c e s ,

is th e o ne which h as b e e n c arri e d to th e high e st d e gre e o f

p e rfe cti o n N o wh e re e ls e h ave t h e ph e no m e na b e e n b e tt e r
.

r e d uc e d to a supre m e law which all o ws us to fo re s e e th e m

with suffici e n t pre cisi o n But this re sult c o uld o nly h ave
.

b e e n o bt ai n e d b y substituti ng th e n o ti o n o f a s o l ar
w o rld t o th at o f a u n ive rs e 1
This w o rld is th e o nly o ne
.

which we c an c o mpre h e nd as a s y st e m If t h e o bj e ct o f
'

a str o n o m y w e r e t h e g e ne r al l aws o f th e u n ive rs e t his sci e n c e ,

wo uld b e e xtr ao rdi narily imp e rfe ct no t to s ay i mp o ssibl e F o r ,

.

wh at do we k no w ab o ut c o smic l aws ? We do no t e ve n k no w
2

wh e th e r N e wt o n s law appli e s to any o r all syst e ms Of st ars

’
.

C II 3 3
1
o urs, , C1 VI 75
2 -
.
2
o urs, , 1 .
 A stron om y 1 49

We must th e n dis t i n guish b e tw e e n a stro no my as t h e :

s ci e n c e o f o ur w o rld an d sid e re a l a str o n o my T h e l att e r is.

n o t abs o l ut e ly fo rbidd e n us but we k n o w v e ry littl e o n t his

,

subj e ct and we sh all pro b ably ne ve r k no w much m o r e Do th e

, .

i nn um e r abl e s un s s c att e r e d in sp ac e fo rm a ge ne ra l sy st e m , o r
d o i nd e p e n d e n t syst e ms e xist ? I s sp ac e limitl e ss ? I s th e
n umb e r o f c e l e sti a l b o di e s an i n fi n it e o ne ? phil o s o ph e rs
ask . I n truth th e c o n sid e r ati o n o f o u r w o rld is p o sitiv e .

T h e c o nsid e rati o n Of th e u n iv e r se is no t .

H ist o ry h e lps us to u n d e rst an d th e transiti o n whi c h le d

fr o m o ne to th e o th e r A n ci e n t phil o s o phy m ad e th e e arth
.

t h e c e n tre o f t h e un iv e r se .N o twithst andi ng th e div e rsity O f

t h e ir p arti c ul ar ch ar act e ristics an d o f th e ir m o ti o n s it was ,

n atur al th e n f o r all t h e c e l e sti al b o di e s t o b e c o n c e iv e d as t h e

p art s o f a si n gl e syst e m . A m o re o r l e ss cl e arly e xpre sse d

p o stul a t e supp o rt e d this a str o n o mic al c o nc e pti o n t h e purp o s e

O f th e un ive rs e was th e e xi st e n c e o f m an Th e re was no .

o cc asi o n to disti n guish o u r w o r l d fr o m th e wh o l e w o rld B ut .

c o uld this c o n c e pti o n st an d wh e n th e e arth was r e duc e d t o

t h e c o n diti o n o f a pl ane t r e v o lvi ng ro u nd a sun so

lik e a multitud e Of o th e r su ns S udd e n ly th e star s
.

we re c arri e d to dist an c e s i n fi nit e ly m o re c o n sid e rab l e th an

t h e gr e at e st pl ane t ary i n t e rv als U nd o ubte dly t h e hum an
.

mi nd c o uld c o n ti n u e to re g ard th e ve ry sm all gro ups Of

w hi c h th e e arth fo rms a p art as a syst e m But th e syste m
.

(if it e xists ) which e mbr ac e s th e wh o l e o f th e c e l e sti al b o di e s

c e as e d h e n c e fo rth t o b e withi n o u r r e ac h S i n c e th e n th e
“
.

n o ti o n o f t h e w o rld h as b e c o m e c l e ar an d h abitu al an d th at ,

O f th e u n iv e rs e h as b e c o m e u nc e rt ai n and alm o st un
i nt e lligibl e
”1
.

I t m att e rs littl e m o re o ve r fo r ac c o rdi ng to o ne o f C o mt e s

, , ,
’

favo urit e m axims wh at we h av e n o m e ans o f k no wi n g n e ith e r

, ,

h av e we any ne e d t o k no w ; and e ve ry thi ng whi ch it is

C1
II 3 3
o urs, , 1 .
1 50 T/i e P li ilosopliy of A ug u ste C om te

o ur i nt e re st to l e arn we c an al s o att ai n No r sh b uld we se e .

in th is any pr o vid e nti al h arm o n y Th at which it is o ur .

i nte r e st to k no w must always in s o m e way i nfl u e n c e th e

c o nditi o n s o f o ur e xist e nc e By th e m e r e fact th at this
.

ac ti o n m ak e s its e lf fe lt it is i ne vit abl e th at s o o ne r o r l at e r

, ,

dire ctly o r i ndire ctly we sh o uld c o m e to k no w o f it This

,
.

r e fl e c ti o n c an b e w e ll appli e d t o astro no my T h e study o f .

t h e l aws o f th e s o l ar s y st e m o f which we fo rm a p art is o f

, ,

supre m e i nte re st fo r u s : and we h av e r e ach e d ve ry gre at .

pre cisi o n o n this p o i nt O n t h e c o n tra ry th e e x ac t no ti o n

.
,
.

o f t h e u n ive rs e is i n a cc e ssibl e to us but it is u nimp o rt ant to

us l e avi ng o u t o f t h e qu e s ti o n o u r i ns ati abl e curi o si ty T h e
“ ”
.
.

i nd e p e nd e nc e o f o ur w o rld is c e rt a i n T h e ph e no m e na which . .

t ak e pl ac e withi n th e s o l ar sys te m do no t app e ar to b e affe cte d

by th e m o re g e ne ral ph e n o m e na which re l at e t o th e m utu al
acti o n o f su n s O ur t abl e s o f c e l e sti al e ve nts dr aw n up l o n g
.
,

b e fo re h and and t aki n g i nt o c o nsid e r ati o n no o th e r w o rld th an .

o u r o wn so ,far acc o rd strictly with dire ct o bs e rv ati o n s .

S upp o si ng th e law Of grav it ati o n to e xte nd to th e e ntire :

u n ive rs e th e p e rturb at i o n in o u r w o r l d c aus e d by a m as s

,
'

e qu al t o a milli o n tim e s its o wn and which w o uld b e situ at e d

,

at th e dis t an c e Of t h e n e ar e st su n t o o u r o wn w o uld b e se v e r al ,

th o us and milli o n tim e s l e ss th an th at which bri ngs ab o ut o ur

tid e s th at is to say pr ac ti c ally nil
, .

H e re s ays C o mt e is th e o nly e xc e pti o n to th e e ncyC lO pze diC

, ,
'

law a c c o rdi ng to which th e m o r e ge ne r al ph e no m e na c o n tro l

t h e m o r e p articul a r o ne s with o ut be i n g i n flu e n c e d by th e m 1 .

Fro m this h e simply c o nclud e s th at th e ph e no m e na o f o ur

syste m are th e m o st ge ne ral to which p o sitiv e re s e arch
c an e xt e n d and th at th e st udy o f th e u n iv e rs e m u st h e n c e
,

fo rth b e e xclud e d fro m natural phil o s o phy T h e e nc yc lo .

pae dic law th e n r e m ai ns tru e fo r th e wh o l e o f p o sitive

phi l o s o phy .

C II 66 7 1
o urs , 2 -
.
 A stronom y 1 51

T he d e l imit at io n o f th e o bj e ct o f ast ro no my is o ne o f the

p o i nts whe re we c an b e st fo ll o w th e s ucc e ssive m o d ifi c ati o ns
o f C o mt e s th o ught I n t he se c o n d v o l um e o f th e C ours de
’
.

/ il s n i e os i tive h e gav e to astr o no my t h e pl ac e whi c h is

p c o op p
ge ne rally c o nc e d e d to it by sci e ntifi c m e n H e e ve n c l aim s .
,

as a c o n diti o n f o r it s u tility t h e m o st p e r fe c t disi n t e r e st e d

,

ne ss o f sci e n tifi c r e s e ar c h in th e wh o l e e xt e nt o f its p ro vi n c e .

T h e e x amp l e whi c h h e give s o f it (th e d e t e rmi nati o n o f

l o ngitud e at se a) is b o rro w e d fro m C o nd o rc e t U nd o ubte dly
, .
,

C o mte al re ady insists up o n th e disti nc t io n b e tw e e n th e id e as

O f w o rld and u n ive rs e th e fo rm e r o n l y b e i n g p o sitive N e ve r
, .

th e le ss h e still a dmits th at we sh o uld n o t give up all h o p e o f

,

o bt ai n i n g s o m e sid e r e al k n o wl e dg e and th a t it w o uld be

1
,

v e ry pre ci o us fo r us to k no w th e re l ative m o ti o ns o f mul

t ipl e st ars e tc , But al re ady in th e sixth vo lum e Of th e
.
‘

C ou rs h e c o n d e m n s e ntire ly th e so c al l e d sid e re al astro no my -

,

whi c h to day c o nstitut e s th e o n ly grav e sci e ntifi c abe r rati o n

-

p e c uli ar to c e l e sti al st udi e s 2

T e n y e ar s l at e r in t h e firs t
.
”
,

v o lum e Of th e P olitique p ositive h e re g e ne rat e s astro no my

“
,
”

fro m th e sy n th e ti c p o i nt o f vi e w H e is no l o nge r c o n te nt t o .

l imit it to th e k no wl e dg e o f th e so l ar sy st e m H e c o n fi ne s .

t h e p articul ar study o fo u r w o rld withi n nar r o w l imit s Astro .

no m y lik e t h e o th e r sci e n c e s fr o m o bj e ctiv e must b e c o m e

, ,

s ubj e ctiv e I n st e ad o f th e v agu e (th at is to say i nd e fi n ite )

.

st udy o f th e h e ave n s its e n d must b e th e k no wl e dge o f th e

e arth an d t h e c o n sid e r ati o n o f th e o th e r c e l e sti al b o di e s o n ly
,

in th e i r re l ati o n to th e h u m an p l an e t At thi s pri c e al o ne .

c an th e u n ity o fthis s c i e n c e b e se c ur e d
3
.

Thus C o mte c am e b ack to Arist o tl e s c l o s e d w o r l d with th e ’

e a rth as its c e n tr e H e p o i nt s it o ut h ims e l f in sh o wi ng in

.

wh at way h e di ffe rs fr o m th e anc ie nt c o nc e pti o n Th is unity .

,
”

h e s ays ,e x ist e d f o r th e an c ie nts but was o f an ab so l ute ,

c h arac te r whi c h at th at tim e was l e g it im ate ”

Wh en the .

1
C II 7
o urs, . C . VI 751 2
P l p
o urs, I 58 , .
11
o . os. , 0 .
1 52 Tne P nilosoplzy of A ug uste C om te

m o ti o n o f o ur pl ane t be c am e k no w n th e anci e nt c o nstit uti o n ,

o f c e l e sti a l s c i e n c e might m e re ly h ave b e e n m o difi e d by “

pre se rvi n g in it as subj e c tiv e th e c e ntre which was at first

, ,

s upp o s e d t o b e o bj e c tiv e Th at w o u l d h ave sufli c e d to c h ange

”
.

as tro n o my fr o m an abs o lut e sci e nc e t o a r e l ative o ne U nd o ubt .

e dly t h e an c i e nts we r e d e c e iv e d in b e li e vi n g t h e e a rth to be

t h e c e n tr e o fth e w o rld but in o rd e r to c o rr e ct th e ir e rro r it

, ,

suf fi c e d to say th e c e n tre o f ou r w o rld T h e subj e c t ive

, .

syn the sis i n d e e d c o n ce ntrate s th e c e l e sti al studi e s ro u nd th e

“

e a rth . T h e o th e r st ars o n ly d e s e rv e o ur att e n ti o n in so far

a s th e k no wl e dg e o f o u r pl ane t r e quir e s it C o mt e e nds by .

sayi n g in t h e fo urth v o lum e o f th e P oli tiq u e p osi tive th at ,

strictly sp e aki n g th e study o ft h e su n an d m o o n w o uld s u f

. fi ce .

We m ay add to th e m th e anc i e n t pl ane ts but no t th e l ittl e “

,

t e l e sc o pi c pl ane ts ”
.
1

This pro gre ssive narro wi n g o fth e astro no mic al d o m ai n d o e s

n o t i n dic at e a r adic al ch an g e in C o mt e s phil o s o phic al th o ught
’
.

I t o nly r e sults fro m th e gr o wi ng sub o rdi nati o n o fth e s c i e ntific

i n te re st to o th e r sup e ri o r i n te re sts T O k no w fo r th e s ak e o f .

k no wi n g appe ars to C o mte to be a wro ng use o f th e hum an

,

i nt e ll e c t . T h e N e wt o ns and th e L apl ac e s in th e p ast h av e

fulfill e d a ne c e ss ary fu n cti o n and hum anity o w e s th e m e t e r n al
,

gratitud e Th e y str uck a d e c i sive bl o w agai nst th e o l o gi c al

.

a nd m e t aphysic a l phil o s o phy ; and s e cur e d th e vict o ry f or

th e p o sitiv e spirit I n th e ir tim e sci e n tific spe cu l ati o n whi c h

.

t e nd e d to th e disc o ve ry O f th e l aws O f ph e no m e na and e spe c i ,

a lly O f c e l e sti al ph e no m e n a was at o n c e t h e m o st sublim e and

,

th e m o st us e ful o c c up ati o n whi c h th o s e m e n o f g e n ius c o uld

se t th e ms e lv e s But n o w th at th e ir e ffo rts h ave culmi nat e d

.

i n th e fo u nd ati o n o f p o sitive phil o s o phy an d this phil o s o phy ,

its e lf in th e fi nal r e ligi o n the re is n o l o n ge r any re as o n to

“
,
”

c o n ti n u e re s ea rch e s with which h e nc e fo rth hum an ity c an dis

pens e We must e ve n c ut d o w n m any idl e acquisiti o n s 2 ”
. .

P l p 1
oIV . o s. P l p
. 2 12 I 5 08 3
. o . o s. -
1 .
 A stronom y 1 53

I n a w o rd fro m t h e r e ligi o us p o i n t o f vi e w C o mt e in o rd e r to
, , ,

r e m e dy th e anarchy o fs c i e nc e suppre ss e s its libe rty

,
.

Th e se e xtre m e but l o gic ally d e duce d c o n s e qu e nc e s are

, ,

p art o f th e wh o l e o f C o mte s r e ligi o u s c o nc e pti o n s th at is to

’

say o f a di st an t id e al Th e y mu st no t bli nd us to th e pro

.

fundity o fhis phil o s o phic al c o nsid e r ati o n s o n a str o no my H is .

r e fl e c ti o ns up o n th e re l ati o n b e twe e n th e id e as o f th e w o rld

an d o fth e u n iv e rs e c o r r e sp o n d fr o m t h e p o sitiv e p o i nt o fvi e w
, ,

t o th e first anti no my Of th e tr an sc e n d e nt al Di al e ctics in t h e

C ritique de la ra i so n p u re C an we e v e r b e m o r e fully
.

c o nsci o us o f th e re l ativity o f o ur k no wl e dge th at wh e n we ,

se e th at wh at we k n o w o f c e l e sti a l ph e n o m e n a is ad mir ably

pre c is e so l o ng as th e s o l ar syst e m is c o nc e rne d but is re duc e d ,

to alm o st n o thi n g if we l o o k b e y o n d it ?

O ur w o rld will p e rish and its dis app e ar an c e l ik e its e xist e n c e

,
,

will p e rh aps b e an imp e rc e ptibl e i ncid e n t By th e c o nti nu e d .

r e sist anc e o f th e ge ne r al m ilieu say s C o mte in th e e nd , ,

o u r w o rld must b e re u nit e d t o th e s o l a r m ass fr o m which it

-

c am e u ntil in th e imm e n sity o f future ag e s a fre sh dil atati o n

, , ,

o f t his m ass sh all o rg an i se a ne w w o rld in t h e s a m e m anne r ,

d e sti ne d to re p e at m o re o r l e ss c o mpl e t e ly th e fo rm e r c ycl e .

M o r e o ve r all th e s e imm e n s e alt e r n ativ e s o f d e structi o n an d

,

Of re ne w al h ave to b e ac c o mplish e d with o ut i nflu e n ci ng in any

way th e m o re ge ne r al ph e no m e n a due t o s o l ar i nt e r ac ti o n so
t h at t h e gr e at r e v o luti o n s in o ur w o rld w o uld o n ly b e s e c o n d

ary and so t o sp e ak l o c a l e v e n ts in r e l ati o n to tr an sfo rm ati o n s

, , ,

o f a r e ally u n ive rs al ch ar acte r

1

This o utl o o k i n t o th e i mm e nsit y Of sp ac e and o fdurati o n

“

suf fi c e s t o sh o w th at C o mt e was n o t a pris o n e r in th e littl e

s o l ar fath e rl an d in which h e s e e ms to s e clud e him se l f I t m ay .

b e th at fo r m o r al and r e ligi o u s r e as o n s h e will n o t all o w him

se l f to g o b e y o n d it .B ut lik e P asc al ,h e w e ll k no ws th at h e
,

i nh ab its a littl e o ut o fth e way distri c t o fnature .

”

C II 97
1
ours . . 2 .
 C H APTER III .

TH E S CIE N CE S O F TH E I N O RG A N I C WO RLD

I F we do s e p arat e ch e mistry fr o m physics th e i r c o m

no t ,

m o n Obj e ct is th e k n o wl e dg e o f t h e l aws Of t h e i no rg an ic

w o rld I n this way th e y are cl e arly disti nguish e d o n o ne

.

h an d fro m astr o no my which we m ay c o n sid e r as an e m anati o n

fro m m ath e m atic al sci e nce and o n th e o th e r h an d fro m
,
”

bi o l o gy T h e disti nc ti o n b e tw e e n physi c s and c h e mistry

.

pre s e nts a gre ate r di ffi culty N e ve rth e l e ss this di sti nct io n

.

must b e m ai nt ai ne d si n c e the physic al ph e no m e na are m o re

,

ge ne ral and th e ch e mic al ph e no m e na m o re spe c i al th at

,
” “
,

is to say th e l atte r d e p e n d upo n th e fo rm e r with o ut thi s

, ,

d e p e nd e nc e b e i ng fo r th e m o st p art re cipro c al Eve n if s o m e .

day we succ e e d e d in e stab l ishi ng th at c h e mi c al ph e no m e na

are in r e ality physi c al th e disti nc ti o n w o uld no n e t h e l e ss
,

subs ist in this se ns e th at in a fact t e rm e d c h e mic al th e re is

, , ,

a l w ay s s o m e thi ng m o r e th an in a fact w h ich is simply physic al ,

n am e ly th e c h ar act e ristic alt e rati o n whi c h th e m o l e cul ar c o m

,

p o siti o n o f b o di e s u nd e rgo e s and which c o ns e qu e ntly affe ct s

,

t h e t o t ality o f th e i r pr o p e rti e s 1
.

T o sp e a k o nly o f physics in th e first p l ac e this sc i e nc e ,

p re s e nts di ffe re nt ch aracte ristics fro m th o s e o f astro no my .

T h e sp e cul ative pe rfe cti o n o f a sci e n c e is m e asure d by t wo

c o rre l at ive alth o ugh di sti nc t c o nsid e r ati o ns by th e m o re o r ,

l e ss c o mpl e t e c o o rdi nati o n o f th e l aws and by th e m o re o r

-
,

l e ss ac cur at e pre visi o n o f fact s No w und e r o ne asp e ct o r th e

.
,

1
C o urs II .
3 10.
 Tli e S cie nces of tne I n or a n ic
g World 1 55

o th e r e v e n supp o si ng th at physi c s sh o uld m ak e ve ry imp o rt ant

,

pr o gre ss it will alw ays re m ai n ve ry much be hi n d astro no my

, .

I nd e e d th e c e l e sti al sci e nc e pre se n ts an alm o st p e rfe ct u nity

,

physics o n th e c o ntrary is c o mp o s e d Of s e ve r al br an ch e s which

, ,

a re al m o st is o l at e d fr o m o ne ano th e r and e ach o ne t ak e n by it ,

se lf c an n o t e v e n r e d uc e all its l aws to a m o r e g e ne r al law A nd .

,

as to th e se c o n d p o i n t whil e a v e ry sm all n u mb e r o fdire ct O b se r

,

v at io n s a ll o ws o fr ati o n al an d e x ac t pr e visi o n o ft h e wh o l e o fth e

c e l e sti al ph e no m e na physics o n ly re nd e rs p o ssibl e pre dic ti o ns

,

which are g e ne rally fo u nd e d up o n e xp e ri e n c e at o nc e imm e di at e

an dwithi n e asy r e ach U n d o ubt e dly s o m e p arts o fphysics all o w
.

o f th e u se o f m ath e m atic a l an alysis ( we sh all se e pr e s e ntly

un d e r wh at c o n diti o n s ) N e v e rth e l e ss th e p art pl ay e d by
.
,

e xp e ri e n c e is i nfi n it e ly gr e at e r i n physics th an in astr o no my .

S O it is in th e fo rm e r sci e n c e th at we fi rst m e e t with t h e in

duc tive m e th o d whic h is aft e rw a rds us e d and d e ve l o p e d in
,

th e o th e r p o sitiv e sci e n c e s Alth o ugh d e d uc ti o n c o n ti nu e s

.

to fu l fil an imp o rt an t p art it al re ady c e as e s to pr e d o mi nat e ,

h e re b e c aus e s ays C o mt e in it th e i n stituti o n o ft ru e pri n cipl e s

, , ,

be gi n s to be c o m e m o re tro ubl e s o m e th an th e d e ve l o pm e nt
o f accur at e c o n s e q ue n c e s 1 .

T h e i n ductiv e m e th o d impli e s th e s e e ss e nti al pr o c e ss e s

1 °
o bs e rv ati o n pr o p e rly so c all e d th at is to say th e dire ct ,

e x ami na ti o n o f th e ph e no m e no n such as it app e ar s n atur ally

2 °
e xp e rim e n ti ng which is u su ally d e fi n e d as t h e e x a mi n ati o n
,

o f th e ph e n o m e no n m o re o r l e ss m o difi e d by a rtifici a l c ircum

st anc e s i n stitute d by us in o rd e r to study it b e tte r ; 3 c o mp ari °

so n th at is t o s ay th e gr adu a l c o n sid e r ati o n Of a s u c c e ssi o n

,

o f an al o g o u s c as e s i n which th e ph e n o m e no n b e c o m e s m o r e
,

and m o r e simpl e O f th e s e thre e pro c e ss e s astro no my o nly

.

m ak e s use o f th e first Physics c anno t u se th e third whi c h

.

is r e s e rv e d fo r b io l o g y ; but it av ails its e l f o f th e fi rst and

instit ut e s th e s e c o nd T h lS I S a fre sh c o n firm ati o n o f th e law
.

P l p I56 8 1
o . o s. 1 -
1 .
1 56 Tli e P lz ilosop/zy of A ug uste C om te

e st ablish e d by C o mt e : to th e c o mpl e xity and i ncre asi ng diffi

culty o f t h e sci e n c e s c o rr e sp o n ds an i ncre asi ng d e ve l o p
,

m e nt Of th e pro c e ss e s Of th e p o sitive m e th o d applic abl e

t o th e m .

R e s e arch by way Of e xp e rim e n t which i s imp o ssibl e in ,

Astro no my app e ars in Physics I t is th e re fo re h e re wh e re it

,
.

o rigi n at e s th at we mu st study it I t is als o h e re th at it is .

m o st succ e ssful and give s t h e gre at e st n u mb e r o f r e sults

,
.

I nd e e d to e xpe rim e nt succ e ssfully we mu st b e abl e to

,
'

c o mp are t wo c as e s which pre s e n t n o o th e r diffe re n c e dire ct

“

o r i n dir e ct th an th at which r e l ate s to th e c o u rs e o f th e

,

phe no m e no n u nd e r an alysis 1
By e xp e ri m e nti ng C o mt e .
”
,

h e re cl e arly d e sig nate s wh at J o h n Stu art Mill will c all th e

m e th o d o f di ffe re n c e th at is to say th e m o st p o we rful o f his
,

m e th o ds fo r th e i nve stig ati o n o f ph e no m e na .

No w e xpe rim e nti ng so u nd e rst o o d is e xtr e m e ly di ffi cult

, , ,

wh e n ve ry c o mplic ate d ph e no m e na are c o nc e r ne d In .

physi o l o gy fo r i n st anc e th e e xp e rim e nts must b e c o mbi ne d

, ,

in such a way as to m ai n t ai n t h e subj e cts in t h e livi n g st at e

.
,

a n d e v e n as f ar a s p o ssibl e
,
in t h e n o rm al st a t e But any,
.

m o dific ati o n o fo ne p art o f th e o rg an ism im m e di at e ly affe c ts

th e o th e r p arts T h e livi n g b e i ng re acts i n st antly an d ad apt s
.
,

its e lf as b e st it c an to t h e ne w c o nditi o ns in which it h as b e e n

pl ac e d by th e e xpe rim e nt al ist We c an t h e re fo re h ardly e ve r .

e st ablish in physi o l o gy wh at is s o e asily o bt ai ne d in physics

t wo c as e s e x actly simil a r in all r e sp e cts e xc e pt in t h e o n e ,

which we w an t to analy se I n c h e mistry it is tr ue e xpe ri .

, ,

m e nt ing w o uld s e e m t o b e e v e n e asi e r th an in physi c s si n c e ,

in it as a rul e we m e r e ly c o nsid e r facts r e sulti n g fro m cir c u m

, ,

st anc e s which are pro d uc e d by m an s i nt e rv e nti o n But this is ’

.

t o mist ak e th e n a tur e o fth e e x pe rim e n t al m e th o d T h e e ss e n c e .

O f this pro c e ss d o e s no t c o n sist in m an s i nstituti o n o f th e ’

cir c um st an c e s surro undi n g th e ph e no m e na ; it li e s in th e

C II 3 3 5 ; P l p I 5 9
1
o urs, , 1 -
1 o . o s. , 1 .
 l e S cie nces o f tne I n o rg a n ic I/Vorld 1 57

fre e st p o ssibl e ch o i ce o f t h e c as e b e st suite d to sh o w th e

law o f th e ph e no m e n o n wh e th e r this c as e be m o re o ve r
”
, , ,

n atur al o r artifici a l N o w this C h o ic e is ne arly a lw ays e asi e r

.
,

in ph y sics th an in c h e mistry F o r t h e ch e mic al ph e no m e n a

.

m o re c o mp l e x in th e ms e lve s in g e ne ral c an o nly b e br o ught

,

a b o ut by t h e c o o p e rati o n o f a gr e at n umbe r o f di f
-
fe re nt
i nflu e nc e s fo r this re as o n in ch e mistry it is m o re di ffi c ult to ,

m o dify th e circumst an c e s u n d e r which ph e no m e na are p ro

duce d and still m o r e di f
,
fi cult t o is o l at e as c o mpl e t e ly as in
physics th e v ari o us c o nditi o n s by which ph e no m e na are
d e te rmi ne d .

T O th e use Of th e e xp e rim e n t al m e th o d physics c an o ft e n ,

j o i n th at Of m ath e m atic al an alysis But in th e e mpl o ym e nt .

o f t h e l att e r it must b e e xtr e m e ly c a uti o us and we must o n ly ,

h av e re c o urs e to this applic ati o n o f m ath e m atics afte r h avi ng

c are fully c o nsid e re d th e re ality o f th e st arti n g p o i nt which ,
”

a l o ne c an gu ar an t e e t h e s o lidity o f t h e d e ducti o n s I n a w o rd .
,

t h e spirit pr o p e r t o physic al i nv e stig ati o n must c o n st an tly ,

dire ct t h e use o f this p o w e rful i n strum e n t N o w this .

,

c o n diti o n h as no t alw ays b e e n fulfill e d T O O o fte n th e .

pre p o nd e ranc e o f m ath e m atic al analysis h as b ee n t h e c aus e

o f th e n e gl e ct o f e xp e rim e n t a l studi e s No t o nly h as .

m ath e m atic al anal y sis in this way re t ard e d t h e pro gre ss O f

physics but it h as e ve n t e nd e d to viti ate th e c o n c e p t i o n o f
th at sci e n c e and t o bri n g it b ack to a st at e o f Obscurity and
,

u n ce rt a i nty which s ays C o mt e no twithst an di n g th e app are n t

, ,

s e ve rity o f t h e fo rms diffe rs littl e at b o tt o m fro m its o ld , ,

m e t aphysic a l s tat e .
1

F o r this r e as o n t h e a pplic ati o n Of analysis t o physics must

,

n o t b e l e ft to g e o m e t e rs wh o are chi e fl y c o nc e r n e d with t h e

i n strum e nt I t must b e l o ng to th e physicists wh o b e fo re all

.

thi ngs c o n sid e r th e use to b e m ad e Of it M ath e m atici an s .

h av e Oft e n e n cumb e r e d physics wi t h a qu ant ity o f an alytic al

C II 3 7
1
o urs, , 1 .
1 5 8 T ue P lz ilosoplzy of A ug uste C om te

l ab o ur fo u nd e d up o n ve ry d o ubtful hyp o th e sis ; th e y m ust

give way to physi c ists tr ai ne d in e xp e rim e nt al studi e s and , ,

n e v e rth e l e s s
,
with su ffi ci e n t k no wl e dge o f m ath e m ati c s to
m ak e use o f th e analysis wh e ne ve r it is p o ssibl e Withi n .

th e s e l imit s m ath e m ati c al analysi s wil l re n d e r th e gre at e st

s e rv i c e to th e sc ie n c e o f physic s W o uld O ptics ac o u sti c s
.
,
,

t h e th e o ri e s o f h e at and o f e l e c tri c ity h ave r e ach e d th e p o i n t

wh e re we se e th e m t o day with o ut th e p o we rful h e lp o f

-

analy sis ? Y e t e v e n h e r e physic al r e s e arch e s are alm o st

,

al w ays so c o mpl e x th at in o rd e r to assu m e a m ath e m ati c al

,

fo rm th e y d e m an d th e s e tti ng asid e Of a m o re o r l e ss e ss e n ti al
,

p o rti o n o f th e c o nditi o n s Of t h e pro bl e m I n d e e d we are .

h e re in pr e s e n c e o f th e ge ne ral pro bl e m o f th e tr an sl ati o n o f

'

th e c o n cr e t e i nt o t h e a bstr ac t This pro bl e m which is

.
,

admir ably s o lv e d in m ath e m atics and s uf , fici e n tly in astro no my ,

is o nly imp e rfe c tly s o lve d in physi c s T h e art o f c l o s e l y .

c o mbi n i n g e xp e ri e n c e and anal ysis says C o mt e is still alm o st

, ,

u nk no w n I t c o nstitut e s th e fi nal pro gre ss o f th e m e th o d

.

pro p e r to th e d e e p e r study o f physics We m ay add and .

1
,

this is in C o mt e s mi nd th at c o nve rs e ly th e pro gre ss m ad e

’
,

b y this art w o uld b e us e ful to analysis its e l f .

Astro no my h as re ac h e d a p e rfe c t st at e o f p o sitivity All .

tr ac e o fth e m e t aphysic a l spirit h as dis app e are d fro m it C an .

we say as much o f physics I t w o uld n o t s e e m so wh e n we ,

se e th e hyp o th e s e s which pl ay so gr e at a p art in this s ci e n c e

,

a nd o f which a f e w are k e e n ly c o n t e st e d by C o mt e .

H o w c a n we disti n guish t h e va lu abl e hyp o th e s e s fr o m th e

u s e l e ss o ne s th o s e which are us e ful t o physics fro m th o s e
,

which are m e re ly an e n cumbran c e and sh o uld be r e j e cte d ?

This is no t a qu e sti o n which c an b e s o lve d by re fe rri ng to
C 1
II 3
o urs, , 2 1 .
 ‘

T ne S c ie n ces o f tne I n org a n ic World 1 59

a bst ract rul e s I n o rd e r to answ e r it we mu st study th e use

.
,

o f hyp o th e s e s wh e r e it is p e rfe c t and d e cid e a cc o rdi n g t o

,

this e x ampl e T o my mi nd s ays C o mt e th e d e e p e r study o f

.
, ,

t h e art o f hyp o th e se s in astr o n o my c an al o ne e st ablish t h e

ru l e s which are suit abl e to dire c t th e use p f this pre ci o us

a rtifi c e in phy si c s and m o r e so st ill i n t h e r e m ai n d e r o f
,

n atur al ph il o s o phy No w o f wh at use is it to astro no m e rs ?

.
1

T o anticip at e th e r e sult s o f d e du c t io n o r o f i ndu c t io n by

“
,

m aki ng a pr o vi si o nal s upp o siti o n c o nc e rn i ng s o m e o f th e

ve ry no ti o n s whi c h c o n stitu te th e fi nal Obj e c t o fth e re s e ar c h .
”

I t is a pr o c e ss o f which th e m e th o ds o f a ppro xim ati o n use d

by ge o m e t e rs o rigi nally sugge ste d th e g e ne ral id e a Th e y .

supp o s e d th at th e circ umfe r e n c e was th e li mit o f th e

”

p e rim e t e rs o f i nscrib e d and c ircumscrib e d p o lyg o n s th e

n u mb e r o f wh o s e sid e s w e nt o n i n cr e asi n g I n th e s am e way .
,

hyp o th e se s pro visi o nally fill up th e l acu nae o f o ur

“ ”

k no w l e dg e .

A n hyp o th e sis sh o uld alw ays b e o p e n t o a p o sitiv e

'

v e rific ati o n wh o se d e gre e o f pr e cisi o n is in h arm o ny with

,
”

t h at o f th e c o rre sp o n di n g ph e n o m e n a F o r it o nly e xpre ss e s

”
.

b e fo re h and wh at e xp e ri e nc e and r e as o n i ng might h av e m ad e

k no w n imm e di at e ly if th e circumst an c e s o f th e pro bl e m h ad
,

b e e n m o re fav o urabl e I f th e re fo re an hyp o th e sis cl aim e d

.
, ,

to att ai n th at which in its n atur e is i n acc e ssibl e to Obs e rvati o n

an d to r e a s o n i ng it w o uld imm e di a t e ly b e c o m e ill e gitim at e

,

an d h armful I n a w o rd it must b e ar e xclusiv e ly u p o n l aws

.
, ,

and ne ve r up o n c aus e s o r th e m o d e s O f pro ducti o n o f '

ph e no m e na .

I n th e physics o f his o wn tim e C o mt e fi nds th e t wo ki nd s

o f hyp o t h e s e s but h e als o fi n ds m o r e b ad hyp o th e s e s th an
,

g o o d o ne s H e e sp e ci ally pro t e sts ag ai n st th e eth e rs and th e

.

fl uids to which th e ph e no m e na o f h e at light e l e ctri c ity an d , ,

m agne tism w e r e attribu te d Th e s e hyp o th e s e s acc o rdi ng to

.
,

C II 3 36 q 1
o urs, , s .
 T ue P li i losopn
y o f A ug uste C om te

him ,
d e sti ne d to d isapp e ar fro m s c i e nc e I t is tru e th at
are .

t h e physicist s d e ny th at th e y attribut e an o bj e c tiv e r e ality t o

th e ir e th e rs and t h e ir fluids Th e y cl aim to ne e d th e m ab

.

so lu te ly in o rd e r t o fac ilit at e th e c o n c e pti o n and th e c o mbi na

ti o n o f ph e no m e na H o w e ve r in spite o f th e ms e lve s th e y
.
, ,

a re dr aw n i nt o sp e aki ng o f th e ir e th e r s a s if th e y r e ally e xist e d .

M o re o v e r do th e y no t se e th at astro no my ge ts o n ve ry w e ll
,

with o ut simil ar hyp o t h e s e s ? I n o rd e r to c o n c e ive th e ph e no

m e na it is e no ugh to Obs e rve and an alys e th e m att e ntive ly .

A n d as t o c o mbi n i n g th e m th at d e p e nds up o n th e k n o wl e dg e
, ,

which h as b e e n Obt ai ne d o f th e ir p o siti ve re l ati o n s .

T h e c o rpuscul ar th e o ry is o n t h e c o ntrary an e x ampl e

, ,

o f a g o o d hyp o th e sis in physics wh e r e it pl ays a p art ana ,

l o g o ns to th at o f th e i ne rti a o f b o di e s in m e ch an ics T h e .
1

i nne rm o st stru c ture Of b o di e s is u n k no w n to us But .

we h ave a right t o i n tr o duc e all t h e hyp o th e s e s which

c an h e lp us in o u r r e s e arch an d in p articul a r t h e hyp o th e sis
,

o f a t o ms so l o n g as we do no t un d e rst an d it as s o m e thi n g
‘

r e p re s e nti ng a r e ality .

T h e e th e rs an d th e fluids t e n d t o e xpl ai n t h e physi c al

ph e no m e na by th e n ature o ft h e age nt which pro d uc e s th e m .

I t is h e re th at th e s e hyp o th e se s b e ar th e m ark o f th e m e t a
physic al spirit T O u nd e rst an d th e app e aran c e and e sp e ci ally
.

th e p e rsist e n c e o f th e s e hyp o th e s e s it is n o t e n o ugh t o c o n

,

sid e r th e m in th e ms e lv e s We must g e t b ack to th e hist o ry

.

o f physics and c o mp a r e it with th at o f t h e o th e r fu n d a m e n t a l

,

sci e n c e s Was it p o ssibl e fo r ph y sics t o p ass sudd e nl y fr o m

.

t h e p e ri o d in which ph e no m e na are r e fe rr e d t o c aus e s and

e ss e n c e s t o t h e p o sitiv e p e ri o d wh e re th e y are c o n c e iv e d as
,

simply subj e ct to l aws ? A p e ri o d o f tr ansiti o n was ne c e ss ary .

T h e sch o l astic e n titi e s b e fo r e dis app e ari n g be c am e s e mi

, ,

m ate ri alis e d Th e y w e re transfo rm e d i nt o fluids Wh at is

. .

h e at c o nc e ive d as e xisti n g ap art fro m a h o t b o dy light i nd e ,

1
P o l po s 5 2
. . 0
.
 Tli e S cie nces of t/z e I n o r a n ic
g World 1 61

p e n d e n t Of a l umi no us b o dy e l e ctricit y s e p arat e d fro m an

,

e l e ctric b o dy ? Th e y are th e o ld e ntiti e s in a ne w g arm e nt

m o re e asily grasp e d in spi te o f t h e ir e quiv o c al c o rp o re ity
,
“
.

Th e y gradu ally l e ad t o t h e m o r e and m o re e xclusive c o nsid e r a

ti o n o f ph e no m e na an d Of l aws u n til in th e ir tur n th e y dis
, , ,

app e an

Astro no my w e nt thr o ugh th e s am e ph as e s b e fo re Physics .

I n it we h av e als o s e e n hyp o th e s e s which c anno t b e v e rifi e d

c o m e to facilit at e th e tran siti o n fro m th e th e o l o gic al t o th e
p o sitiv e st at e S uch was th e c o nc e pti o n Of D e sc art e s wh o e x
.

pl ai ne d th e c e l e sti al m o ti o n s by th e s y st e m Of v o rtic e s Th o s e .

fam o us v o rtic e s i ntro duc e d th e id e a o fa m e ch an ism wh e re Ke p

le r hims e lf h ad o n ly d a r e d to c o n c e iv e th e i n c o mpre h e nsibl e
a cti o n o f s o uls a n d g e n ii . Th e n Ne wt o n c am e wh o pre s e rve d ,

t h e id e a o f m e ch an ism whil e givi ng up t h e Vo rtic e s

,
I n vai n .

did th e C arte si an s fight ag a i n st his e n tire l y p o sitive c o nc e pti o n .

Th e ir a rgum e n ts in favo ur Of fluids and e th e rs w e r e as pl aus

ibl e as th o s e o f th e physicists Of o u r o wn tim e B ut we h av e .

c e as e d to list e n to th e m H avi ng b e c o m e e n tire ly p o sitive

.
,

astr o no my n o l o n g e r s e e ks a nythi n g but th e l a ws at w o rk in

th e ph e n o m e na o bs e rve d . Eve ry acc e ss o ry hyp o th e sis aimi ng

at any thi n g e ls e h as no furth e r i n t e r e st f o r us .

T h e m o st advan c e d p o rti o n s Of physics h av e alre ady r e ach e d

this p o i nt T ak e fo r i nst an c e th e study o fgra v it ati o n Th e re
.
, ,
.

was n o t p e rh aps a si n gl e sci e n tific m a n o fany imp o rt an c e in th e

X V I I c e n tury e ve n l o ng a ft e r G alil e o wh o did no t c o nstruct o r
.
, ,

ad o pt a syst e m c o n c e r n i n g th e fa ll o f b o di e s At th at tim e
'

any sci e n c e o n t his subj e ct s e e m e d imp o ssibl e with o ut a hyp o

th e sis O fthis ki n d Wh o tro ubl e s hims e lf with it to day ? We

.
-

m ay b e a ll o w e d t o thi n k th a t t h e o th e r p a rts Of physics will

fo ll o w th e s am e li ne and th at in tur n th e y will c o n fo rm to this

,

rul e o f th e p o sitive m e th o d : Ev e ry h y p o th e sis must b e a r

“

e xclusiv e l y up o n t h e l aws o f ph e no m e na an d n e v e r up o n ,

th e ir m o d e s Of pr o ducti o n .
”
 T ue P nilosop/zy f
o A u
g uste C om te

III .

I n th e s e ri e s o f th e fu nd am e nt al sci e nc e s Ch e mistry app e a rs

t o fill a s o m e wh at s e c o n d a ry a nd sub o rdi n at e pl a c e I n it t h e .

p o sitive m e tho d is n o t e nrich e d by any pro c e ss o f c apit al im

p o rt anc e but it c o n fi ne s its e lf to d e v e l o pi ng t h e pro c e ss e s
,

a lr e ady m ad e u se o f in physics I n spit e o f a pp e a r an c e s e v e n

.
,

e xp e rim e n ti n g is l e ss e asy an d l e ss fe rtil e in ch e mistry t h a n in

physics T h e o nly ne w pr o c e ss which we se e app e ari ng is th e

.

a rt o f n o m e n cl ature Wh e ne ve r we wish to study this art at

.

its s o u rc e we sh all h ave to re fe r to ch e mistry .

1

T h e ph e no m e n a which it studi e s a re th e m o st c o mplic at e d

o f t h e i n o rg an ic w o rld I f th e n physics is e x t re m e ly im
.

p e rfe ct it is no t surprisi ng th at ch e mistry sh o uld b e much

,

m o re so I n th e gre ate r n u mb e r o f its re s e arch e s t h e

.
“

ch e mistry o f th e pre s e n t day h ard ly d e se r ve s th e n am e Of

s c i e nc e But this i n fe ri o rit y o f ch e mistry is n o t o nl y due to
2 ”
.

t h e n a tur e o f its Obj e ct Th e re are o th e r c aus e s which it

.

w o uld b e e asi e r to r e m e dy T h e pro gre ss o f ch e mis t ry is .

re t ard e d 1 b y t h e wr o n g dir e cti o n gi ve n t o much o f its w o rk

,

up t o th e pre s e n t tim e ; 2 by th e d e fe c t i v e e duc at i o n o f th e

,

m aj o rity o f th e sci e ntific m e n wh o gi ve th e ms e l ve s t o its s t ud y .

B e fo re all thi n gs ch e mists l ack a cl e ar and r a t i o n al id e a o f

.

th e ir sci e nc e Of its r e l ati o n to th e sci e n c e s which st an d

,

n e ar e st to it a n d th e way i n which its pr o bl e ms sh o uld b e

s t at e d. B e i ng i n te rmedi ate b e tw e e n ph y sics and bi o l o gy ,

ch e mistry h as s uffe re d fr o m th e vici n i ty o f b o th As th e .

m o re advan c e d sci e n c e s alw ays h av e a m ark e d t e nd e n c y to

e n cr o a ch up o n th o s e ab o v e th e m ch e mistry must in t h e fi rst
’

pl ac e d e fe n d its e lf ag ai n st th e a sc e nd e n c y Of ph y sics as ph y sics i

,

its e lf must fight ag ai n st th at o f m ath e m atics T h e ch e mist .

must u n d o ubte dly h ave studi e d physics in o rd e r to m ak e use ,

o f th e r e sults o bt ai n e d by this sci e n c e a n d t o tu r n t h e m if h e , .

,

P l P 1 I o . ea , C, III 3 4 o urs, ,
-
.
 Tne S cie nces of t/z e I norg a n ic World 1 63

c an, i n to a m e th o d fo r h iso wn u se T h e re l ati o n o fth e s e two

.

s ci e nc e s is ve ry cl o s e and a k no wl e dg e o fth e l aws o fc al o rifi c

,

a nd e l e ctric ph e n o m e n a f o r i n st an c e is o f th e high e st imp o rt

, ,

an c e f o r ch e mic a l r e s e arch But fo r all this th e ch e mist

.
,

h as his o wn po i n t o f vi e w H e studi e s (wh i ch th e ph y

.
,

s ic is t d o e s no t d o ) ,
t h e l aws Of t h e ph e n o m e na o f c o m

p o siti o n and d e co mp o siti o n which are th e re sult o f th e m o l e

c u la r an d sp e ci fic a cti o n o f div e rs e n atur al o r artifici a l s ub

stanc e s upo n e ach o th e r H e must th e re fo re m ak e use o f

.

ph y sics but n o t sub o rdi nat e hims e lf t o it

, .

O n t h e o th e r h an d physi o l o gic al r e s e arch is n o t withi n t h e

pro vi nc e o f ch e mistry Wh at h as b e e n c all e d bi o l o gic al
.
‘
“

ch e mistry b e l o ngs a c c o rdi n g to C o mte t o bi o l o gy al o ne

”
, , .

F o r t h e physi o l o gist to h av e g o ne t hr o ugh th e sch o o l Of

ch e mistry is natura l and e ve n i ndisp e n s abl e But his p o i n t o f .

v i e w is quit e diffe re n t fro m th at o f th e ch e m ist As a m att e r .

o f fac t , ch e mists h ave sh o w n th e ms e lve s u nqu alifi e d fo r

ph y si o l o gic al studi e s N o ne o fthe ir n um e ro us atte mpts h ave
.

succ ee d e d in e st ablishi ng a si ngl e p o i n t Of ge ne ral d o ctri ne ,

in bi o l o gy . Th e y m e re ly furn ish e d m at e ri als M o re o ve r .

th e s e c anno t b e us e d j ust as th e y are by th e physi o l o gist ,

wh o is o blig e d to t ak e up th e r e s e a rch e s ag a i n u n d e r th e pre

p o nd e rati ng i nflu e n c e o f bi o l o gic al c o n sid e rati o ns C o mt e .
”

a dmire s th e s e lf c o n fide n c e o f t h e ch e mists wh o appr o ach

-

ph y si o l o gic al qu e sti o n s with o ut h avi ng m e asure d o r e ve n sus

e c t e d t h e sp e ci a l di ffi culti es I t is h o w e v e r cl e ar th at t h e
p .
, ,

m o st c are fully m ad e che mic a l analys e s must b e fr uitl e ss h e re

s o l o ng as th e y a re n o t dir e ct e d in t h e first pl ac e by a pr e cis e

physi o l o gic al no ti o n o ft h e wh o l e o f th e ph e no m e no n and th e n ,

m o difi e d by th e k no wl e dge o f th e limits o f th e n o rm al

v a ri a ti o ns t o which t h e ph e no m e na m ay be li abl e No w fo r .
,

p r o c e e di n g in this m anne r t h e physi o l o gists a l o ne are c o m

,

p e t e nt
.
1

C 1 III 1 86 9
o urs, ,
- .
1 64 Tne P nilosop/iy of A ug uste C om te

A nal o go us c o n sid e r ati o n s l e ad C o mt e t o re j e ct e ve n o rg an i c

ch e mistry Alth o ugh th e ch e mic al ph e no m e na pr e s e n t ch ar
.

ac te rist ic s which in t h e i no rg an ic w o rld c o m e ne a r e st t o t h e

s o lid arity which subsists b e tw e e n t h e e l e m e n ts Of livi ng fo rms ,

n e v e rth e l e ss ch e mic al ph e no m e n a r e m ai n s irr e ducibl e t o livi n g

ph e no m e na Th at which is ch e mic al is n o t ye t o rg an ic an d
.

th at which is o rganic is n o l o nge r pure l y c h e mic al We must .

do aw ay with this h e te r o ge no us an d fictiti o us gr o upi ng which

is c all e d o rg an ic ch e mistry t o u n it e th e di ffe re n t p a rts ac
, ,

c o rdi ng to th e ir re sp e ctive natur e s o m e to che mistry pro p e r , ,

th e o th e rs t o bi o l o gy
1
.

H o w c an we d e fi ne th e o bj e ct o f this sci e n c e s o imp e rfe ctly ,

d e te rmi ne d at th e pre s e nt tim e ? C o mte k no ws th at

h e is a b o ut t o d e p ar t fro m th e m e th o ds g e ne r ally in u se
a m o n g ch e mists but h e is n o t afraid o f this F o r h e
, .
,

s ays in o rd e r t o u n d e rst an d th e re al n ature o f a sci e n c e

, ,

we must a lw ays supp o s e it t o b e p e rfe ct 2

As ch e mistry .
,

is in an e xtr e m e st at e o f imp e rfe c ti o n t h e “

sci e ntifi c ,

typ e whi c h th e phil o s o ph e r c o nc e iv e s r e sp e cti n g i t

”

will app e ar to b e v e ry far re m o ve d fr o m wh at e xists at

pre s e nt .I t m att e rs littl e so l o ng as this typ e is p e rfe ctly
r ati o n al .

Wh at is e ss e nti al to sci e nc e is th e p o ssibility Of fo re s e e i ng

ph e no m e na Give n th e cha racte ristic pro p e rti e s o fth e simpl e
.

o r c o mpl e x subst an c e s pl ac e d in ch e mic al r e l ati o n s with e ach

o th e r u n d e r w e ll d e fi n e d circumst anc e s t h e o bj e ct o fch e mistry ,

will th e re fo re b e t o d e te rmi ne e x actly in wh at th e ir acti o n will

c o n sist a nd wh at will be th e pro p e rti e s o f th e ne w subst an c e s
,

pro duc e d Acc o rdi n g t o this d e fi niti o n th e fu nd a m e nt al

.
3
,

d at a o f ch e mistry sh o uld b e ultim at e ly re ducibl e to th e ,

k no wl e dge o ft h e e ss e nti al pro p e rti e s o fth e simpl e e l e m e nts

a l o ne which w o uld l e ad to th at o f t h e v ari o us imm e di at e
,

c h e mic a l subst an c e s and c o n s e q ue n tly t o t h e m o st c o mpl e x

,

C III 95 C I 8 II 3 C III
1

1 2 1
o urs, , 1 . o urs . 11 . 1 1. o urs . 1 1 -1 2 .
 T ue S c ie n ces f
o tire I n or a n ic
g World 1 65

an d dist an t c o mbi nat i o ns O bvi o usly th e study o fsimpl e b o di e s

.
,

c an o n ly b e m ad e by m e an s o f e xp e rim e n ts which a l o ne re ,

ve al th e ir pro p e rti e s But o n c e t his b asis is l aid d o w n all

.
, ,

th e o th e r ch e mic al ph e no m e n a n o twiths t an di n g t h e ir im
,

m e ns e v ari e ty sh o uld b e c ap abl e o f r at i o nal s o luti o n s acc o rd

, ,

ing t o a sm all n umb e r o f i n v ari abl e l aws e st ablish e d by t h e ,

sci e nc e o f ch e mistry fo r th e v ari o u s cl ass e s Of c o mbi nati o n s .

Thus C o mt e s e e s cl e arly th at th e c o mpl e xity o f th e

,

ch e mic al ph e no m e n a pre ve n ts us fro m e xpre ssi ng th e i r

re l ati o n s in a fo rm which all o ws o f t h e use o f m ath e m atic al
an alysis But n o ne th e l e ss in this sci e n c e as in th e pre c e d
.
,

ing o ne s h e p e rsists in m aki n g th e e xp e r i m e nt al m e th o d a

,

m e r e st arti ng p o i n t T h e e xp e rim e n t al m e th o d fur n ish e s t h e

-
.

d at a which it al o ne c an supply But th e s e d at a are aft e rw ards

.

e l ab o r at e d with o ut its i n t e rv e n ti o n T h e sci e n tific id e al in

.

ch e mistry as in physics and in a stro no my is to suostitu te as

, ,

m u c/
i as p ossi ble ra tio n a l prev is ion to exp eri m en ta l v eri fication .

Sci e nc e alw ays s e e ks t o deduce th e gre at e st n umb e r o fc o nse

u e nc e s fr o m th e sm all e st n u mb e r o f d at a a n d t he sm all e st
q ,

n u mb e r o f d at a in this c as e are t h e pr o p e rti e s o f simpl e

b o di e s D e ducti o n will e stablish a p riori wh at th e pr o p e rti e s

.

O f a give n c o mbi nati o n o f two simpl e b o di e s o r o f two c o m ,

pl e x b o di e s will b e .

I n th e n a m e Of this sc ie n t ific id e al C o m t e r e pr o ach e s t h e

'

ch e mists wi th th e sup e rabu n d an c e o f th e ir an alytic al w o rk

'

I n d e fault o fa r ati o na l c o n c e pti o n o f ch e mistry th e y do n o t

m ak e th e ir w o rk b e ar up o n th e ne c e ss ary p o i n ts W h at is .

th e u se o f studyi n g such and such a b o dy pl ac e d in such and ,

such c o nditi o n s in an a rbitrary way and acc o rdi ng to th e

,

fancy o f i n ve stig ati o n ? T h e pro gre ss o f ch e mistry sh o uld

c o nsist far l e ss in th e acquisiti o n Of ne w m at e ri als th an in th e
syst e m atis ati o n o f th o s e which we alre ady p o ss e ss Ch e mistry .

is to day as rich in d e t ails as it is imp e rfe ctly c o n stitute d as a

-
1 66 l e P /z ilosopby o f A ug u ste C om te

s ci e nc e
.
1
I ts pre s e nt st at e in n o way giv e s an id e a Of wh a t
its n o rm al st at e will b e .

No t c o nt e n t with s ho wi ng to ch e mists th e sci e ntifi c type

t o w ards whi c h th e ir sci e nc e sh o uld te nd C o mte sugg e s ts a ,

c o n trivan c e in m e th o d which will bri n g th e m ne are r to it .

I t is in no way lik e t h e hyp o th e sis o f affin iti e s fo r this ,

a pp e a rs to him to be e ve n m o re o nt o l o gic al th an th e
“ ”

hyp o th e sis Of im agi nary fluids o r e th e rs As alw ays h ap pe n s .

wh e n we are c o nc e r ne d with m e t aphysic al c o nc e pti o n s th e ,

e xpl anati o n s which we dr a w fr o m a f fi n iti e s c o n sist in th e

re pro ducti o n in abstract te rms o f th e ve ry st ate m e nt o fth e
ph e no m e no n T O this hyp o th e sis whi c h is no t a sci e ntifi c
2
.
,

o ne si n c e it b e ars up th e m o d e o f pr o d u cti o n o f facts C o mt e ,

s ubstitut e s wh at h e c alls th e du alist hyp o th e sis We i g no re .

”
,

h e s ays and it is no t fo r us t o se e k th e re al m an ne r in which

,

th e e l e m e n ts o f which b o di e s a re c o mp o s e d c o m e t o b e
gro up e d t o ge th e r But c o n s e qu e ntly it is l awful fo r us in
.
, , ,

th e v e ry cir c u mscrib e d sph e re o f o u r p o sitiv e r e s e arch t o c o n ,

c e ive t h e imm e di at e c o mp o siti o n o f any subst an c e wh at e ve r as

m e re l y bi na ry e ach Of th e two b o di e s so s e p arate d b e i n g abl e

, ,

a cc o rdi n g as t h e c as e m ay b e t o l e n d its e l f t o a simil a r

,

analysis e qu ally bi n a ry
, an d so o n a s th e o c c asi o n a ris e s
, , ,

We do no t affirm th at d u alism is a re al law o fn ature I t will .

b e a fu n d am e nt al c o ntrivan c e in ch e mistry lik e t h e hyp o th e sis ,

o f i n e rt i a in m e ch an i c s and th at o f at o ms in physics
,
I t will .

s e rve to simplify o u r e l e m e nt a ry c o nc e pti o ns in ch e mistry ,

and in h avi n g r e c o urs e t o it we do n o t e xc e e d t h e sp e ci a l

“

ki nd o f libe rty o f which o u r i nte ll e ct m ay avai l its e lf in th e

”
,

in stituti o n o f sci e n c e 3
.

T h e u se o f this hyp o th e sis w o uld all o w us t o e n d o w

ch e mist ry with a fine ch aracte r o f u n it y and r ati o n ality
“

which it l acks to day I t is tru e th at C o mt e hims e lf c o n fe ss e d

-
.

th at this hyp o th e sis pr o p o s e d by him in 1 8 3 8 h ad ye t p ro

,
“
,

1
C III 6
o urs, C
. 2 0III 3 5
. C III 8 7 8
2
o urs, . .
3
o urs, .
-
.
 T b e S cie n ces f
o tb e I n or an ic
g World 1 67

duc e d nothi ng in 1 8 5 1 But h e e xpl ai n s this ste rility to

.

hims e lf by th e m e t aphysic al spirit fro m which c h e mists are ,

n o t su f
fici e ntly fre e d .

We c an no w t ak e in at a si ngl e gl anc e th e re l ati o n s o fth e

sc i e n c e s o f t h e i n o rg an i c w o rld ( i nc l udi ng astro no my ) with ,

t h e t o t ality o f p o sitiv e phil o s o phy 1

.

I n s e ve r al w ay s th e s e s c i e n c e s h av e c o n tribut e d to th e
pro gre ss o f th e p o sitive spirit By th e ir c o n stituti o n th e y
.
,

all o w e d an d pre p a r e d t h e fo rm ati o n o f th e m o re c o mpl e x

sci e n c e s o f Bi o l o gy and o f S o ci o l o gy M o re o v e r th e i r .
,

d e ve l o pm e nt struck a m o rt al bl o w at th e o l o gic al and m e t a

physic al phil o s o phy Thro ugh the m mi nds be c am e fa mili ar
.

is e d with th e id e a o fnatural law This id e a was n o t so c l e arly

.

bro ught t o light by m ath e m atics o n acc o u n t o f th e ir al m o st

pure ly abstract ch aract e r and o fth e imp e r c e ptibl e p art pl aye d
,

in th e m by O bs e rv ati o n . I t app e ars o n th e c o ntrary as th e

, ,

m ai nspri n g o f astro no my o f physi c s and o f ch e mistry T h e

, ,
.

wh o l e e ffo rt o f th e s e sci e nc e s t e n ds to disc o ve r i nvari abl e

r e l ati o ns b e tw e e n ph e n o m e na giv e n in e xpe ri e nc e .

Th e o l o gic al phil o s o phy is t h e e xpl anati o n o f nature

“ ”

which th e hum an mi n d first m ak e s fo r its e l f I n o rd e r th at it .

m ay giv e up this e xpl anati o n s o m e c o n tra ry e vid e nc e must

o blig e it t o do so . I t m ay se e fo r i nst an c e th at ph e no m e na ,

c an be pr e di c t e d with a p e rfe ct e x a c t ne s s which is alw ays

c o n firm e d by e xp e ri e n c e o r th at m an u n d e r c e rt ai n c o n
, ,

ditio n s c an m o dify th e m with c e rt ai nty

,
Astro no my give s .

u s an e x a mpl e o fth e fo rm e r c as e I t studi e s ph e no m e na which

.

it is tru e are re m o ve d fro m o ur sph e re o facti o n But in re tur n

,
‘
.
, ,

it pre dic ts th e m with a c e rt ai n ty o f which th e e ffe ct h as b e e n

practic ally i n fallibl e in th e l o ng run I t is astro no my which h as
.

1
P o l po s -I
. . .
551 .
 T ne P b ilosopby f
o A ug uste C om te

d o ne m o st to discre dit t h e re ligi o us an d phil o s o phic al d o ctri n e

o f fi n a l c aus e s No t o n ly h as it pro ve d th at th e u n i ve rs e is
.
1

n o t disp o s e d with r e f e r e n c e to m an but it h as sh o w n t h e ,

imp e rfe cti o ns o f o ur s o l ar s y st e m I t h as h e lp e d m o re .

th an any o th e r sci e nc e t o ch e ck th e m e n t al h abit o f s e e ki n g

th e m o d e o f pr o ducti o n o f ph e n o m e na .

Physics is far fro m all o wi n g o fa r ati o n al pr e visi o n which is

c o m p a r abl e to th at pra ctis e d b y astro no my B ut as a c o m .
,

pe nsat io n it sh o ws h o w t h e k n o wl e dge o f l aws give s t h e

,

p o w e r to c aus e ph e n o m e n a t o v ary wi t h c e rt ai nty This .

s e c o n d way l e ads us no l e ss sure ly th an th e first to th e p o si tive

c o nc e pti o n o fn ature F o r e x ampl e Fr an kli n d e str o y e d th e
.
,

re ligi o us th e o ry o f thu n d e r e ve n in t h e l e ast cultiv at e d ,

i nte ll e cts T h e disc o ve ry o ft h e m e an s o f dir e cti ng light ni ng

.

th e re fo re h ad th e s am e e ffe ct in ano th e r way as th e e x act , ,

pre visi o n o fth e re tur n o f c o m e ts 2

.

O n t h e o th e r h an d th e sci e nc e s o f t h e i no rg an ic w o rld
fur n ish th e g e ne r al p o sitive m e th o d with s o m e o f its m o st
p o w e rful pro c e ss e s Astro no my i n tr o duc e s o bs e rv ati o n a nd
.

hyp o th e sis i nt o this m e th o d Physics a dds e xp e rim e n ti ng to ,

i t and Ch e mistry th e art o f n o m e n cl ature s T h e in

,
.

duc t ive m e th o d which v irtu ally c o nsists in simpl e sci e n tific

,

o bs e rv ati o n b e c o m e s h o w e v e r e nrich e d an d is d e ve l o p e d
, , , ,

a cc o rdi n g as th e ph e n o m e na in qu e sti o n b e c o m e m o r e
c o mplic ate d .

But in r e tur n p o si tive phil o s o phy e x e rcis e s a c o nsid e rabl e

, ,

i nflu e n c e o v e r th e s e sci e nc e s I t cl aims n o thi ng l e ss th an t o .

dire ct an d re g e ne rate th e m
“
V i e wi n g th e m fro m ab o ve
”
.

a nd as a wh o l e phil o s o phy c an bri ng a r e m e dy to th e diffi

,

c u lt ie s which a ris e fr o m th e ir sp e ci alism I t s e ts an e x act .

li m it t o e ach o f th e sci e n c e s I t d e li ve rs physics fro m th e .

alg e br a ic al y o k e an d pr o t e cts th e i n d e pe n d e n c e o f ch e mists

“
,

a g a i n st t h e e n cr o a chm e n ts o f t h e ph y sicists I t pl ac e s th e .

C 1
II 4 6o urs, C . II 3 3
2 -
2 .
2
o u rs, . 1 .
 T /z e S c ie n ces o f tue I n or
g an ic PVo rla ’
1 69

e nt ire ty Of th e p o sitiv e m e th o d at th e s e r v ic e o f e ach p articul a r

sci e n c e F o r i n s tanc e it dire cts t h e use o f hyp o th esis in
.
,

physics b y th e th e o ry dr aw n fro m t h e u se which is m ad e o f it

in astr o no my ; fo r cl assific at i o n s it e xt e n ds to ch e mistry , .

t h e use o f th e c o mp ar ati v e m e t h o d which pr o pe rly b e l on gs

t o bi o l o gy Wh e n l ate r th e i nt e gra l and fi nal c o n stitu t i o n

.
, ,

o fth e phil o s o phy Of o u r a e sh all h av e o rg an is e d t h e r e l ati o n s

g
b e tw e e n all th e sci e n c e s it will b e alm o st imp o ssibl e s av e
, ,

fro m th e hist o ric al p o i nt o f vi e w to u n d e rs tand h o w th e study

,

o f n atur e was e v e r c o n c e iv e d an d dir e c te d o th e rwis e

1
.

P o siti v e phil o s o phy o rgan is e s l ab o ur wi t hi n e ach sci e n c e ,

a nd puts an e nd t o an arch y I t disti nguishe s b e tw e e n

”
.

“
idl e re s e arch e s and th o s e which sh o uld b e pursu e d I t
” '

.
,

a v o ids w ast e o f e ff o rts and pr e v e n ts digr e ssi o n s We h ave .

s e e n wi thi n wh at limi t s C o m t e wish e s to e n cl o s e astro no my in

th e n am e o f phil o s o phy H e d o e s no t p e rc e iv e th e m e an s by
.

which h e c an u n it e th e v ari o us br an ch e s o f physics ; b u t h e

cl aims to r e pl ac e t h e fragm e nt ary an d sc a t te re d ch e mis try o f
his t im e by a si ngl e sys te m at ic sci e nc e which will fo rs ak e ,

th e r e s e a rch e s o f d e t a il which are with o ut i n t e r e st fo r h u

m an ity “
Alm o st t h e wh o l e o f th o s e i n n um e rabl e c o mp o u nd s
.

will no t fi nall y b e w o rthy o f any sci e n tifi c atte n ti o n S o m e .

w e ll ch o s e n s e ri e s m ay e ve n b e abl e to s at isfy t h e l o gic al

-

r e quire m e n ts o f ch e mis tr y fo r t h e disc o v e ry o f t h e abstra ct

l aws which b e l o ng t o e ach o rd e r Of c o mp o siti o n .
” 2

Fi nally p o sitive phil o s o ph y c aus e s t h e dis app e ar an c e o f th e

l ast r e m ai n s o f t h e th e o l o gic a l a nd m e t aphysic al spirit fro m
t h e sci e n c e s Of i n o rg an ic n atur e This phil o s o phy h as alre ady
.

sh o w n th at m ath e m atics is n o t a m o r e abs o lute sci e nc e th an

'

t h e o th e rs an d th at it o rigi n a t e s in e xp e ri e n c e
,
I n physics .

a n d in c h e mis t ry it b an ish e s t h e h y p o th e s e s which m o re o r ,

l e ss avo w e dl y t e n d to m ak e us c o n c e ive t h e e ss e n c e o r t h e
,

m o d e o f pr o ducti o n o fphe no m e na I t is thus th at it d e m ands .

C 1
III 7 5
o urs, . P l p. I 56 2
o . os .
, 1 .
1 7 0 Tb e P /i ilosop/zy of

a sci e nc e o f physics fre e d fro m e th e rs and fluids and a wh o lly

,

rati o nal c h e mistry which sh all give up affi niti e s .

C o mt e is no t th e re fo re p o ss e ss e d o f a sup e rstiti o u s re spe ct

fo r th e sci e n c e s in th e st at e in whi c h t h e y appe ar be fo re him .

O n th e c o ntr ary h e i nt e n ds th at th e y sh o uld b e subj e ct t o

,

d e e p m o difi c ati o n s and th at th e y sh o uld strive t o wards an

,

id e al fo rm which is l aid d o w n fo r th e m by phil o s o phy H e .

c alls this fo rm p o sitive

“
. I n r e al ity it is C art e si an
.
 C H APTE R I V
B I O LO GY

TH E p ass ag e fr o m th e i no rgan ic w o rld to th e w o r l d o f L ife

c o nstitut e s a criti c a l st e p in natur al phil o s o phy Astro no my.
,

Physics and C h e m istry re pre se nte d succ e s sive st e ps in th e

,
'

sam e se ri e s I f e ach o rd e r o f ph e no m e na pre s e nt e d in its e lf

.

so m e thi ng whi c h was irr e du c ibl e to pr e vi o us o rd e rs n e ve rth e

,

l e ss all th e s e phe no m e na in a c e rt ai n s e ns e re m ai ne d h o m o
, ,

g e n e o u s. With o ut r ash ne ss D e sc art e s c o u l d c o n c e iv e th at

,

physi c s lik e astro no my w o uld o ne day assum e t h e m ath e

, ,

m at ic al fo rm A nd t o d ay m o re th a n o ne sci e nti fi c m an
.

c o n sid e rs th e disti ncti o n b e tw e e n phy si c s and che mistry a s

pro visi o nal .

E nt as s o o n as life app e ars we e nt e r a ne w w o rld

, At this
.

d e gre e th e e n richm e nt o f th e re al is sudd e nly so c o nsid e r

”

abl e th at we fin d it difli c ult to ad mit th e h o m o g e ne ity O f

th e s e ph e no m e na with th e pre c e di n g o ne s C o mt e h e re re aps
.

th e be ne fit o f h is prud e n c e H is phil o s o phy h as gu ard e d

.

ag ai n st r e d uci n g all sci e n c e to a si n gl e typ e an d it is c o n t e n t

,

with th e u nity o f m e th o d and th e h o m o g e ne ity o f d o c tri ne .

I t o n ly d e m ands th at e ach sci e n c e sh o uld l imit its e lf to th e

se arch aft e r th e l aws o f ph e no m e na As to th e way in which
.

this r e s e arch is to be c arri e d o u t it is e vid e ntly sub o rdi nat e d

to th e n ature o f th e ph e no m e n a i n qu e sti o n .No w b io l o gic al
,

ph e no m e na pre se nt a n umb e r o f c h aracte ristics which b e l o ng

t o th e m al o ne and th e first duty o ft h e p o sitive sci e n c e which
,

studi e s the m is to re spe c t th e ir o rigi n ality .

1 7 2 m e P b ilosopn
y o
f A ug uste C om te

C o m te th e re fo re h e re bre aks with D e sc art e s wh o c o nc e ive d

, ,

bi o l o gy as a pr o l o ng ati o n o f physics H e t ak e s an e n tire ly .

diffe re nt vi e w o f this sci e n c e which in a s e n s e is o pp o s e d to

, , ,

t h e wh o l e o f t h e sci e n c e s o ft h e i n o rg an ic w o rld Fr o m this .

t h e r e a ris e s a d o ubl e e ffo rt O n th e o ne h an d C o mt e wish e s

.
,

t o m ai n t ai n t h e c o n t i n uity o f th e e ncycl o p ae dic s e ri e s o f th e

sci e n c e s : h e thus sh o ws Bi o l o gy as imm e di at e ly fo ll o wi ng

che mistry and m ai n t ai n i ng th e cl o s e st r e l ati o n s with a s tro
,

n o m y a n d ph y sics O n t h e o th e r h an d h e cl e arly bri n gs o u t

.
,

t h e irr e ducibl e ch ar act e r o f th e vit al ph e no m e na an d t h e m o di

'

fic atio ns which t h e p o sitiv e m e t h o d must u nd e rgo wh e n

appli e d t o th e m D e spi te th e e xtre m e diffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e
.

p o i nts O f vi e w and th e d o ctri ne s h e Ofte n m ak e s us thi nk o f ,

th o s e d e e p and diflfic ult p ass age s in th e C ritique du jug e m en t

wh e r e K an t h as sh o w n t h at wi th o ut th e hyp o th e sis o f an
i nn e r this hyp o th e sis is in its e lf o bscure ) ,

t h e ph e n o m e n a which t ak e pl a c e in livi n g b e i n gs r e m ai n

u n i n te lligibl e .

With bi o l o g y s ays C o mt e ne c e ss arily a pp e ar th e id e as o f

, ,

o f hi e r a rchy mili e u Of th e c o n diti o ns o f

“ ”
co n se ns u s,
of , ,

e xist e n c e o f t h e r e l a ti o n b e tw e e n th e st atic an d t h e dy n a mic

,

st ate s b e twe e n th e o rg an and th e fu n cti o n I n a w o rd a

,
.
1
,

bi o l o gic al ph e no m e no n c o n sid e re d al o ne is d e vo id o f m e an i ng
,
.

Strictly sp e aki n g it d o e s no t e ve n e xist I t c an o nly b e

,
.

u n d e rst o o d by its re l ati o n s with th e o th e r ph e no m e n a which

t ak e pl ac e in th e livi n g b e i ng ph e no m e na which r e act up o n it -
.

At th e s am e tim e it r e acts up o n th e m H e re in o pp o siti o n to .

,

wh at t ak e s pl ac e in t h e i n o rganic w o rld th e p arts are o nly i nt e l ,

ligibl e t hro ugh t h e id e a o f th e wh o l e U n d o ubt e dly a c e rt ai n .

s o lid arity o f ph e no m e n a e xists in t h e i no rg an ic w o rld w h ich ,

all o ws us to c o n sid e r u n ite d wh o l e s in it But th e s o lid arity o f .

bi o l o gic al ph e no m e na is far cl o s e r fo r with o ut it we c o uld , ,

n o t c o n c e iv e th e m whil e a s r e g a rds t h e ph e n o m e n a o f t h e
, ,

C VI 77 1
o urs, , 2 .
i no rg an ic w o rld th e r e is no thi ng imp o ssibl e in this ab strac
,

ti o n.

H e nc e fo rth th e p o sitive m e th o d must ad apt its e lf to th e

,

c h arac t e ristics which be l o ng to bi o l o gic al ph e no m e na I t d o e s .

n o t a lw ays d e m an d as it h as b e e n wr o n gly st ate d th at we

, ,

sh o uld g o fro m th e simpl e to th e c o mpl e x but o n ly th at we ,

sh o uld pro c e e d fr o m th e k no w n to th e u nk n o w n I t is tru e .

th at in th e sci e nc e s o f th e i no rg an ic w o rld we pr o c e e d fro m

th e l e ast c o mpl e x t o th e m o st c o m pl e x c as e s ; we b e gi n by

t h e study o f ph e n o m e n a which are as is o l at e d as p o ssibl e

fro m o ne ano th e r But o n th e c o ntr ary livi n g b e i ngs are all

.
, ,

t h e b e tt e r k n o w n to us in pr o p o rti o n as th e y are m o r e c o mpl e x .

T h e id e a o f th e an im a l is in s o m e r e sp e cts cl e a r e r to us th an
t h e id e a o fth e v e g e t abl e T h e id e a o f th e sup e ri o r an im als is
.

cl e ar e r to u s th an th at o f th e i n fe ri o r o ne s Fi nally m an fo r .

us is th e pri n cip al bi o l o gic al u n ity and it is fro m this u n i ty

,

th at sp e cul ati o n st arts in this sci e n c e .

Thus in d e ali ng with Bi o l o gy t h e p o sitive m e th o d u nd e rgo e s

,

a v e rit abl e i n v e rsi o n .I n th e pr e c e di n g sci e n c e s th e l ast d e gr e e

,

O f c o mp o siti o n is fo rbidd e n us : we ne ve r succ e e d in u niti n g

th e wh o l e o f t h e i no rg an ic w o rld i n t o a si n gl e sy n th e sis In .

bi o l o gy o n th e c o ntr ary s ums o fphe no m e na are give n ; but it is

, ,

th e l a st d e gr e e o f simplicity which e sc ap e s us We h ave to .

st art fro m th o s e su ms o fph e nom e na and bi o l o g y must in thi s

,

way assum e a s y n th e tic ch ar a ct e r I nit th e an alysis Of ph e n o

.

m e na will b e as mi n ute as p o ssibl e ; but th e analytic al o p e r

at io n s will alw ays b e m o r e o r l e ss dir e ctly sub o rdi nate d to

th e l e adi n g id e a o f t h e vit a l conse nsus

1
.

Lik e th e o th e r fu nd am e nt al sci e n c e s Bi o l o gy must b e abstr ac t ,

th at is to say it must no t b e ar up o n i n dividu al b e i ngs but up o n ,

C I V 2 85 7
1 o urs, ,
-
.
1 74 Tb e P li ilosoplzy of A ug uste C om te

ph e no m e na I t is thus disti nct fro m z o o l o gy and b o t any

.

whi c h are c o nc r e te s c i e nc e s I n its w id e st ge ne ral ity it is

.

d e fi ne d thro ugh th e c o n stan t c o rre sp o n d e nc e b e twe e n th e

an at o mi c al and t h e physi o l o gic a l p o i n t o f vi e w I ts o bj e ct is .

t o c o n st an tly u nit e th e m t o o ne an o th e r I n re a lity th e s e t wo .

p o i nts o f vi e w are th e two asp e cts o f a si ngl e pr o bl e m I t is .

o wi n g t o hist o ric a l r e as o n s th at duri n g a c e rt ai n tim e th e s e

, ,

two sci e n c e s app e a re d t o d e v e l o p i n d e p e nd e n tly o f o ne

ano th e r Ph y si o l o gy re m ai ne d att ach e d to t h e m e t aphysic al
.

m e th o ds th at is to say to unve rifiab le hyp o th e s e s and to pri n

, ,

c ip le s which w e n t b e y o n d e xp e ri e nc e whil e anato mists ,

a lr e ady m ad e u se o f t h e p o sitiv e m e th o d But to day t h e .

-
,

t wo sci e n c e s b e i n g e qu ally p o sitiv e t h e ir o pp o siti o n is

“
,

re duc e d to th at which subsis t s b e t we e n th e st atic a nd th e

dy namic p o i n ts o f vi e w 1
.
”

A no th e r e l e m e nt which sh o uld e nt e r i nt o th e m o re ge ne ra l
d e fi n iti o n o fbi o l o gy alth o ugh it h as s o m e tim e s b e e n negl e cte d
, ,

is th e c o n sid e rati o n o fth e m ilieu T h e re l ati o n b e twe e n th e .

o rg an ism and its m ilie u is n o l e ss e ss e n ti a l t o life t h an th e

r e l ati o n o f th e o rg an to th e fu n cti o n Li fe supp o s e s n o t o n l y .

th at th e b e i ng sh o uld b e o rg anis e d in a c e rt ai n way but als o ,

th at a c e rt ai n n umb e r o f e xte rn al circumst an c e s sh o uld

.

sustai n this o rgan is ati o n and sh o uld b e c o mp atibl e with its

,

activity Livi n g b e i ngs are thus d e p e nd e n t up o n th e ir m ilieu

.

and this d e p e n d e n c e gr o ws as we ris e in t h e o rg an ic s e ri e s .

T h e sys te m o f th e c o n diti o n s o f e xist e n c e b e c o m e s all t h e

'

m o re c o mpl e x as t h e fu n c ti o n s d e ve l o p and b e c o m e m o re
vari e d . I nfe rio r O rgan isms are subj e ct to l e ss n um e ro us
e xt e r nal c o n diti o n s ; but s ays C o mte a littl e v ari ati o n in
, ,

o n e o f th e s e c o n diti o n s su f fic e s to m ak e t h e m p e rish T h e .

sup e ri o r o rganisms st an d a v ari ati o n Of this ki nd be tte r .

But in re turn th e n u mbe r Of c o nditi o ns up o n which th e y

, ,

d e p e nd is far gre ate r T h e study o f m ilieux in th e ir r e l ati o n s

.

C III 8 3 9
1
o urs, , 2 .
 B iology 1 75
to o rg anisms a study which is h ardly o utli ne d u nd o ubt e dly
, ,

h as m any disc o ve ri e s in st o r e fo r t h e future

:

H e re is an .
1

o rd e r o f pr o bl e ms o f which L a m a rck pr o b ably sugg e st e d t h e

id e a to C o mt e and up o n which D arwi n s ge n ius will w o rk

,
’
.

Bich at th e n was wro ng in s ayi ng in his c e l e brat e d d e fi niti o n

o f life t h at it is the su m o f t h e fo r c e s whi c h r e sist d e ath
“ ”
.

T h e r adic a l ant ag o n ism b e tw e e n i no rgan i c and livi n g natur e

is an i n c o mpl e te and c o ns e qu e n tly a fals e id e a I n d e e d if as .
,

Bich at supp o s e d e ve rythi ng which surr o u nds l iving b o di e s

,

t e n d e d to d e stro y th e m th e ir e xist e nc e w o u l d b e c o m e nu
,

i n te lligibl e Whe re c o uld th e y find stre ngth to r e sist such

2
.

fo rmid abl e pre ssure e ve n fo r a sh o rt tim e ? O n th e c o ntrary

, ,

t h e fu n d am e n t a l c o n diti o n fo r life is a c e rt ai n h arm o ny

“ ”

be tw e e n th e o rganism a nd th e m ilieu in which i t is pl ac e d .

T h e pro o f o f this is fur n ish e d at e ve ry tur n by e xp e ri e n c e .

This b e i ng e st ablishe d wh at will b e t h e m o st ge ne r al

,

pro bl e m o f th e sci e n c e o f life ? Fro m t h e anato mic al p o i nt

o f vi e w ,
s ays C o mt e all p o ssibl e o rg anisms all p arts
, ,

wh at e ve r o f e ach o rg an ism and all th e v ari o us st ate s o f e ach

,

n e c e ss a rily pr e s e nt a c o mm o n b asis o f st r uct u r e a nd o f c o m

p o siti o n fro m which th e tissu e s o rg ans and app ar atus h ave

, ,

e m e rg e d by m e an s o f a pr o gr e ssiv e diff e r e nti a ti o n I n th e .

s am e way fro m th e ph y si o l o gic al p o i n t o f vi e w all l ivi n g

, ,

be i n gs fro m th e ve g e t abl e ki ngd o m up to m a n c o n sid e re d in

, ,

a ll th e ir a cti o n s a n d all t h e p e ri o ds o f th e ir e xist e n c e m e c e s ,

sarily p o ss e ss a c o mm o n b a sis o f vit al a ctivity wh e n c e t h e

‘

i n n um e rabl e ph e no m e na o f n utriti o n s e c re ti o n e tc pro c e e d , , .

, ,

by m e ans o f pro gre ssive difl e re ntiatio n No w fro m b o th

'

.
,

th e se p o i n ts o fvi e w th at which is simil ar in the se c as e s is m o r e

, ,

imp o rt an t th an th at which disti n guish e s th e m si nc e th e m o r e ,

ge ne ral ph e no m e na g o ve r n th o s e which are l e ss so We mu st .

th e re fo re dis e ng age th e e l e m e nt ary physi o l o gi c al ph e no m e no n

‘

an d t h e an at o mic al stru c tur e which c o rr e sp o n ds t o it we ,

C 1 III 49 5
o urs, ,
C0, III 4 7
10 .
2
o urs, , 2 2 -
.
 Tb e P ni losop/zy of A ug uste C o m
'

1 76 te

must d e t e rmi ne th e ir r e l ati o n a nd with th e h e lp and c o n , ,

firm at io n o f e xp e ri e n c e we must d e duc e t h e i n cr e asi n gly m o r e

,

c o mpl e x physi o l o gic l

,
a an d an a t o mic l ph m
a e n o e n a fro m it 1
, .

This c o n c e p ti o n which d e spi te C o mt e s r e s e rvati o n still ,

’

a pp e ars t o b e e n tir e ly s a tur ate d with th e C art e si an spirit ,

l e ads him to th e m o st m ath e m atic al st ate m e nt p o ssibl e o f

“ ”

th e bi o l o gic al pr o bl e m Gi v e n th e o rg an o r th e o rgan ic “
.
,

m Odific at io n t o d t e fu n cti vic e ve rs a ”

fi n h ,
o n o r t h e a c t a n d 2
, .

Th e re is no thi n g m o re in c o n fo rmity wi th th e ge ne ral de fini

t i o n o f sci e n c e which c o nsists in subs t it uti n g th e k n o wl e dg e
,

o f l aws t o th at o f fa cts a nd r at i o n al pr e visi o n t o e mpiric al ,

o bs e rv ati o n H e re it is tru e we h av e an id e al sci e nt ific

“
.
, ,

typ e fr o m which bi o l o gy which h as sc arc e ly r e ach e d th e

”
, ,

p o sitiv e st at e is ve ry far re m o ve d But th e re is no sci e nc e

,
.

which d o e s n o t fall sh o rt o f its d e fi n i t i o n m o re o r l e ss T h e .

u se o f this d e fi n iti o n is al r e ady a h e lp f o r a sci e n c e a nd

p ro ,

vid e s a m e an s fo r m e asuri n g its pr o gre ss .

In p art o r e ve n e n t ir e ly bi o l o gy is d e pri ve d o f c e rt ai n
, ,

m e th o dic al pr o c e ss e s which a re utilis e d by th e sci e nc e s

which pre c e d e it I t c anno t av ail its e lf o f c alcul at i o n U n
. .

d o ubt e dly e ach o f th e e l e m e n ts which g o t o m ak e up a

.

physi o l o gic al ph e no m e no n v ari e s acc o rdi ng to a d e fi n it e law .

But th e su m o f th e s e e l e m e nts fo rms such a c o mpl e x wh o l e ,

th at we sh all ne v e r b e abl e to e xpre ss th e ir re l ati o n s in th e

t e rms Of an e qu ati o n Furth e r th e n umb e rs which are r e l a
.
,

tive to th e ph e no m e na o flivi n g b o di e s pre s e n t c o n ti n u al and

irr e gul ar v ari ati o n s which do n o t all o w us to e st ablish th e
,

d at a o f a m ath e m at ic al c alcul ati o n E ach livi ng b e i ng h as .

3

its i ndividu ality its p e rs o n al fo rmul a its ch aract e ristic re

, ,

a cti o n s which pr e v e n t u s fr o m tr e ati n g it as id e n tic al with

,

C III 7
1
o urs, C III 3 7
, 2 C1 -2 III 3 6 q
.
2
o u rs, ,
2 .
3
o urs, ,
2 s .
 B iolog y 1 77

th e o th e r b e i ngs o f th e s am e sp e ci e s E ac h physi o l o gi c al o r .

p ath o l o gic al c as e is disti nc t fro m any o th e r c as e Th at is

”
.

why C o mt e distrusts st atistics I n his j udgm e n t th e y are .

misl e adi ng in physi o l o gy and fat al in m e dici ne I n th e

, .

s am e way Cl aud e B e rnar d will pr o t e st vigo r o usly ag ai nst

,

av e r ag e s .

I s th e i n du c tiv e m e th o d at l east a c o nv e n i e nt o ne t o m ak e
use o fin bi o l o gy P—Simpl e o bs e rv ati o n c an no t l e ad us f ar in

th e study o f such c o mpl e x ph e n o m e n a Of which m any are ,

n o t dir e ctly acc e ssibl e t o o ur s e n s e s o r t o o u r i n strum e n ts .

Exp e rim e n ti n g is v e ry d i fficult in bi o l o gy fo r n o thi ng is ,

e a si e r th an t o disturb t o susp e n d o r e v e n to bri n g ab o ut th e

, ,

e n tir e c e ss ati o n Of th e ph e no m e n a o f life But it is alm o st .

imp o ssibl e to i ntro duc e an e x actly d e te rmi ne d p e rt urb ati o n ,

wh e th e r o fki n d o r a fortiori o f d e gre e I nd e e d a m odific a

, , , .

ti o n o f a si n gl e c o nditi o n o f th e ph e no m e no n alm o st at o n c e
aff e cts t h e gr e at e r n umb e r o f th e o th e r ph e n o m e n a by r e as o n ,

o f th e ir co nsens us I n pri n cipl e e xp e rim e n ti n g is no t fo r

.
,

bidd e n in bi o l o gy O n th e c o ntr ary it is o f r e m a rk abl e

.

e ffi c a cy but it is O ft e n impr actic abl e

, .

N e ve rth e l e ss as we k no w it is no t m an s i n t e rve nti o n in

, ,
’

ph e no m e na which c o nstitute s e xpe rim e nti ng pro p e rly so

c all e d I t c o n sists be fo re all thi ngs in th e rati o nal s e l e cti o n
.
, ,

o f c as e s (n atural o r artifici al it m att e rs littl e ) which are

, , ,

m o st appr o pri ate fo r bri n gi n g o ut th e law o f v ari ati o n O f

th e ph e no m e no n u n d e r o bs e rv at i o n N ature give s us such .
,

fo r ill ne ss e s r e s e mbl e e xp e rim e n ts which we c a n fo ll o w thr o ugh

t h e ir e n tir e c o urs e an d t o t h e ir t e rmi n ati o n Th e y are Ofte n .

di fficult to i n te rpre t o n acc o u n t o f th e ir e xtre m e c o mpl e xity

, ,

but l e ss so h o w e v e r th an th e m aj o rity o f th e e xp e rim e nts

, ,

which we bri n g ab o ut o urs e lve s F o r are th e y no t m o re .

o r l e ss vi o l e nt dis e as e s sudd e nly pr o duc e d by o u r i n te r

,

ve n t io n with o ut o u r b e i n g a bl e t o fo r e s e e all t h e ir i n dir e ct and

,

futu re c o n s e qu e nc e s ? I t is p ath o l o gic al anat o my which le d

12
1 78 Tb e P /z ilosoplcy of A ug uste C om te

Bich at his fine disc o ve ri e s in hist o l o gy and in physi o l o gy

to .

A n d t o p ath o l o gy we must j o i n t e r at o l o gy which is as it ,

w e re its pr o l o ng ati o n H e re agai n nature suppli e s e xpe ri

,
.
,

m e n ts which we sh o uld no t k no w h o w to i nstitut e 1

.

Wh ate v e r m ay b e t h e h e lp which bi o l o gy d e rive s fro m

th e s e n atur al w ays o f e xp e rim e nti n g its pro gre ss c o uld o n ly ,

b e a v e ry sl o w o n e if it did no t p o ss e ss b e sid e s a p o w e rful

,

m e th o d fo r pro c e e di ng which is pe c u liar to it : com pa rison

'

I t is true th at e ve ry i nducti v e o p e rat i o n impli e s c o mp aris o n .

We c o mp are wh at we Obs e rve with o th e r re al an d p o ssibl e

c as e s Ag ai n we c o mp are wh e n we are e xp e rim e nti ng But
. .
,

in th e c o mp ar at i ve m e t h o d pr o p e rly s o c all e d we do n o t, ,

l imit o urs e l ve s to bri ngi n g t wo c a s e s t o g e th e r C o mp aris o n .

b e a rs up o n a l o ng s e qu e nc e o f anal o go us c a s e s in which t h e ,

subj e ct is m o difi e d b y a c o nti n u al succ e ssi o n o f al m o st i n s e n

sibl e gr ad at i o ns 2
.

H o w w o uld t h e g e ne r al pr o bl e ms o f bi o l o gy r e c e iv e a
s o l u t i o n with o ut this m e th o d ? I f we c o n sid e r an o rg an ism
b y its e lf t h e c o mplic ati o n Of fu n cti o n s and o rgan s i s ine x t ric
,

a bl e i n it But if we c o mp are t his o rg an ism wi th t h o s e which

.
,

c o m e n e ar e s t to it an d th e n with o th e rs which a re ne ar to
,

th e m a nd so o n dis e ng agi n g wh at th e y h ave in c o mm o n a

, ,

simplific ati o n is pro duc e d T h e acc e ss o ry ch ar acte ristics .

dis app e a r by d e gre e s as we d e sc e n d in th e bi o l o gic al s e ri e s

, ,

a n d if we h a v e se t o urs e lve s t o stud y a c e r tai n fu n cti o n we

, ,

c an fi n a lly d e t e rmi ne its r e l ati o n t o it s o rg an .

Al th o ugh it be lo ngs to bi o l o gy this m e t h o d h as its anal o gy,

in o th e r sci e n c e s an d e sp e ci all y i n m ath e m at ics

,
I t app e a rs .

t o m e s ay s C o m te to pr e s e n t a ch a r a ct e r si mil a r t o t h at o f
, ,

m ath e m atic al a nalysis w h ich bri ngs fo rwa rd in e ach s e qu e n c e

, ,

o f an al o g o us c a s e s t h e fun d a m e n t al p o rti o n which is c o mm o n

t o a ll which p o rti o n b e fo re this abstr a ct g e ne r alis ati o n was

, , ,

c o n c e al e d b e ne ath th e s e c o n d a ry spe ci aliti e s o f e a ch is o l ate d

C III 5 9 6 5
1
o urs, C. 2 III 84 5
-
.
2
o urs, . 2 -
.
 I 79

c as e . T h e c o mp a r ative m e th o d in a w o rd is a m e th o d fo r , ,

a na lysi n g bi o l o gic al c o n ti n uity Whe th e r it b e a qu e sti o n o f

.

an an at o mic a l disp o siti o n o r o f a physi o l o gic al ph e n o m e n o n

‘

t/z e m e tb o dical co m p a rison o f tb e reg ula r seq u ence of tbe g ro wing

diferen ces which r e l at e to t h e m will alw ays pre s e nt th e sure st
a nd m o st e f fic aci o us m e an s o f thro wi n g light up o n e v e n th e
ultim at e e l e m e nts o f th e pro p o s e d qu e sti o n We se e th at .

C o mt e h ad h e r e his c o n c e p ti o n o f th e i n fi n ite sim al c alculus in

his mi nd B e tt e r still wh e re t e rms are l a cki ng in th e o rgan ic
.
,

s e ri e s h e d o e s n o t h e sit at e to supp o s e the m to re e s tablish -

c o nti n ui ty H e i n t r o duc e s i n te rm e di ary fic titi o us o rg anisms

“
'

hyp o th e s e s which s o m e day p e rh aps p al ae o nt o l o gy will t ur n

i nto re aliti e s .

By m e an s o f this m e th o d n o t o n ly we sh all k no w a far ,

gr e ate r n umb e r Of c as e s but wh at is o f m o re imp o rt anc e

, , ,

we sh all k no w e ach o n e a m o ng th e m b e tt e r as a n i ne vit a bl e ,

c o n s e qu e nc e o f th e ir b e i n g dr aw n n e are r t o ge th e r We .
”

a ssum e it is tru e th a t all th e s e v a ri o us c a s e s pr e s e n t a fu n d a

, ,

m en t al simil arity acc o mp an i e d by gradu al m o dific ati o ns ,

which alw ays fo ll o w a r e gul ar c o urs e But this hyp o th e sis .

a s we h av e s e e n is impli e d in t h e v e ry d e fi n iti o n o f g e n e r a l
,

bi o l o gy .

T h e c o mp ar ati v e m e t h o d will t h e n apply succ e ssiv e ly to

th e diff e r e n t p arts o f a n o rg an ism t o t h e diff e r e n t ag e s o f t h e
,

s am e o rganism a nd t o t h e diffe re nt o rg an isms in th e an im al

,

an d v e g e t abl e s e ri e s I t will e ve n apply t o e mbry o n ic life

.
,

C o mt e cl e arly fo rmul ate s vo n B ae r s law whil e m aki ng i ndis ’

p e n s abl e re s e rvati o n s T h e primitive st ate o f th e high e st

.

o rg an ism h e s ays must r e pre s e n t fr o m th e an at o mic al an d

, , ,

physi o l o gic al p o i nt o f vi e w th e e ss e nti al ch aract e ristics o f th e

,

c o mpl e te st at e whi c h b e l o ngs to th e m o r e i nfe ri o r o rg an ism ,

a nd s o o n succ e ssive ly with o ut o ur be i ng abl e to find agai n

“

t h e e x act an al o g y o f e ach o f t h e pri n cip al t e rms O f t h e i n fe r i o r

o rg an ic s e ri e s in t h e so l e analy sis o f th e v ari o u s ph as e s Of

 Tb e P lz ilosopn
y f
o A u u ste C om
g te

d e ve l o pm e n t o fe ach sup e ri o r o rgan ism Th is c o mp aris o n .

,

so t o sp e ak a ll o ws u s t o r e alis e in t h e s a m e i n dividu al th e
,

gro wi ng c o mplic ati o n o f o rgan s and o f fu ncti o n s which

ch aracte ris e s th e wh o l e bi o l o gic al hi e r archy Thus it is par .

t ic ularly
“
lumi no us 1
Vo n B ae r s bo o k h ad appe a re d in
.
” ’

G e rm an in 1 8 2 7 H ad C o mt e k no w n it it is m o st pro b abl e
.
,

th at ac c o rdi ng to his h abit h e w o uld h av e qu o te d i t

, , .

In rd e r to c o n sid e r o rgan isms in th e re gul ar s e qu e nc e

o

which all o ws o f c o mp aris o n we must fi rst h ave e st ablish e d ,

t h e o rd e r in which th e y sh o uld be arr an g e d But c o nve rs e ly .

, ,

to e st ablish this o rd e r a k n o w l e dg e o fan at o my and physi o l o gy

,

is i ndisp e n s abl e SO b e tw e e n th e s e two sci e nc e s o n th e o ne h an d

.

a nd bi ot axy o n th e o th e r th e re is a strict s o lid a rity T h e pro .

bl e m o fcl assific ati o n is thus an e ss e nti al p art o fg e ne r al bi o l o gy .

I n th e n at ur a l cl assific a ti o n s o ught afte r by sci e n c e th e p o siti o n ,

assig ne d to e ach o rg an ism w o uld su f fic e to d e fi ne at o nc e th e

wh o l e o f its anat o mic al and physi o l o gic al nature in re l ati o n ,

t o th e o rg an isms which pr e c e d e an d to th o s e which fo ll o w 2

.

A ny n at ural cl assifi c ati o n c anno t h o w e v e r b e anythi n g but , ,

imp e rfe ct Accusto m e d as we are to a rtifici al c l assific ati o ns

.
,

whi c h admit o f abs o lute and imm e di at e p e rfe cti o n we are ,

s u rpris e d th at t h e s a m e sh o uld no t b e th e c as e in n atur al

cl assific ati o n But i f th e l att e r is a re al s c i e n c e We must o wn

.
, ,

th at h e re as e ls e wh e re we c an o n ly re ach m o re o r l e ss dist an t
, ,

appr o xim ati o n s T h e c o o rdi nati o n Of livi n g sp e c i e s is a

.
-

pro bl e m lik e th e st atic o r dy namic analysis o f a d e te rmi ne d

o rg an ism Lik e this an alysis it o n ly all o ws o f s o luti o n s
.
,

which are appro ach e d r ath e r th an re alis e d 3

H o w in t h e first pl a c e must we und e rst an d sp e ci e s

, ,

B e tw e e n Cu v i e r and L am arck C o mt e sid e s with Cuvi e r , ,

C 1
III 8 546
o u rs, . C
2 III 4 3 7
2 - C
. III 4 56 7
2
o u rs, . .
11
o u rs, .
-
 1 81

with this r e s e rv ati o n h o w e v e r th at o ur id e as upo n this

, ,
“

qu e sti o n o f c apit al imp ort anc e are no t ye t pro p e rly fix e d .

”

T wo r e as o n s e spe ci all y i n cl i ne him to admit th e fix ity o f

'

o f sp e ci e s L am arck s th e o ry is n o t su ffici e ntly pro ve d : we

’
.

no wh e r e se e th at t h e m ilie u e x e rcis e s th e al m o st b o u n dl e ss

i nfl u e nc e upo n o rganisms which is attribut e d to i t by

L a m arck U n d o ubt e dly withi n c e rt ai n limits th e e x e rcis e
.
, ,

i nduc e d by e xt e r nal circumstan c e s te nds to m o dify th e

primitiv e o rg an is ati o n B ut this acti o n Of th e m ilieu and thi s
.

aptitud e o f th e o rg an ism a re c e rt ai n ly v e ry limit e d O n th e .

o th e r h an d if we h av e a ch o ic e be tw e e n th e two h yp o th e s e s
, ,

t h e i n t e r e st o f sci e n c e w o uld pro mpt us to use this libe rty

in fav o ur o f C uvi e r T h e fix ity o f sp e ci e s gu ar an t e e s t h at

.

t h e s e ri e s Of o rg ani s ms will alw ays b e c o mp o s e d o f t e rm s

which are cl e arly disti n ct s e p ar at e d by i nsup e r abl e i nte rvals

, .

This i ncre as e s th e d e gre e o f r at i o nal p e rfe cti o n o f which

“

t h e fi nal e st ablishm e n t o f this hi e r archy is c ap abl e I t is 1

.

th e n u nd e r th e i n flu e n c e o fa pure ly fo rm al m o ti ve th at C o mt e s ’

pre fe re nc e is h e re d e cid e d F o r h e fe lt th e stre ngth and th e

.

imp o rt o f L am arck s l ab o urs O f th e t wo c e l e brat e d

’
.

an t ag o n ists h e s aid Lam arck was u nqu e sti o n ably t h e o ne

, ,

“
wh o m an ife st e d th e cl e ar e st an d d e e p e st s e n s e o f t h e tru e
o rg an ic hi e r archy
2 ”
.

C o mt e h as e ve n d e alt with c e rt ai n o bj e cti o n s which do n o t

g o a g a i n st L a m arck Thus
. w e might thi ,
n k a t first th a t in ,

his hyp o th e sis the re is n o re al z o o l o gic al s e ri e s si n c e an im al

, ,

o rg an isms w o uld b e e ss e n ti ally id e n ti c al th e ir di ffe re n c e s

,

be i n g h e nc e fo rth attribut e d t o th e div e rs e and u ne qu ally

pr o l o nge d i n flu e nc e o f th e e xt e r nal c o nditi o ns But o n .
,

l o o ki ng i nto it m o re cl o s e ly we se e o n th e c o ntrary th at this

, , ,

hyp o th e sis o n ly pr e s e n ts th e s e ri e s in a ne w asp e ct which

w o uld e ve n r e n d e r its e xist e n c e still m o re e vid e n t F o r th e .

wh o l e O f th e z o o l o gic al s e ri e s w o uld the n b e c o m e i n fact as ,

C1
III 4 5
o urs, , C2 . III 444 2
o u rs, , .
 ste C om te
T b e P /z ilosop/cy o f A u
g u

w e ll as id e ally alto ge th e r anal o g o us to th e wh o l e o f th e

,

i ndividu al d e ve l o pm e nt c o n fi ne d at l e ast to its as c e ndi ng

,

p e ri o d I t w o uld th e n b e c o nc e ive d as c o n ti n u o us
.
“
T he .

pro gr e ssive adv an c e Of th e an im al o rg an ism whi c h fo r us is ,

o n ly a c o n v e n i e n t a bstr acti o n w o uld be c o nve rte d i nt o a,

n atur al law
1 ”
.

F o r t h e l o gic al p e rfe c ti o n o f sci e nc e C o mt e pre fe rs to ,

re gard sp e ci e s as fix e d in th e abs e nc e o f c o ntrary pro o fs .

N o ne th e l e ss L am arck h as st at e d a pro bl e m o f th e high e st

i n te re st C o mte p o i nts o ut its impo rt an c e
.
“
T h e r ati o n al .

th e o ry o f th e ne c e ss ary ac t io n o f th e v ari o us m ilieux o n th e

di ffe re n t o rganism s h as stil l al m o st e ntire ly to b e fo rmul ate d .

S uch an o rd e r o f re s e ar ch al th o ugh gr e atly ne gl e cte d , ,

c o nstitut e s o n e o f th e fi ne st subj e cts which th e pre s e nt

c o nditi o n o f bi o l o gy c an pre s e n t By this m e an s h e add s .
”
, ,

we might Obt ai n a th e o ry fo r th e p e rfe c ti n g Of l ivi n g s p e ci e s

e v e n i ncl udi n g m an ki n d
2
.

C o mte s anat o mic a l an d physi o l o gic al phil o s o phy is

’

n atur ally alli e d to th e sci e n c e Of his tim e I t is e sp e ci ally .

c o nne ct e d with th e l ab o urs o f Bi c h at and Of de Bl ai nvill e .

H e re ag ai n h e e n d e av o urs to st ate th e pro bl e ms in th e m o st

g e ne ra l fo rm p o ssibl e A n at o my sh o uld b e gi n by th e study
.

o ft h e tissu e s t o a s c e n d aft e rw ards t o th e ass o ci ati o n Of s e v e r al

,

tissu e s th at is to say to th e o rgans and to th e ass o ci ati o ns o f

, , ,

s e ve r al o rgans th at is to say to syste ms But an alysis must

, , .

n o t b e c o n c e r ne d with t h e tissu e its e lf T o att e mpt th e .

p ass age fro m this no ti o n to th at o f th e m o l e cu l e is to a ll o w ,

th e o rg an ic to e n t e r i n t o t h e i no rg an ic phil o s o phy I n bi o l o gy .
,

th e tissu e c o rr e sp o nds to wh at th e m o l e c ul e is in physics ,

S uch at l e ast is th e d o ctri ne o fth e C o urs de pl ulosolz ie p ositive '

.
, ,

C III 44 1
o urs, ,C III 45 3
1 -2 .
2
o urs, , 2 -
.
 1 83

L at e r i nstruct e d by Schw ann s w o rks C o mt e admits in

o n,
’

t h e P olitiqu e p ositive th a t t h e an at o mic al e l e m e n t is t h e c e ll .

B e it tissu e o r c e ll th e r e must b e a fu n d a m e n t al an at o mic a l

,

e le m e n t . T h e simu lt an e o us e xist e n c e o f s e v e r al e l e m e n ts
i nd e p e nd e n t o fo ne ano th e r w o uld gre at l y m ar th e admirabl e
u n ity Of th e o rg an i c w o rld and c o n s e q ue n tly th e p e rfe c ti o n
,
”

Of bi o l o gic al sci e n c e L ife is a lw ays e ss e n ti ally th e s am e

. .

T O this dy na mic c o n sid e r ati o n t h e re must c o rre sp o n d in th e , ,

s tatic o rd e r th a t o fa c o mm o n b asis i n v ari abl e in its prim o rdi al

,

o rg an is ati o n s uc c e ssive ly pro duc in g

, by d e e p e r and d e e p e r ,

m o difi c ati o ns th e v ari o u s sp e ci a l an at o mic al e l e m e nts

,
.

Si mi l arly physi o l o gy will n o t b e e ntire ly o rgan is e d u ntil it

,

studi e s fu n cti o n s ( at l e ast t h e o rg an ic fu n c ti o n s ) thro ugh o ut ,

t h e wh o l e c h ai n o f livi n g b e i ngs fro m th e v e g e t abl e ki n gd o m ,

up to m an This c o nc e pti o n Of a ge ne r al physi o l o gy l e ads

.

C o mt e to dw e ll as Cl aud e B e rn ard will l at e r o n up o n th e

, ,

phe no m e na o f life which are c o mm o n to pl ants and to an im als .

S o m e are b e tt e r st udi e d in pl an ts and o th e rs in anim als But .

,

whe th e r it b e an im al o r ve ge tabl e e ve ry o rg anis m alw ays

pre s e nts two fu nd am e n t al fu n cti o ns : 1 th e ab s o rpti o n o f .

n utriti o us m at e ri als b o rr o w e d fr o m th e m ilie u ( th e assimil ati o n

o f th e s e m at e ri als a nd fi na lly n utriti o n ) ; 2 t h e r e j e cti o n o f .

u nassimil at e d m at e ri als H o w e ve r pl ants are th e o n ly

.
,

o rg an ise d b e i n gs which live dire ctly up o n th e i no rg an ic

m ilieu
1
. C o mt e was igno ran t Of th e physi o l o gy o f fu ngi .

C o mte u n r e s e rve dly ad o pts th e disti n cti o n e st ablish e d by

Bich at be twe e n th e fu n cti o ns o f o rg an ic l i fe and th o s e o f
an im a l li f e I n t h e fi rst pl ac e h e c o n clud e s fr o m this in
.
,

virtu e o f th e c o rre l ati o n o f th e dy n ami c to th e st ati c p o i n t o f

vi e w th at d isti n ct tiss ue s c o rr e sp o n d to the s e d isti nc t
,

fu ncti o ns Th e n h e g o e s m o re d e e ply i n t o th e di ffe re n ce

.
,

b e twe e n th e two ki n ds o f fu ncti o n s Stri c tly sp e aki ng th e .

,

ph e no m e na o f o rg anic life o nly c o n stitute a spe c i al o rd e r o f

C III 5 9 3 P l p I 594
1
o u rs, , 2 -
1 o . o s. , , .
1 84 m e P /z ilosopn
y f g
oA u u ste C o m te

c o mp o siti o n and o f d e c o mp o siti o n Th e y c o m e ve ry ne ar to .

ch e mistry and m ay s e rve as a transiti o n b e twe e n th e

,

i no rga nic w o rld and th e w o rld o f li fe O n th e c o ntrary th e

1
.
,

ph e no m e n a o f an im al li fe (irrit ability s e nsibility ) o ffe r no , ,

anal o gy with th e ph e n o m e n a o f t h e i n o rg a n i c w o rld We .

might al m o st b e li e ve acc o rdi ng to C o mte th at th e s e p ar ati o n

, ,

is e st ablish e d n o t b e tw e e n t h e ch e mic al and bi o l o gic al

ph e no m e na but b e twe e n o rg an ic and anim al life th e
, ,

ph e no m e na o f th e fo rm e r re duci ng th e ms e lv e s to physic o
C h e mic al ph e no m e n a and th o s e Of th e l atte r pr e se nti n g
,

e n tir e ly diffe re nt ch aracte ristics S uch is no t h o we v e r .

, ,

C o mte s th o ught U nd o ubte dly c o nsid e re d o ne by o ne th e

’
.
, ,

ph e no m e na o fo rg an ic life (abs o rpti o n circul ati o n e xh al ati o n , , ,

e t c ) a re i n d e e d physic o c h e mic a l ph e no m e na But wh at

-
. .

re nd e rs th e i r bi o l o gic al ch aract e r i rr e du c ibl e is th at it is

imp o ssibl e t o c o n sid e r th e m s e p ar at e ly : in o rd e r to
u n d e rst and th e m we must first l o o k at th e m fro m th e
p o i n t o fv ie w o fth e wh o l e and app e al t o th e o rganic co nsensus
,
-

in a w o rd to wh at Cl a ud e B e r n ard will c a ll l ide e di rectrice

’ ’

, , .

I n th e study o f o rg an ic fu n cti o n s we sh a ll b e gi n by t h e
l o w e r e xtre mity in th e s e ri e s o f livi ng b e i ngs th at is t o say by ,

t h e m o st rudim e n t ary fo rms o f th e v e g e t abl e ki n gd o m fo r it ,

is h e r e th at we sh all gr asp t h e ph e no m e na in t h e ir simpl e st

fo rm T h e n we sh all fo ll o w th e ir g ro wing c o mpl e xity F o r
'

.
o .

t h e an im al fu n cti o n s o n th e c o n tr a ry it is e xp e di e n t t o b e gi n
, ,

by m an th e o nly b e i ng in which such an o rd e r o fph e no m e na

,

is e ve r imm e di ately i n t e lligibl e Fr o m this p o i nt o f v i e w

.
”

m an is
p re e mi ne n tly th e bi o l o gic al u n ity As s o o n as it is a
-
.

qu e sti o n o f th e ch a racte ristics o f an im ality we must be gi n ,

with m an and se e h o w th e y d e sc e nd by d e gre e s rath e r th an ,

st art fr o m th e sp o n ge and l o o k fo r th e ir m o d e o fd e ve l o pm e n t
, .

M an s an im al life h e lps u s to u nd e rst an d th at Of th e sp o nge

’

but th e re ve rs e is no t tru e M o re o ve r t h e ph e no m e na o f o r
2
.
,

C III 5 5 3 6
1
o u rs, , C - III 3 8
.
2
o urs, , 0- 1 .
 B iology 1 85

g a n ic li f
e b e i n g t,
h e-
m o st g e ne r a l are a ls o t h e m o st fu n d a ,

m e nt al T h e fu ncti o ns O f an im al life are first us e ful fo r th e

.

n e e ds o fo rg an ic life by p e rfe cti n g it I t is in m an al o ne th at

,
.

t h e v e g e t ativ e l ife is sub o rdi n at e to th e life o f r e l ati o n : and

e ve n f o r th at h e must h av e r e a ch e d a high d e gr e e o f civilis a

ti o n 1
.

I t is n o t surprisi ng th at bi o l o gy e v e n m o re th an physics ,

and ch e mi stry pr e s e rv e s th e m e t aphysic a l spirit

, S uch fo r .
,

i nst an c e is th e hyp o th e sis o fsp o nt ane o us ge ne rati o n P o sitive

,
.

phil o s o phy re c o g n i z e s th at e ach livi ng b e i n g alw ays e m anate s

fro m ano the r simil ar b e i ng This is n o t e st ablish e d a priori .
,

but is th e re sult o f an i mm e ns e i nducti o n O m ne vi vu m ex .

”2

v i vo . Effo rts to e xpl ai n h o w th e ge ne rati n g tissu e sh o uld

its e lf b e fo rm e d b v ki nds o f o rgan ic m o nads (an allusi o n to ,

c e rt ai n th e o ri e s ar i s i n g o ut o f Sch e lli n g s phil o s o phy ) c an o nly ’

fail We sh o uld ne ve r k n o w h o w to c o nn e ct th e o rg an ic with

.

t h e i n o rg an ic w o rld e x c e pt thr o ugh th e fu n d a m e n t a l l aws b e

l o n gi n g to th e g e ne r al ph e n o m e n a which are c o mm o n to th e m
o

b o th P o siti ve sp e cul ati o n s in anat o m y and in physi o l o gy

.

fo rm a limit e d syst e m withi n which we must e st ablish th e

‘

m o st p e rfe ct u n ity but which must e v e r re m ai n s e p a rat e d

,

fro m th e wh o l e Of i no rg an ic th e o ri e s We se e cl earl y it is .
3
,

tru e th at th e re is no m att e r which is o f its e l f livi ng Life is

,
.

n o t p e culi ar to c e rt a i n s ubst an c e s which are o rg an is e d in a

c e rtai n m anne r I t ne ve r b e l o ngs to th e m fo r m o re t h an a

.

tim e e ve ry o rgan ism o f which t h e m o l e cul e s are n o t re ne we d

is diss o lve d But we c an no m o r e e xpl ai n this i n st ability
“
.

th an this sp e ci ality .
”1

I n t h e s am e way we se e tha t in livi n g b o di e s th e n utritive

C 1
III 5 6 3
o urs, , P 1 P I 59
2 -
. P l P I 58 72
0 . 05 . , 1.
3
o . os .
, , .

P l P I 587 ; C
1
‘
III 4 9
o . os .
, , o urs, , 1 -
2 0 .
 86 T oo s
'

1 losop/zy f
o A ug u sle C om te

fu ncti o n s are th e b asis o f th e o th e rs ; but th e re is no c o ntr a

dicti o n in dre ami ng o ft h o ught and s o ci ability in b e i n gs
“ ”

wh o s e subst anc e w o uld r e m ai n u nalt e rabl e Fr o m this p o i n t .

o f vi e w spiritu alism is n o t l e ss a dmissibl e th an m a t e ri a lism ,

in so much as d e at h d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e a n e e e ssa ry c o n
s e qu e nc e o f life This agai n is an id e a which is c o mm o n to
.

D e sc arte s and to C o mt e The y b o th c o n c e ive an o rganism

.

in which th e pl ay o f fu n cti o n s sh o uld n o t c e as e o f its e l f T h e .

th e o ry o f d e ath s ays C o mt e a ltho ugh it is fo u n d e d up o n th at

, ,

o f li fe is e n tir e ly d i sti n ct fr o m it
1
, .

I f bi o l o gy still o fte n h e sit at e s in th e st ate m e n t o f its pro

b le m s and in th e ch o ic e o f its hyp o th e s e s it is in a gr e at ,

m e asure due to th e two o pp o sit e t e nd e n ci e s b e tw e e n which it

o scill at e d in t h e l ast c e n tury O n t h e o ne h an d B o e rh aav e .
, ,

an d t h e sch o o l o f physi o l o gy which is m o r e o r l e ss dir e ctly

c o nne ct e d with D e sc a rt e s s o ught a m e ch an ic al e xpl an ati o n

,

o f bi o l o gic a l ph e n o m e n a and t e n d e d t o r e duc e bi o l o gy to

,

physics an d ch e mistry O n th e o th e r h an d St ahl in G e rm any

.
, ,

and t h e vi ta list sch o o l o f M o n tp e lli e r in Fr an c e app e al e d t o ,

m e t aphysic al pri ncipl e s and to un ve rifiable h y p o th e s e s B e i ng .

thus s way e d fro m o ne e xtre mit y to ano th e r bi o l o gy o n ly ,

e sc ap e d t h e o ppr e ssi o n o f t h e i n o rg an ic sci e n c e s t o i nv o lv e

its e lf in c o n c e pti o n s which w e re sc arc e ly sc ie ntific I t is o n ly

2
.

at t h e e n d o f th e X VI I I C e n tury with H all e r G all and

.
, ,

Bich at th at it fi nds its e quilibrium t ak e s p o ss e ss i o n o f its

, ,

m e th o d and at l ast e n te rs i nt o its p o sitiv e ph as e

,
.

By its l o w e r e xtre mity it is c o n tigu o us to i no rg ani c sci e nc e

(th e physic o ch e mic al ph e no m e na o fv e g e tative life ) By its
-
.

high e r e xtre mity (i n t e ll e ctu a l fu ncti o n s ) it r e ac he s to th e

, ,

fi nal sci e n c e o r s o ci o l o g y But th e a dh e re nc e is far fro m

, .

be i ng as cl o s e in o ne c ase a s in th e o th e r At th e m o m e n t .

wh e n we p ass fro m th e i no rg an ic w o rld to th e w o rld o f livi n g

b e i ngs acco rdi ng to p o sitive phil o s o phy th e re is a sudd e n
, ,

1
P l P o I 5 89
. o s. , C , V I 7 66 68
.
2
o urs, ,
-
.
 1 87

en richm e n t o fth e re al T h e tran siti o n is v e ry m ark e d T h e

. .

d o m ai n o f bi o l o gy is no t so sh a rply s e p arate d fro m th at o f

s o ci o l o gy F o r th e high e r bi o l o gic al fu ncti o n s th e i nte ll e ct
.
,

u al fu n c t i o n s c an no t b e an a lys e d fr o m t h e p o i n t o fvi e w o f t h e
,

i ndividu al at l e ast in m an but o n ly fro m th e p o i nt o f vi e w o f

, ,

t h e sp e c i e s We must th e n whil e pre s e rvi ng th e disti n cti o n

.
,

be tw e e n th e two sci e n c e s admit a ki n d o fi nt e r re l ati o n b e twe e n

,
-

th e m U n d o ubt e dly s o ci o l o gy c o uld n o t be fo u nd e d so l o ng

.

as bi o l o gy h ad n o t m ad e d e cisiv e pr o gr e ss But c o nve rs e ly

.
, ,

s o ci o l o gy o nc e fo u nd e d al o ne c o mpl e te s th e p o sitiv e study o f

th e high e st bi o l o gic a l fu n cti o n s .

C e rt ai nly bi o l o gy h as n o t be e n l e ss transfo rm e d th an
,

c h e mist ry duri ng th e l ast sixty y e ars an d th e st ate in which ,

we se e it t o day diffe rs si ngul arly fr o m t h at in whi c h C o mt e

-
.

k ne w it I t h as be e n d e ve l o p e d and diffe r e nti at e d far b e y o n d

.

wh at h e c o uld fo r e s e e N o ne th e l e ss h e c o nc e ive d s o m e o f
.

its pri n cipl e s with r e m ark abl e p o we r H e h ad a pre cis e id e a

.

o f th at which c o uld c o n stit ute a g e n e ra l bi o l o gy th at is a ,

si ngl e ph y si o l o gy and anat o my fo r t h e wh o l e o f li v i ng b e i ngs .

H e k ne w t h e fe c u n dity o f th e c o mp ar ative m e th o d a nd h e ,

po i n te d o u t its anal o gy with th e m e th o d o f analysis in

m ath e m atics Fi nally alth o ugh h e re fus e d to ad o pt th e
.
,

transfo rmist hyp o th e sis h e h ad u nd e rsto o d th e imp o rt an c e o f

,

L am arck s w o rk
’
.
 C H A PTER V

P SY C H O L O G Y

P SY C H OLO GY h as no pl ac e in th e cl assific ati o n o fth e fu nd a

m e n t al sci e n c e s . I n it S o ci o l o gy imm e di at e ly succ e e ds
Bi o l o gy. U se h as b e e n m ad e o f this fac t in o rd e r to
r e pro ach C o mt e with h avi ng negl e cte d an o rd e r o f m o st
imp o rt an t ph e no m e na A gr ave obj e cti o n h as b e e n r aise d
.

ag a i n st his d o ctri ne in g e ne r a l Wh at are we to thi n k o f

'

a phil o s o phy which d e lib e r a t e ly o mits a p art a nd a cc o rdi ng

, , , ,

t o m any hil o s o ph e rs th e chi e f p art o f r e ality th e w o r l d o f

p , ,

c o n sci o us ne ss t h e spiritu al natur e o f m an ?

,

Pre s e nt e d in this way th e o bj e cti o n re sts up o n m any c o n

,

fus e d n o ti o n s ab o ut w o rds and id e as Wh at do we u nd e rst an d

.

by psy c h o l o gy ? I f th e w o rd m e an s : t h e sci e n c e o fth e s o ul

r e ache d thro ugh th e i n tro sp e ctive m e th o d we must o wn th a t ,

C o mte d o e s no t admit th e p o ssibility o f such a sci e nc e But .

t h e s am e o bj e cti o n will a ls o h o ld g o o d ag ai n st th e m aj o rity o f

‘

t h e psych o l o gists o f o u r tim e F o r t h e y do no t ad m it t his

.

p o ssibilit y any m o re th an C o mte and th e y h ave e nd e avo ure d

,

t o c o n stitut e t h e sci e n c e o f psychic al facts by a di f fe r e n t

m e th o d th an th at o f i ntr o sp e cti o n pure and simpl e I s , .

psych o l o gy d e fi ne d as th e sci e nc e which i nve stigate s th e

“

l aws of fe e li ng o fth e i nte ll e ct and o fm o ral ph e no m e na in m an

,

an d in an im als ? Th e n it is i naccurate to say th at the re is no

”

psych o l o gy fo r C o mte O n th e c o ntr ary h e thi n ks th at

.
,

p o sitive psych o l o gy h as j ust b e e n fo u nd e d by c o n te mp o rary

s c i e n c e o fwh o s e m e th o ds h e appro ve s I f h e did no t u se the .
 P syc/z o/ogy 1 89

w o rd psych o l o gy h e did so in o rd e r to avo id c o n fusi o n

“
, .

At th at m o m e nt th e w o rd was so to sp e ak th e pro p e rty o f , ,

th e e c l e ctic sch o o l By th e psych o l o gic al m e th o d e ve ry o ne

.
,

th e n und e rsto o d th at o f Jo uffro y Psych o l o gy was th e .

sci e n c e fo u nd e d by C o usi n o n th e an aly sis o f t h e eg o C o mte .

wh o o pp o s e s th e s e phil o s o ph e rs did n o t wish his th e o ry o f ,

psychi c al ph e no m e na whi c h di ffe rs fr o m th e irs to b e c al l e d

, ,

by th e s am e nam e I t is this v e ry pre c auti o n which h as c o m e

.

to b e no l o n g e r u nd e rst o o d no w th at psych o l o gy d o e s n o t
,

d e sig nate th e e c l e c tic d o c tri ne al o ne but any th e o ry wh ats o ,

e v e r c o n c e r n i n g m e n t al fa cts .

I .

C o mte fi nds th e fi e ld o ccupi e d by thre e psych o l o gic al

sch o o ls and h e c o mb ats all thre e fo r r e as o n s o f m e th o d and
, ,

a ls o o f d o c tri ne H e l oo ks t o th e m to re fut e e ach o th e r

.

m utu ally an d e will o nly att ack wh at is c o mm o n to th e m all

h
,
1
.

T h e r e pr e s e n t ativ e s o ft h e s e thre e sch o o ls a re th e I de o lo

gists with C o ndill ac fr o m wh o m th e y pro ce e d th e n th e
, , ,

Ecl e cti c s and fi nally th e phil o s o ph e rs o f th e Sc o ttish sch o o l

, .

C o mt e s o m e tim e s c alls th e e cl e c ti c s th e G e rm an sch o o l ,

in o pp o siti o n t o t h e id e o l o gi sts wh o are t h e Fre n ch sch o o l , ,

an d to th e Sc o ttish s c h o o l th e first o f t h e thre e in p o i n t o f ,

tim e But h e alw ays sp e aks symp ath e tic ally o f th e S c o ttish
.

sch o o l r e m e mb e ri n g th at in p a rt h e o w e s t o it h is ph ilo so
, , ,

p h ic al e duc a ti o n H e als o e st e e ms t h e si nc e rity an d l o gic al

.

vig o ur o f th e id eo l o gist De stutt de Tracy But a fte r all .

, ,

we h av e h e r e m e t aphysi c i an s as are al s o th e e le c t ic s ,

upo n wh o m h e p ass e s a m o r e s e ve re j udgm e n t By m e t a “

.

physici an s h e u nd e rst an ds all th o s e wh o study ph e

,
’i

n o m e na ( in this c as e psy c hic a l ph e no m e na) by m e ans o f a

, ,

m e th o d which is no l o n ge r th e o l o gic al but which h as no t ye t ,

be c o m e p o sitiv e I n this s e n s e L o ck e is a m e t aph y sici an as

'

.
, ,

1
C p d
o rres o n d C mt t d J h
anc e e S t t M ill p 6 ( 7 fé i
o e, e e o n u ar , . 1 2 2 vr e r
p 365 ( t
. 2 1 oc .
 Tfie P /z z losop/zy of A ug u ste C om
'

1 90 te

w e ll as C o ndill ac and his o th e r succ e ss o rs in th e X V I I I .

c e nt ury Hum e al o ne e xc e pt e d
,
.

C o mt e sh o we rs d e risi o n up o n th e m e th o d o f i nt e r nal
o bs e r v a ti o n which is pr actis e d b y th e psych o l o gists T h e
“ ”
.

sh arp ne ss o f his l angu age is a t l e ast p arti ally e xpl ai ne d b y

t h e i n dig nati o n with which C o usi n s ch arl at an ism e i nspire d
’

him This fam o us s o phis t in wh o m h e re c o g nis e s s o m e o f

.
,
”

t h e gifts o f a n o r at o r a nd in p articul a r th a t o f a mimic ac

, ,

c o rdi ng to him e x e rcis e s m o st u n fav o ur abl e i n flu e n c e o ve r th e

,

m i n ds o f m e n H e tur n s th e m a sid e fro m th e p o siti ve p ath

.
1
,

which th e y are a b o u t t o e nte r t o bri ng th e m b ack to m e t a ,

phy sic a l di al e c t ics o r t o h o ll o w a n d s o no r o us rh e to ric A nd

, .
,

t o cr o w n a ll this ps y ch o l o g y cl aims t o fo ll o w a sci e n tific

”
,

m e th o d ! t h e ve ry m e t h o d which h as succ e e d e d so w e ll in th e
n at ur a l sci e n c e s ! I t c o n c e i ve s t h e id e a o f pr actisi n g i n te r nal
o bs e r v a ti o n
,
a s ph y sics m ak e s u se o f e xt e r n a l o bs e r vati o n .

B ut wh at is this i nte r nal o bs e r v at i o n P H o w c an th e fu n cti o n

o f t h e s am e o rg a n b e t o t hi n k a n d a t t h e s am e tim e t o
,

o bs e r v e t h a t i t thi n ks P We c o n c e i ve t h at m an sh o uld b e abl e

t o o bs e r v e hims e l f if it is a qu e sti o n o f t h e p assi o ns which

a n im a t e him . No an at o mic al re as o n is o pp o s e d t o t his si nc e

t h e o rg a n s which a re t h e s e a t o ft h e p a ssi o n s a re disti n c t fr o m ,

th o s e which are us e d fo r t h e o bs e r v i n g fu n cti o ns But as to .

o bs e r v i ng t h e i n t e ll e c t u a l ph e n o m e n a in t h e s am e way it is ,

m an i fe stl y imp o ssibl e I n this c as e th e o rg an which is

.
,

o bs e r v e d b e i n g o n e with t h e o bs e rvi ng o rg an h o w c o uld th e ,

o bs e rv a ti o n t ak e pl ac e !
!

This o bj e cti o n d o e s no t o nly h o ld aga i nst th e e cl e ctics but ,

a ls o a g a i n st t h e S c o ttish sch o o l a n d t h e id eo l o gists We .

a lre ad y find it s e t fo r t h in a l e t t e r fr o m C o m t e t o V a l a t o n

t h e 2 4 th o f S e p te mb e r 1 8 1 9 wh e n h e was p e rh aps n o t ye t
, ,

a cqu a i n t e d with C o usi n With wh at sh o uld we o bs e rve

.

1
P o l po s
. .
, I V App d i p
, en x, . 2 18 .
 P syefio/ogy 1 9 1

the mi n d its e l f its o p e rati o n s its ac t ivity ? We c ann o t

, ,

d i v id e o ur mi nd th at is to say o u r bra i n i n t o two p arts o f

, , , ,

which o ne a cts whil e th e o th e r l o o ks o n to se e h o w it go e s ,

t o w o rk T h e so c all e d o bs e rv ati o n s m ad e o n t h e hum an

.
-

mi nd c o nsid e r e d in its e lf and a p rz orz are pure illusi o n s All

' '

.
, ,

th at we c all log z e m e tap hysics ideology is an idl e fan cy and a

'

, , ,

dr e am wh e n it is no t an absu rdi ty 1
,
.
”

This t e xt to which we c o uld add m any simil a r o n e s all o ws

, ,

u s t o r e ctify an e rr o ne o us a lth o ugh a fr e qu e n t i n te rpr e t at i o no f

,

C o mt e s th o ught H e d o e s n o t d e n y t h at we are i n fo rm e d
’
.

by c o n sci o us ne ss o f t h e e xist e n c e o f p sychic al ph e no m e na .

O n th e c o n tr ary h e e xpr e ssly r e c o g n is e s th e fa ct

,
W hat h e .

r e g ards as imp o ssibl e is t o study th e activi ty o f th o ught by

m e ans o f re fl e cti o n th at is to disc o ve r th e i nt e ll e ctu al l aws
,
“

by a m e th o d o f i nte r nal o bs e r va ti o n I n a w o rd it is such .

,

w o rks as th o s e o f C o n dill ac o f th e id e o l o gists o f R e id e tc , , ,

.
,

which h e c o nd e m n s in th e ir pri ncipl e I n th e s e w o rks th e .

subj e ct m att e r is th e th e o ry o f k no wl e dge and no t th at which ,

is c all e d t o day p sye/z ology pro p e r

-
.

I f i nst e ad o f s e e ki ng sp e ci ally fo r th e i n t e ll e ctu a l l aws we

, ,

wish t o study psychic al ph e no m e na in g e ne ral i nt e r n al ,

o bs e rv ati o n will b e c o m e p o ssibl e in a c e rt ai n n umb e r o f c as e s .

But it will n o t l e ad to t h e e n d which we wish t o re ach I t .

e xclud e s t h e u se o f t h e c o mp ar a ti ve m e t h o d so fe rtil e an d so ,

i ndisp e n s abl e in th e wh o l e d o m ai n o fbi o l o gy I t o nly studi e s .

m an and e v e n adult a nd h e alth y m an

,
W hat will it te ll us .

o f th e child o f th e m e n t ally d e r an g e d o f t h e an im al P Will 2

, ,

it lik e D e sc art e s g o so far as t o d e ny th e e xist e n ce o f a

, ,

psychic al life in ani m als ? Still this life c anno t b e studi e d by

i nt e r nal o bs e rv ati o n We must th e n h ave re c o urs e to an o th e r
.

m e th o d .

Strictly sp e aki n g the re are o nly two m e th o ds which are

,

suit abl e f o r th e sci e nc e o f th os e ph e no m e na Eith e r we .

L tt aV l t p 8 9 9
1
e re s C III 6 1 4 6
a a , .
-
1 .
’
o urs, .
-1
.
 Tfie P é z losofi/zy of A ug uste C om
'

1 92 te

d e t e rmi ne with all p o ssibl e pre cisi o n th e vari o us o rganic

c o nditi o ns o n which th e y d e p e n d : this is th e o bj e ct o f wh at
C o mt e c alls phre no l o gic a l ps y ch o l o gy O r e ls e we o bs e rve
.

dire ctly th e pro ducts o f th e i nt e ll e ct ual and m o ral ac tivity ,

and this study th e n b e l o n gs t o s o c i o l o gy But if by thi s

.
,

s upp o s e d psych o l o gic al m e th o d we se t a sid e th e c o n sid e r ati o n

,

o fth e ag e n t th a t is t o say o f th e o rg an and th at o f th e acti o n

, , ,

th at is to say o fth e pro ducti o ns o f th e hum an faculti e s wh at ,

c an r e m a in u nl e ss an u n i nte lligibl e l o g o m achy o r ve rbal e n”

,

titi e s which are substitute d t o re al ph e no m e na ? H e re th e n is

t h e study o f th e m o st di fficult an d m o st c o mpl e x fu n cti o n s

susp e n d e d ,
as it w e re in t h e air with o ut any p o i nt a t
, ,

which it t o u c h e s th e simpl e r and m o re p e rfe ct sci e nc e s ,

o v e r which o n t h e c o n tr ary it is c l aim e d th at it sh o uld

“
, ,

r e ig n m aj e sti c ally .

N o thi ng is m o re o pp o s e d to th e g e ne ral o rd e r o fnature in ,

which we alw ays se e th e m o re c o mpl e x and high e r ph e no m e na

s ub o rd inat e d so f,
ar as t h e c o n diti o n s o f th e ir e xist e n c e a re

c o nc e r ne d to th e m o re simpl e and c o mm o ne r o ne s As th e
, .

bi o l o gic al d e p e nd up o n th e i no rgani c phe no m e na j ust as , ,

withi n bi o l o gy th e phe no m e na o fanim al life are sub o rdi nate d

,

to th o s e o f o rg an ic life so t h e i n t e ll e c tu al and m o r a l
,

ph e no m e na d e p e nd upo n th e o the r bi o l o gic al fu nc ti o ns .

B e yo nd th e ir o wn p a rticu l ar l aws th e l aws o fall th e subjace nt

,

o rd e rs o f ph e no m e na a ls o g o v e r n th e m C an we study th e m
.

as if all th e s e l aws did n o t e xist L e t th e m e t aphysici an b e

fre e to do so T h e sci e ntific m an wh o fo ll o ws t he p o sitive
.

m e th o d will p ro c e e d o n o th er li ne s
~

A d e fe ctiv e m e th o d c o uld l e ad but to fals e re s ul ts No t .

withst an di ng th e di ffe re n c e s in th e ir d o ctri ne s id e o l o gists ,

and psych o l o gists h av e agre e d t o pl ac e th e i nte ll e ctu al

fu ncti o n s in t h e fro n t r a nk an d to thrust t h e a ffe ctive
,

fu n cti o n s furth e r b ack T b e m i nd h as b e c o m e th e alm o st

.

e xclusiv e subj e ct o f th e ir sp e cul ati o ns L o o k at th e t itl e s o f

.
 P sycaotogy 1 93

th e ir gre at w o rks si nc e L o ck e s E ssay on t/z e H u m a n U nder

’

s ta n ding —P rin c iples of H u m a u Kn o wle dg e— O u t/z e o rzg z u of

'

ou r I d e a s 0 7: S e nsa t i o ns— I deology e tc T h e v ari o us a f

, fe c tiv e
.

fac ulti e s h av e b ee n l e ft c o mp arativ e ly in th e sh ad e No w it .

,

is th e c o ntr ary whi c h sh o uld h ave b e e n d o ne Exp e ri e n c e .

sh o ws t h at th e a ff e cti o n s t h e p assi o n s th e i n cli n ati o ns pl ay

, , ,

by far th e m o st imp o rt an t p art in th e l ife o f an im als and

e v e n o f m an F ar fr o m b e i ng th e r e sult o f i n t e llige n c e
.

th e ir sp o nt ane o us and i nd e p e nd e nt impuls e is i ndisp e ns abl e

“ ”

fo r th e first aw ak e n i n g and aft e rw ards fo r th e d e ve l o pm e nt

, ,

o f t h e v ari o us i n t e ll e ctu a l faculti e s Ag ai nst all e vid e nc e

“
.

m an h as b e e n r e pr e s e n t e d as ess e n ti ally r e as o n i n g as b e i n g ,

c o nti nu ally p e rfo rmi ng u naw are a multitud e o f impe rc e ptibl e

c alcul ati o n s with s c arc e ly any sp o n t ane ity e v e n fro m te nd e re st ,

c hi l dh o o d.
1”

H ad th e study o fth e p sychi c al fu ncti o n s b e e n m ad e u p o n

a n im als at t h e s am e tim e as u p o n m an this e rr o r w o uld n o t ,

h ave l aste d l o ng But phil o s o ph e rs w e re m ai ntai ne d in it o n

.
,

th e c o n tra ry by m e t aphysi c al an d e v e n t h e o l o gic a l pre o ccup a

,

ti o n s T h e sci e nc e o f m e nt al fu ncti o ns h ad t o e st ablish a

.

diffe r e n c e no t o n ly o f d e gre e but o f ki nd b e tw e e n m an and

,

an im als . I t was furth e r re quire d by r e as o n o f ano the r ,

ne c e ssity cl o s e ly alli e d t o t h e fo rm e r th at t h e s o ul sh o uld b e

,

c o nsid e re d as b e i n g imm o rtal A nd it was c o ns e qu e ntly

.

n e c e ss a ry th at th e e g o sh o uld pre s e n t m e taphysic al

“

c h ar acte ristics o f u nity o f simplicity an d o f id e ntity No w

, .
,

it is by th o ught th at m an is m o st disti nguish e d fr o m anim als .

I t is th e re fo re fro m th o ught th at th e ch aract e ristics attrib ut e d

t o t h e s o ul o r t o t h e h ave b e e n b o rro w e d
“
eg o .

But in fact th e e g o is no t th e abs o l ute u nity which th e

“ ”

e c le c ti c psych o l o gists say th at it is I t re pre s e nts th e fe e li ng

.

whi c h th e sup e ri o r livi ng b e i n g h as at e ve ry m o m e n t ,

o f th e symp athi e s and th e sy ne rgi e s which t ak e pl ac e

” “ ”

C
1
III 6 8 9
o urs, , 1 -
1 .

1 3
 Tfie s losop/zy f A ug uste C om te
'

1 94 o

with in th e o rgan ism I t is th e c o nsc io u s e xpre ss io n o f wh at

.

t h e Fre n ch c all to day c é ne sthés ie F ar fr o m be ing

”
-
.

dir e ctly p e r c e ive d as C o usi n ass e rts it is th e i ndire c t p ro d uct ,

o f a qu an tity o f s e ns ati o ns an d s e ntim e n ts o f whi c h t h e ,

m aj o rity are n o t p e rc e ive d in th e no rm al state 1

I t is .
.

e sp e ci ally by p a th o l o gic al facts ( dis e as e s o f th e p e rs o nal ity , ,

d o ubl e c o n sci o us ne ss lu nac y th at th e atte nti o n o f

, ,

t h e sci e n tifi c m an is dr aw n to this v e ry c o mpl e x ph e no

m e no n I t is m o re o ve r imp o ssibl e to r e gard th e s e ntim e nt

.
, ,

as b e l o n gi ng e xclusiv e ly t o m an Eve ry
“ ”
o f th e ego .

t hi n g l e ads u s to b e li e v e th at it als o e xists in t h e o th e r

high e r an im als I n any c as e th e re is n o m e t aphysi c al

.

d o ctri ne to be fo u nd e d up o n this e xc e e di ngly c o mpl e x and

v e ry u nst abl e s e nt im e nt C o mt e is h e r e sp e aki ng as th e
.

suc c e ss o r o f H um e and o f C ab anis I n th e c l e ar e st m anne r .

h e d e fi n e s h is o pp o siti o n t o C o usi n s d o c tri ne T h e l att e r

’
.

dr aws t h e wh o l e o f phil o s o phy fr o m th e analy si s o f t h e

eg o C o mt e draws no thi n g fro m it
”
, .

H e d o e s no t h o w e ve r st0p t o sh o w t h e sup e ri o rity o f th e

, ,

p o sitive m e th o d o ve r th e o l o gic al o r m e t aphysic al m e th o d in

this m att e r O f wh at u se w o uld it b e ? T h e pro gr e s s o f
.

s ci e n c e in th e e nd ge ts th e b e tt e r o f m e th o d s whi c h h ave
, ,

be c o m e antiq uat e d and b arre n M e t aphysici an s h av e al re ady .

p ass e d fro m th e st ate o f d o m inati o n to th at o f pro te st a “ ”

ti o n .
2 ”
A nd wh e n th e po sitiv e m e th o d ge ts a fo o ti ng in an
o rd e r o f ph e no m e na th e r e is n o in st anc e in whi c h
, s o o ne r ,

o r l at e r it h as n o t a ss e rt e d its m ast e ry o v e r it
, .

T he psy c h o l o gy o fC o mt e is c o nne ct e d with th at o f C ab ani s

a nd o f G all with o ut h o w e ve r any actu al c o n fusi o n with th e m
, , , .

H e pr ais e s C ab an is fo r h avm g be e n o ne o f t h e first to fo rm a

C III 6
1
6
o urs, , C III 6
0 1 -2 2 1 -2 2 .
2
o u rs, , 11 .
 P sye/t o/ogy 1 95

p o sit ive c o nc e pti o n o f i nte ll e c t ual and m o ral ph e no m e na 1 .

C ab anis se t hims e l f to sh o w th at th e ph e no m e na so n um e ro us
and so v a ri e d which t ak e pl ac e in t h e b e i n g wh o l iv e s and

fe e l s c o nst an tly ac t and re ac t up o n e ac h o th e r T h e p sy c h ic al

, .

phe no m e na do n o t e sc ap e this law At e ve ry m o m e nt .

,

thro ugh th e m e di um o f th e ne rv o u s sy st e m th e y are subj e c t ,

t o th e i nfl ue n c e o f t h e st at e o f t h e wh o l e b o dy and th e y ,

m ak e th e bo dy fe e l th e ir o wn i nfl u e nc e C ab anis giv e s a .

g re at nu mb e r o f p ro o fs o fthis bo r ro w e d fro m th e ac ti o n o f
,

se x o f ag e
, ,
o f t e mp e r am e n t o f ill n e ss e tc
,
M o re o v e r th e, .
,

r e l ati o n o f psy c hic al ph e no m e na to th e brai n is id e nt ic al w ith

th at whi c h e xists be twe e n any fu nc ti o n wh at e v e r and its
o rg an fo r inst anc e b e tw e e n dig e st io n an d t h e st o m ac h
, , .

A c c o rdi ng to C ab an is we are no t ne c e ss arily m at e r ial ist s “

b e c au se we re fus e to e xp l ai n th e fu nc t io ns o f fe e l i ng and ,

th e i n t e ll e ct ual fu n c ti o n s by m e ans o f a sp e ci al p r inc ip l e .

First c aus e s a lw ay s e s c ap e us H e re as e ls e wh e re th e
.
, ,

s ci e n ti fic m an c o n fi ne s hims e lf to th e o bs e rv ati o n o f
ph e no m e na and to th e s e arc h a fte r th e ir l aws O n th e o th e r .

.
,

h and if p sy c h o l o gy c l aim e d to st art fro m th e analysis o f th e

,

ego ,
it w o ul d l e ave asid e m any ph e no m e na with wh ic h o ur
”

c o nsci o us ne ss d o e s no t acq uai n t us and which are p syc h ic al

,

ne v e rth e l e ss This is a fruitful re m ark which wil l b e t ak e n

.
,

up ag ai n by M ai ne de Bir an a nd which psych o l o gist s in o ur

,

o wn tim e h av e t urne d to g re at acc o u n t .

C ab an is c o nc e ive d p sychic al fac ts in a p o sitive m anne r ,

b ut h e did n o t att e mpt to c o nstr uct th e ir sc ie nc e I n C o mt e s

’
.

o pi n i o n it is G al l wh o is th e r e al fo u nd e r o f p o sit ive
psych o l o gy Wh ate ve r m ay b e th e valu e o fh is l o c al i sati o ns
—C o mt e d o e s no t th ink it an e nd uring o ne —to G al l at l e ast
.

b e l o ngs th e m e rit o f h avi ng se t th e p ro bl e m as it sh o uld be

se t and o f pr e s e n ti n g a pr e c is e s o l uti o n o f it
,
M o r e o ve r G al l .

did n o t c o n fi ne hims e lf to l o c a lisi ng th e di ffe re nt fac ulti e s in

L tt aV l t p 3 4 (8 p t mb
1
e res a a , . 1 se e re
1 96 Tno P /z ilosopn
y f
o A ug uste C om te

diffe re nt p art s o f th e brain H is d o c tr ine pro p e r is pre c e d e d .

by an e xc e ll e nt criti c ism dire c te d ag ai nst th e psych o l o gy

us ually re c e iv e d in t h e X V I I I c e nt ury . .

I n o rd e r to c o mb at C o ndill ac H e lv et iu s and th e id e o l o gi st s , ,

G al l t ak e s his st and up o n e xp e ri e nc e th at is to say up o n ,

m e n t al physi o l o gy and p ath o l o gy and als o up o n th e o bs e rv a ,

ti o n o f an im als As a fac t e ach i ndividu al c o m e s i nto th e

.
,

w o rld with te nd e n ci e s with pre disp o siti o ns with i nnat e , ,

fac ulti e s T h e supp o s e d n atural e qu ali ty o f all m e n is an ill

.

fo u nd e d abstr acti o n si n c e th e ir p ro p e n siti e s and th e i r qu aliti e s

,

o ft e n diff e r v e ry gr e atly T h e p ar ad o x o f H e lv etius wh o

.

attribut e s t h e m o r al an d i n t e ll e c tu al i n e qu ality o f m e n t o
-

t h e all p o w e rful i n flu e n c e o f e duc ati o n an d o f cir c u mst an c e s ,

c anno t b e uph e ld We c anno t as we will m ak e j ust mi nds

.
, ,

an d upright so uls V ari e ty o f o rg an s e n tails div e rsity o f

.

fun cti o n s ; th e di ffe re n c e b e twe e n m e n and an im als as th at ,

o f m e n a m o n g th e ms e lv e s is th e r e fo r e due t o an at o mi c al and,

and physi o l o gic a l di f fe r e n c e s C o n dillac s abs o l ut e s e n su alism

'
.

i s thus r e fute d by facts M o re o ve r if th e sci e n c e o f .

,

psycho l o gy d o e s no t advanc e it is b e c aus e disti n cti o ns b e tw e e n

t h e fac ulti e s o ft h e s o ul (m e m o ry im agi nati o n j ud gm e n t e tc )
, , , , .

h ave b e e n arbitrarily e stablish e d fr o m a m e t aphysi c al and ,

l o gic al p o i n t o f vi e w which d o e s n o t c o rr e sp o nd to th e r e al
,

sp e ci ality o fth e fu n cti o n s .

G all l ays d o w n th e fo ll o wi ng pri n cipl e as th e ultim at e c o n

e lusi o n o f e xp e ri e n c e a nd t h e fu nd am e nt al b asis o f h is
,

d o ctri n e o fth e fu n cti o ns o fth e brai n T li e dispositions of til e 1

i n dividu al soul a nd m ind a re inn a te a nd tneir m an ifesta

t ion dep e nds up on t/z e We m ust n o t se e in this
o rg a n isa tion .

a r e tur n to th e a p ri ori m e th o d G all gu ards ag ai n st r e ve rt .

ing to th e i nn at e ne ss o f D e sc art e s and L e ib n i tz H e m e ans t o .

sp e ak simply o f disp o siti o n s o r t e nd e nc i e s o r faculti e s fo r ”

III 63 —G ll A n t m i d phy i l gi d y tem

, , ,

C
1
o urs, , 1 -2 . a , x P i
a o e an s o o e u s s e ne rveu , ar s

18 0 II 6 7
1 , ,
-
.
 P sycnology 1 97

in st an c e , th e fac ul ty o fl o ve th e fe e li ng o f th e j ust and o fth e ,

unj ust a mbiti o n t h e faculty o f l e ar n i ng l an gu ag e s th at o f

, , ,

c o mp ari ng s e v e ral j udgm e nts o r id e as o f d e duci ng c o n ,

se q ue n c e s fr o m th e m e tc
“
We c o n fi ne o u rs e l ve s s ays G all
, .
,
”
,

to o bs e rvati o n We o n ly c o n side t h e fac ulti e s o fth e so ul in

.

so f ar as th e y b e c o m e ph e n o m e na f o r u s by m e an s o f th e

m at e ri al o rgans We d e ny and affirm no thi ng e x c e pt th at

.

whi c h c an b e br o ught und e r j udgm e nt by e xp e ri e nc e .

C o mt e ass e nt s to all thi s With G all h e c o nd e m ns th e .

c hildish dre am s o f C o ndi l l ac and o f his s ucc e s so rs ab o ut

transfo rm e d s e nsati o n s ; with him h e admits th e sp e ci al ity
1

o f t h e psy c hic al fun c t io n s c o rr e sp o n di n g t o t h e sp e ci al ity o f,

t h e c e re br al o rg an s B ut h e o nly b o r ro ws G al l s pri nc ipl e ’

. .

H e h as t h e str o n g e st o bj e cti o n s e v e n t o
U n d o ubte dly at th e tim e wh e n G all l iv e d no o ne c o uld h ave ,

d o ne b e tt e r and his e ffo rt d e s e rv e s to b e admi re d But his

, .

e rr o rs alth o ugh th e y w e re i n e v i t abl e a re e rr o rs n o n e t h e l e ss

, , .

I n th e first pl ac e G all was wr o n g in i so l ati ng th e n e rvo us

syste m to o m uch fr o m th e brai n which is in fac t a pro l o ng a ,

ti o n o f thi s syst e m as is pr o v e d by c o mp arative an at o my

,
2
.

G all c o nsid e re d th e syste ms o f aut o m ati c life o f vo lu nt ary ,

m o ti o n and o f th e s e nse s as e n tire ly di sti nc t fro m o ne

, ,

a n o th e r H e o nly i n clud e d in th e br ai n th o se n e r vo us
.

o rg an s which ,
at any r at e in t h e m o st p e rfe c t an im a ls are
, ,

th e sp e c i al o rg an s o f c o n sci o us ne ss o f th e i nsti n c tiv e aptitud e s , ,

o f th e i n c l i nati o ns an d o f t h e faculti e s o f th e mi n d an d
,

s o ul T o this th e sis C o mt e o pp o s e s th e facts as se mb l e d

.

by C ab anis and th e s o l id arity o fall th e e l e m e nts in th e livi ng

,

be i ng T h e brai n c an ne ith e r b e is o l ate d fro m th e re st o fth e

.

n e rv o us sy ste m n o r th e n e rv o us sy st e m fr o m th e r e st o f th e
,

o rg an ism .

Ag ai n G al l m ul tipli e s th e faculti e s in an arb itrary m anne r

, .

H e h ad e st ablish e d 2 7 o f th e m S pu rz h e im c ar ri e d this .

C III 6 6 7 1
o urs, C III 666 8
, 2 -
.
2
o urs, ,
-
.
 1 98 Tno P nilosopn
y of A u
g u ste C om te

n umb e r to 3 5 and o th e rs h ave fu rth e r i n cre as e d it Eve ry

, .

phre no l o gist wi l l s o o n c re at e a func ti o n and its o rgan wh e n , ,

e v e r it m ay se e m o pp o rt une to him with as much facility ,

as id e o l o gist s and psych o l o gists c o n struct e ntiti e s Th e s e

1
.

c re ati o n s are ne arly al ways e xtr e m e ly clumsy Th us an .

innat e m ath e m atic al aptit ud e

“
h as b e e n e st ablish e d Why
”
.

n o t als o a c h e mic al an anat o mi c al aptitud e e t c ?

,
A nd t hi s ,

m ath e m atic al aptitud e is m an ife st e d by th e facility fo r e xe

e uti n g c alcul ati o ns But th e m ath e m ati c al mi nd far fro m
.
,

b e ing an is o l ate d and sp e c i al aptit ud e pre s e nts all th e ,

v ari e ti e s whi c h th e hum an mi nd c an o ffe r by th e di ffe re nt

c o mbi n ati o n s o f r e ally e l e m e nt ary fac ulti e s F o r i nst an c e .
,

s o m e gr e at ge o m e t e rs h av e e sp e ci ally e x c e ll e d by t h e s agacity
o f th e ir i nv e n ti o n s o th e rs by th e e xt e n t o f th e ir c o mbi n ati o n s
, ,

o th e rs ag ai n by th e g e n ius o f l an gu ag e and t h e i n stituti o n o f

sig ns and so o n Fr o m this p o i n t o fvi e w w e ll dr awn up m o no

.
,

gr aphi e s o f gr e at sci e ntific m e n and gr e at artists w o uld b e

e xtr e m e ly pr e ci o us f o r th e pr o gr e s s o f psych o l o gy .

I n c o n clusi o n “
fu nd am e nt al phr e no l o gic al analysis must ”
,

b e r e c o n struc t e d Fr o m G all C o mt e o n ly pre se rve s th e

.
,
“

imp ulsi o n T h e gre at e r p art o f th e l o c alis ati o n s which G all

.
”

th o ught right to e st ablish must b e ab an d o ne d B ut h e was .

right in s e archi ng fo r th e m fo r thus h e sh o w e d sci e nc e th e ,

path to b e fo ll o we d Ev e n an e rro ne o us hyp o th e sis o n p o sitiv e

.

l i ne s is alw ays a s e rvic e r e nd e re d in th e b e gi nn i ngs o fa sci e nc e .

But o f G all s d o ctri ne o nly t wo pri ncipl e s h e nc e fo rth i ndis

’

p u t ab le subsist I s
. t t h e i nn at e n e ss,
o f t h e v a ri o us fu n d a

m e nt al disp o siti o n s b e th e y a ffe ctive o r i n t e ll e c tu al ; 2 nd

, ,

t h e plur ality o f faculti e s disti nc t and i nd e p e n d e n t o f o ne

ano th e r alth o ugh e f fe c tiv e acti o n s usu ally d e m an d th e ir
“
,

m o r e o r l e ss c o mpl e x c o o p e r ati o n Th e s e t wo pri nc ipl e s

-
.
”

a re m o re o v e r t h e t wo c o rr e l ativ e an d i nt e rd e p e n d e n t asp e cts

o f th e s am e c o nc e pti o n which is in ac c o rd anc e with wh at

,

C III 654 5 1
o urs, ,
-
.
 P syo/z olog y I 99

c o mm o n s e ns e h as al ways tho ught o f hum an nature I t .

c o rre sp o n ds t o th e divisi o n o f th e brai n fr o m th e anato mic al

,

p o i n t o fvi e w i nto a c e rtai n numb e r o f p arti al o rg an s at o n c e ,

i nd e p e nd e nt and d e p e n di ng up o n o ne ano the r T o e st ablish .

and t o d e m o n str at e th e d e t ail o f this c o rr e sp o n d e nc e is th e

o bj e c t o f phr e no l o gi c a l physi o l o gy
!
.

C o mt e t o o k u p th e att e mpt wh e re G al l h ad fail e d B ut .

his d o ctri ne p as se d thro ugh two succ e ssive fo rms H e him .

se lf c alls att e n t i o n t o th e imp o rt anc e an d t o t h e c aus e s o f

th is ch an g e .

I n 1 8 3 7 wh e n h e was writi ng t h e third v o lum e o f t h e

,

C ou rs de p /z ilosopnie p os itive h e still cl o s e ly fo ll o we d n o t o n ly

,

G all s g e ne ral c o n ce p t i o n but als o lfis anat o mic al a nd physi o

’

l o gic a l hyp o th e s e s H e th e n th o ught th at th e d o ctri ne

.
“

d e duc e d by G all fr o m th e m e th o d r e pre s e n ts th e tru e m o ral

a nd i n t e ll e c t u a l n a tur e o f m an and an im als with ad mir abl e

fid e lity .
”
H e a ppr o v e d o f th e divisi o n o f th e faculti e s i n t o
th e a ffe c t iv e an d t h e i nt e ll e ctu a l t h e o rg an s o f t h e fo rm e r
,

o c c upyi n g t h e wh o l e o f t h e p o st e ri o r and middl e r e gi o n s o f

th e br ai n an d t h e o rg an s o f t h e o th e rs o ccupyi n g o n ly t h e
,

an t e ri o r r e gi o n o f t h e br ai n th a t is to s ay a qu a rt e r o r a sixth
, ,

o f t h e c e ph alic m ass which at o nc e re e st ablish e s th e pre

! “ -
,

e mi ne n c e o f t h e a ff e ctiv e faculti e s up o n a sci e n ti fic b a sis

”
.

H e e v e n ac c e p te d t h e sub divisi o n o f th e s e faculti e s i n t o

-

i ncli nati o ns and fe e li ngs and th at o f th e i nte ll e ctu al fac ulti e s

,

i nt o p e rc e ptive faculti e s and re fl e ctive facu l ti e s .

At this m o m e nt his o bj e cti o n s w e re e sp e ci ally dire cte d

,

ag a i nst th e e xc e ssiv e multiplic ati o n o f th e fac u lti e s and ,

up o n th e insu fli c ie nc y o f th e anat o my o f th e br ai n which

ac c o mp an i e d t h e disti n c ti o n o f so m any faculti e s H e .

th o ught t h e anat o mists w e re right in pro t e sti ng ag ai nst

2 00 Tne P /z ilosofi/iy of A ug uste C om te

this m e th o d o f th e phre no l o g ists wh o fro m th e supp o s e d ,

e xis te n c e o f an irr e du c ibl e faculty ass um e t h e e xi st e n c e o f

,

a c o rr e sp o n di n g o rg an in th e br a i n But anat o my c anno t

.

thus b e tre at e d a priori A s th e aim o f e ve ry bi o l o gic al

.

th e o r y is to e st ab l ish an e x ac t h arm o ny b e twe e n anat o mi c al

a n alysis and physi o l o gi c al an alysis this e vid e ntly supp o s e s
,

th at th e y are no t e x actly m o d e ll e d up o n o ne ano th e r and ,

th at e ach o ne o f th e m h as b e e n w o rk e d o ut in a disti n ct
m anne r We must th e n t ak e up th e analysis o f th e c e re bral
.

app aratus ag a i n pr o visi o n ally s e tti n g a sid e all id e a o f fu n c

,

ti o n o r at l e ast o nly m aki ng u se o f it as an auxili ary in

,

an at o mic al r e s e arch
1
.

I n 1 8 5 1 in th e first v o lum e o f th e P olitique positio e C o mt e s

’
, ,

attitud e is quit e diff e r e nt I n G all s psych o l o gy h e n o l o ng e r

’
.

re c o g n is e s anythi ng but wh at is o f hist o ric al i nte re st H is o wn .

c o n c e pti o n o f psych o l o gy is c o mpl e te ly alte re d This gre at .

ch ange h as b e e n d e t e rmi ne d by th e fo u nd ati o n o f s o ci o l o gy .

U n d o ubte dly G all s m e rit r e m ai n s ve ry gre at fo r h e

’

r e nde re d a se rvic e o f th e first o rd e r in d ari ng to c o ns t ruct

‘

a p o sitiv e th e o ry o f th e i n te ll e ctu al and m o ral fu n cti o n s .

With o ut this th e o ry which at first h e c o nsid e re d to b e e x ac t

,

in its g e ne ral li ne s C o mt e c o uld n o t h av e u n d e rt ak e n t o

,

a pply th e p o sitive m e th o d to s o ci al fac ts n o r c o n s e qu e n tly,

t o fo u n d his phi l o s o phy S o his gr atitud e to G all is alm o st

.

a s gr e at as t o C o n d o rc e t his spiritu al fath e r But o n c e

“ ”
, .

s o ci o l o gy is fo u n d e d in l o o ki ng b ac k C o mte u nd e rst an ds
, ,

th at G all s c e re bra l th e o ry c anno t b e m ai nt ai ne d I t re

’ “ ”
.

s e mbl e s a pro visi o nal bridge by m e ans o f which p o siti v e

phil o s o phy p ass e d o v e r th e i nte rv al which s e p ar at e s bi o l o gy
pro p e r fro m s o ci o l o gy H ardly h as it r e ach e d th e o th e r sid e
.

wh e n th e bridg e c o ll aps e s I t m atte rs litt l e : it su ffi c e s th at

.
,

th an ks to th e bridge C o m te sh o uld h ave se t fo o t up o n th e

,

s o ci o l o g ic al gro un d H e c an no w r e tur n in all s e c u r ity to

.

C 1
III 5 6
o urs, , 1 2
-
.
 P syt nolog y 2 o 1

th e study o f th e m e nt al fu n cti o n s Wh e n I h ad fo u nd e d .
“

s o ci o l o gy h e s ays I u nd e rst o o d at l ast th at G all s ge nius

,
” “
,
’

h ad b e e n unab l e t o c o nstru c t a r e al physi o l o gy o f th e br ai n ,

o wi ng t o th e l ack o f a k n o wl e dg e o f t h e l a w s o f c o ll e ctiv e

e v o luti o n whi c h al o ne m ust fur n ish at o n c e its pri n c ipl e and

,

its e n d . Fro m th at tim e I fe lt th at this t ask whi c h b e fo re I ,

e xp e c t e d bi o l o gi st s t o ac c o mplish b e l o ng e d t o t h e s e c o n d ,

p art o f my o wn phil o so phi c al c ar e e r .

” 1

T h e psych o l o gy which in th e C o urs de pnilosopnie p osi tive

, , ,

was e sse n ti al ly bi o l o gic al and e nd e d simply in s o c i o l o gy b e , ,

c o m e s in th e P olitique p ositive e ss e nti ally s o c i o l o gic al and is

, ,

o n ly s e c o nd arily bi o l o gic al Fr o m 1 8 4 6 C o mt e b e c am e c o n .

sci o u s o f this n e w o ri e nt ati o n o f his th o ught and duri ng th e , ,

five y e ars which fo ll o w h e ne ve r c e as e s w o rki ng at his ,

c e re br al t abl e .
”

At first h e n o l o ng e r d e m ands an an at o mi c al study p ar all e l

,

t o t h e analysis o f t h e m e n t al fu n c ti o ns and i n d e p e nd e n t o f it ,

H e i n t e nds h e n c e fo rth to d e t e rmi ne th e se fu n c ti o ns o ut sid e

, ,

a ll an at o mi c a l r e s e ar c h T h e l o gic al pri n cipl e o f this c o n

“
.

stru c t io n c o nsists fo r m e in its subj e ctiv e i n stituti o n

, ,
H e .
”

syste m atic ally sub o rdi nate s anat o my to physi o l o gy and h e ,

h e nc e fo rth c o n c e iv e s th e d e te r m i nati o n o f th e c e re bral o rgans

as t h e c o mp l e m e n t an d e v e n as t h e r e sult o f t h e p o sitiv e
, ,

study o f th e i nt e ll e ctu al and m o r al fu n cti o n s At b o tt o m . ,

“
this subj e ct h as ne v e r all o w e d o f any o th e r m e th o d but th e
subj e ctiv e w e ll o r ill e mpl o y e d
,
I t h as b e e n e qu ally us e d .
”

by th e discipl e s o f G all and by his adve rs ari e s Wh at .

psych o l o gy h as l ack e d up to th e pre s e nt is no t e x act l o c al ,

isatio ns but a su ffici e n tly d e e p an alysis o f i n t e ll e ctu al and

m o ral ph e no m e na A nd as a m atte r o f fact it was imp o ssibl e
.

t o tr e at this pr o bl e m w e ll s o l o n g as we ig no r e d th e l aws o f ,

s o ci o l o gy which al o ne is c ap abl e o fd e ali ng with th e s e no bl e

,

fu ncti o ns 2
.
”

P l p 1
I 79
o . o s. , P 1 p , I 67
2 .
2
0 . os
.
, , 1 -2 .
 Th e P h ilosophy of A ug uste C om te

Thus in o rd e r to d e te rmi ne th e e l e m e nt ary faculti e s th o s e

, ,

which are irre du c ibl e and whi c h by th e ir c o o p e rati o n pr o duc e

,
-

t h e c o mpl e x ph e no m e n a whi c h are appre h e nd e d by c o nsci o us

n e ss t h e m e th o d must b e at o n c e subj e ctiv e a n d s o ci o l o gic al

,
.

F o r th e subj e ct which we m ust an alys e is no t th e i n dividu al

c o nsci o us ne ss o f which t h e study is to o i nacc e ssi b l e and
, ,

wh o s e life is to o sh o rt : it is th e u n iv e rs al subj e ct h u m a nity , ,

th e c as e o f t h e sp e ci e s b e i ng a l o n e su ffi c i e n tly d e v e l o p e d t o
“

c h aracte ris e th e v ari o us fu ncti o ns T o this an alysis as a

.
”
,

syst e m o f c o nt ro l will b e j o i ne d th e o bs e rv ati o n o f an im al s

, .

I nd e e d all o u r i nn ate disp o siti o n s b e l o n g als o to th e o th e r

,

sup e ri o r an im als I f th e n th e study o f m an sh o uld s e e m to

.

e st ablish e l e m e n t ary m o r a l o r e v e n i n t e ll e ctu a l fu n cti o n s o f

, , ,

which we se e n o t rac e in th e s e anim als by this al o ne we ,

sh o uld c o n sid e r th at t h e analysis h as b e e n i mp e rfe ct an d ,

th at c o mpl e x r e sults h ave b e e n c o n sid e re d as irre ducibl e .

S oc iolog ica l i nsp i ra tio n co n trolled by z oolog ical app reci a tio n

such is th e g e ne r al pri ncipl e o f th e p o sitive th e o ry of th e

s o ul.
” 1

By t his m e th o d C o mt e o b tai ns 1 8 irr e ducibl e faculti e s o f ,

which 1 0 are r e pre s e n t ati v e o f th e h e art 5 o f th e mi nd an d , ,

3 o f t h e ch ar a ct e r T o .e a ch o f th e s e h e a ssi g n s a sp e ci a l
o rg an . H e pl ac e s th e o rg an o f th e h e art in t h e p o s te ri o r
p o rti o n o f th e brai n and in th e c e re b e llu m th e o rg an s o f th e ,

mi nd in th e ant e ri o r p o rti o n o f th e brai n and th o s e o f ch ar ,

a c t e r in t h e i n t e rm e di ary r e gi o n A nat o mists are fr e e to

.

v e rify a p osteriori th e s e p arati o n o f th e 1 8 e l e m e n ts which

C o m te disti nguish e d a p rio ri in th e c e re bral app aratus T h e .

e xis te n c e o f t h e s e o rg an s in a n c a s e app e ars t o him t o b e

y , ,

su ffici e ntly d e m o n strate d and anat o mic al d e t e rmi nati o n is

,

n o t v e ry imp o rt an t We might c o n fi ne o urs e lve s to th e

.

sp e cific ati o n o f th e n u mbe r an d th e situ ati o n o f th e o rg an s ,

which we h av e d e duc e d fr o m th e n umb e r and re l ati o n s o f

P l p 1
I 67 3
o . os
.
, , 2 -
 P sych ology 2 o 3

th e l m e nt ary fu ncti o ns I t w o u l d no t b e n e c e ss ary fo r u s

e e .

t o k n o w th e ir sh ap e o r th e ir si z e T h e u tility o f c e r e br al .

l o c ali sati o ns r e s e mbl e s th at which g e o m e te rs dr aw fro m

c urv e s fo r th e b e tte r c o n sid e r at i o n o f e qu ati o ns T h e o rg an
1
.

is simply th e st atic e qu iv al e n t o f th e fu n cti o n o f th e so u l It .

suffic e s f o r u s t o k n o w its e xist e n c e an d its p o s iti o n so as t o

situ at e in it all th e re l ati o n s o f th e fu ncti o n its e lf so to sp e ak , .

I t pl ays th e p art o f a sch e m ati c d rawi n g .

S o th e th e o ry o f th e br ai n an d o f t h e s o u l is no l o n g e r
,

sim ult ane o u s I n fact th e th e o ry o f t h e s o ul is fi rst c o n

.
”
,

struct e d by a subj e ctive an d i n d e p e n d e nt m e th o d an d with o ut

any c o n sid e r ati o n o f t h e disp o siti o n o f th e c e r e br a l app ar atu s .

This disp o si ti o n is d e d uc e d afte rw ards fr o m th e th e o ry o fth e

, ,

so u l o n c e it is e s tablish e d
,
.

R e tur n i n g th e n to G all s psych o l o gy C o mte c an e xpl ai n its

’

d e fe cts to hims e l f G all h ad o scill at e d b e twe e n subj e ctive

.
“

i nspir at i o n and o bj e ctive te nd e n ci e s with o u t ad o pti n g a sys te ,

”

m at ic pl an Th e re h as no t b e e n any v e ry gr e at dis advant ag e

.

in this e mpiric al fluctu ati o n in wh at c o n c e r n s th e th e o ry o f th e

af fe ctiv e fu n c t i o n s With o ut a d o ubt G all h ad e s tablish e d
.
,

an ill fo u n d e d disti n cti o n b e t w e e n t h e i n cli n ati o n s an d t h e

-

fe e li ngs But h e c o uld n o t b e mist ak e n c o n c e r ni n g th e

.

fu nd am e ntal i nc li nati o ns o f hum an nature I n d e fa ult o f th e .

tru e m e th o d h e was supp o rte d o n t his p o i n t by c o mm o n

,

wisd o m an d by th e o bs e rvati o n o f an im als I t is o n t h e

,
.

subj e ct o f t h e i nt e ll e c tu al fu n cti o ns th at h e is e n tire ly wro n g ,

b e c aus e h e re this t wo fo ld h e lp fail e d him and n o t hi ng in this , ,

c as e fill e d t h e pl ac e o f th e tru e m e th o d which was th e n un

,

k no w n I n o rd e r to disc o ve r th e st atic and dy namic l aws o f

.

t h e i n t e ll e ct it wa s n e c e ss a r y to ab an d o n t h e bi o l o gic al p o i n t
,

o f vi e w T o G all s th e o ry C o mt e th e n substitut e s a ne w
’
.

cl assific ati o n o f th e i nte ll e ctu al fu n cti o n s H e disti n guish e s .

b e tw e e n th e faculti e s o f c o n c e pti o n an d t h e faculti e s o f e x

P l p I 73 1
o . o s. , , 1 -2 .
 T h e Philosoph y f
o A ug u ste C om te

p r e ssi o n H .e i n dic a t e s th e r e l ati o n s o f th e i n t e ll e c tu al fu n c

t i o n s pr o p e r with t h e af fe ctive fu nc ti o ns an d th e fu ncti o n s o f

m o ti o n H e m ak e s us app re h e n d th e v e ry i ntim at e re l ati o ns
.

which c o nne c t d e sire and will Fi nally to d e te rmi ne th e .

,

fu nd am e nt al i nt e ll e ctu al fu nc ti o ns h e t ak e s i nt o ac c o u n t th e ,

histo ric al e vo luti o n o fth e hum an sp e ci e s .

It d o e s no t e nt e r i nt o th e p urp o s e o f this w o rk to se t fo rt h
C o mt e s the o ry in d e t ail and to e x ami ne th e e ight e e n irre
’

du c ible faculti e s o f t h e c e r e br al t abl e o n e by o ne But th e .

syste m atic ch ar ac te r o f th e d o ctri ne d o e s n o t pre v e nt us fro m

t aki ng up a c e rt ai n n umb e r o f i n t e r e sti ng and d e e p psych o
l o gic al vi e ws in it T o limit o urs e lve s to a fe w e x ampl e s
.
,

C o mt e dre w imit ati o n n e ar to h abit and h e b ro ught h abit ,

its e lf b ack to th e gre at c o sm o l o gi c al law o f p e rsi st e n c e

“
,

which in th e vit al o rd e r is m o difi e d by th e inte rm ittanc e o f

,

ph e no m e na H e r e m ark e d th at atte nti o n is ne ve r pro duc e d

.
1

with o ut an affe ctiv e ph e no m e no n up o n which it d e pe n ds H e ?

als o i n dic at e d th e disti n cti o n b e tw e e n str o n g st at e s a n d w e ak

st at e s and th e re ducti o n o f im age s by actu al p e rc e pti o ns

,
“ ”
.

“
I f o ur im age s c o uld o ffe r as much i n t e n sity h e s ays as , ,

o u r e xt e r n al s e n s ati o n s o ur m e n t a l st at e w o uld n o t a ll o w o f
,

a ny c o n sist e n cy T h e appre ci at i o n o f wh at is with o ut w o uld

.

b e tr o ubl e d by this c o n fl ict with wh at is withi n H e nc e .

a th e o ry o f h alluci n ati o n an d i n s an ity

3
.

T h e th e o ry o f p e rc e pti o n which C o mt e o pp o s e s t o th e
a bstr act s e n su alism o f th e id e o l o gists is a lli e d t o his g e ne r al

c o n c e pti o n o fth e re l ati o n s b e twe e n th e subj e ct and th e o bj e ct .

O ur i n t e rnal o p e rati o n s are ne v e r anythi ng but th e dire ct o r

i ndire ct pr o l o ngati o n o f o ur e xt e r nal impre ssi o ns But .

r e cipro c ally th e l att e r are alw ays c o mplic ate d by th e

,

o th e rs e v e n in th e m o st e l e m e n t ary c as e s T h e s e n s ati o n
’
,
.
,

which app e ars simpl e is alre ady th e r e sult o f a v e ry c o mpl e x

,

C III 5 96 8 ; P l p I 5 98 9
1
o u rs, ,
-
o . o s. ,
-
.

P l p 2
I 7 7
o . os
.
, 2P 1 p
. II 3 8 3 3
0 . os .
, .
 P sych ology 2 05

c o mbi nati o n l F o r no se nsati o ns are r e ally p e rc e ive d e xc e pt

.

aft e r r e it e r at e d impr e ss io ns I f th e mi nd is e ver p assiv e

.
,

i t c an o nly b e th e first tim e F o r th e s e c o nd it is al re ady .

,

p re p are d by th e pre c e di n g o ne c o mbi ne d w ith th e wh o l e ,

o f pr e vi o us a c quisiti o n s A nd C o m te i n si st s up o n
. th e

h abitu al p arti c ip ati o n o f re aso ni ng in th e o p e rati o n s which

are attribut e d t o s e n s ati o n al o ne T h e a ctivity b e l o n gi n g
”
.

to th e mi n d e nt e rs i nt o all its ac ti o n s e v e n t h e s m all e st ,

o f th e m .

M e nt al p atho l o gy sc arc e l y e xists o w in g to th e l ac k o f th e ,

sc ie n tific S pirit a m o ng sp e c i alists f o r t h e dis e as e s o f th e m ifi d .

Still if B ro u ssais pri ncipl e b e tru e t h at is to say if m o rbid

’
, ,

ph e no m e n a are pro duc e d acc o rdi ng t o th e s am e l aws which

go ve r n no rm al ph e no m e n a wh at advan t ag e might n o t sc ie n tific
,

m e n d e riv e fr o m t h e o bs e r v ati o n o fm e n t al dis e ase s ? Th e y are

privil e ge d c as e s which n at ure s uppli e s fo r th e m re al e xpe ri ,

m e nt s wh e re th at whi c h is i ns e p a r abl e in th e n o rm al stat e

,

app e ars dis ass o ci at e d Wh at l ight might b e thro wn by this

.

m e ans up o n m any physi o l o gic al and e ve n anat o mic al

qu e sti o ns in particu l ar in wh at c o n c e r ns th e s e ntim e nt o f th e
,

eg o ( dis e as e s o f p e rs o nality ab o uli a and t h e fac ulti e s o f

, ,

e xpre ssi o n is o l at e d fr o m t h e fa cu l ti e s o f c o n c e pti o n (

,
dis e as e s
o fsp e e ch ) .

A n im al psych o l o gy w o uld n o t b e l e s s i n str uc tive All th e .

a ff e c tiv e an d i nt e ll e c tu al faculti e s are c o mm o n to m e n and

high e r an im als s ave p e rh aps th e high e st i nt e ll e c tu al aptitud e s
, .

Ev e n this e xc e pti o n is a d o ubtful o ne if with o u t pre judic e we ,

c o mp are th e acti o ns o f th e high e st an im als with th o s e o f t h e

l e ast d e v e l o p e d s avage s We sh o uld study th e h abits and th e
.

mi n d o f wild an im als We sh o uld o bs e rve th e ch ang e s which

.

are pr o duc e d in th e m by d o m e stic ati o n H e re agai n .

alm o st e ve rythi n g h as t o b e d o n e afr e sh

?

1
P o l po s
. . I , 7 12 -
1 4. 1
C o urs, III , 66 0 .
 Th e P h ilosophy of A ug uste C om te

IV .

In spite o f wh ate ve r m ay h av e b e e n s aid C o mt e th e n h as ,

a psych o l o g y . A nd wh at is m o re this psych o l o gy is in a

, ,

s e ns e no t f ar r e m o v e d fr o m t h at o f th e S c o ttish sch o o l and o f

th e Ecl e cti c s alth o ugh h e so m u c h fo ught ag ai nst th e ir m e th o ds .

T h e p o i nts o f c o n t ac t a re n um e r o u s and imp o rt ant I n b o th .

d o ctri ne s th e psychic al ph e no m e na are re fe rr e d to fac ul ti e s

a nd the s e are r e pr e s e nt e d as “
disp o siti o ns i nnat e ,

“
pro pe rt i e s. I n b o th th e e sse nti al psy c h o l o gic al p ro bl e m
,

a pp e ars t o b e th e d e te rmi nati o n o f th e n umb e r and t h e

re l ati o n s o f th e se fac ulti e s wh o s e ac ti o n v ari o usly c o mbi ne d
,

pro duc e s psychic al ph e no m e na : be fo re e ve rythi n g it is a ,

qu e sti o n o f no t c o nsid e ri ng as an e l e m e nt ary fac u l ty th a t

whi c h as a m atte r o f fact r e su l ts fr o m th e c o mbi nati o n o f
s e ve ral fac ulti e s o r i nv e rs e ly Fi nally in b o th i t is cl aim e d
,
.
,

t o e st ablish this d o ctri ne o f th e i nnat e fac ulti e s up o n th e

o bs e rv ati o n o f h u m an n atur e .

C o mte hims e lf ha d s e e n th at at any r at e in th e c as e o f

,

C o ndillac s c riti c ism h e was in acc o rd an c e with th e e cl e ctics

’

, .

O n this p o i n t h e o n ly r e fus e d to gr an t th e m o rigi nality .

A c c o rdi ng to him th e y m e re ly p o pul aris e d in o bscure and ,

e mph atic d e cl am ati o n s wh at physi o l o gists lik e Ch arl e s

,

B o nne t C ab anis and chi e fly G all and S purz h e im h ad l o ng

, ,

b e fo re st ate d o n this subj e ct in a far cl e are r and e sp e ci ally in

a f ar m o r e e x ac t m ann er F o r h is p art G ar n i e r th e a uth o r o f
.
,

t h e T ra i te des F acu ltes de l cim e h ad cl e arly s e e n th e r e l ati o ns

’ ’ ’

o f e cl e cticism t o G all s d o c tri ne an d h ad studi e d th e m in a

’

wo rk e n titl e d De la P h ren olog ie e t de la P sycho log i e co m p a rees

’ ’

which app e ar e d in 1 8 3 9 .

Why th e n d o e s C o mte att ack th e e cl e c tics with such

p e rsi ste nc e and such vi o l e nc e if i nd e e d th e r e sults o f h is
, , ,

psy c h o l o gy are no t ve ry far re m o v e d fro m wh at th e y say P

I t is be c aus e in r e ality be ne ath th e app are n t r e s e mbl anc e o f
,
 Psych olog y 2 07

do ctri ne , a diffe re n c e o f m e th o d as s e ri o us as c an b e c o nc e ive d

i s c o nc eal e d F o r C o usi n and e sp e ci ally fo r th e C o usi n we
.
,

k no w b e fo re 1 8 3 0 psych o l o gy is no t an e nd in its e l f I t is a
, .

m e an s which h e use s to ris e to th e study o fb e i ng in its e lf and

o ft h e Ab so lut e T h e e g o which h e an alys e s i s i nd e p e nd e n t
.

o f t h e o rg an ism This is wh at C o mte c o nd e m ns as a

.

re tro gre ssi o n “

S o m e m e n no t re c o g ni z i ng th e pre s e nt and
.
,

i rre v o c abl e dir e c ti o n o f th e hu m an mi nd h av e e n d e av o ur e d ,

fo r t e n y e a rs t o tr an spl ant G e rm an m e t aphysi c s i nt o o ur

m idst an d t o c o n stitut e u nde r th e n a m e of p sych olog y a so
, , ,

c all e d sci e n c e e n tire ly i nd e p e n d e n t o f physi o l o gy su p e ri o r t o ,

i t an d to which sh o uld e xclusiv e ly b e l o ng th e study o f m o ral

,

ph e no m e na 1
. A nd t his att e mpt at r e acti o n t ak e s p l ac e at
”

t h e v e ry m o m e n t wh e n t h e w o rks o f C ab an i s an d o f G all h av e
bro ught this study up o n th e p o sitive p ath !
I t is n e e dl e ss to say th at in C o mt e s syst e m psy c hi c al ,
’

ph e no m e na are sub o rdi nat e d as far as th e ir c o nditi o ns o f ,

e xist e nc e a re c o n c e r ne d t o all t h e o rd e rs o f m o r e g e ne r a l
,

n atur al ph e no m e na C o mte sh o uld th e n h av e fo ll o w e d

.

C ab an is and G all as a m att e r o f c o u rs e But h e th o ught

,
.

t h at t o e st ablish t h e sci e nc e o f t h e transc e nd e nt fu ncti o ns

“ ”
,

th e bi o l o gic al p o i nt o f vi e w was i n su ffici e nt I n thi s c a s e .

a nat o mic a l c o n sid e r ati o ns are o n ly a ki n d o f r e duplic ati o n a nd

t r an scripti o n o f physi o l o gi c al c o n sid e r ati o n s A s M ai n e de

B iran s aid in t e rms c uri o usly lik e C o mt e s a disti ncti o n o f
,
’
,

pl ac e s a ssig ne d to th e e x e rcis e o fe ach faculty m ust ne c e ssarily

b e its e lf r e fe rr e d to ano th e r p re e st ablish e d divi si o n o f t h e -

faculti e s . Hyp o th e sis thus graft e d u p o n hyp o th e si s o f

a diff e r e n t o rd e r w o uld n o t much c o n tribut e t o thr o w l ight

u p o n th e an alysis o r i t ll ctu l func ti o ns O nly ”

o f u n e e a 2
.

i nst e ad o f app e ali ng lik e M ai ne de Bir an t o re fl e c ti o n C o mt e

, , ,

r is e s fro m t h e bi o l o gic al to th e s o ci o l o gic a l p o i n t o f vi e w

P l p I V App d i p 8
1
o . os
.
, , en ce , . 2 1 .

2
M i d Bi w di t (éd C
‘ i ) II 5 5 5 8
'

a ne e ran , uvrcs z n c cs . o us n , , .
 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

H e r e c o g nis e s th at th e subj e ctive m e th o d al o ne is suit ab l e fo r

t h e sci e n c e o f psychic al ph e no m e n a but in pl ac e o f th e , ,

m e taphysical sub j e cti v e m e t h o d by m e a n s o f which ,

t h e
“
e o
g
”

is d e lud e d i n t o th e b e li e f th at it an alys e s its o p e r ati o n s and ,

g rasps its o wn ac tivity h e will m ak e use o f th e p ositi ve

,

s ub i h od T h e subj e ct which h e will an alys e will b e

j ec t v e m e t .

th e hu m an mi nd o r b e tt e r th e hum an s o ul c o n sid e r e d in its

, ,

c o nti n u o us e vo luti o n th at is to say in its re ligi o ns in its

, ,

sci e n c e s in its phil o s o phy in its l angu age and in its art
, , .

H e re is m att e r fo r a psych o l o gy which will no l o n g e r b e

c him e ric al but re al which will b e p o sitive in a w o rd lik e th e
, , , ,

bi o l o gy up o n which it d e p e nds an d o fwhich it is th e fulfilm e nt .

I f we l e ave asid e th e c o nc e pti o n o f th e faculti e s which

“

C o mt e ac c e pte d r ath e r h astily at th e h ands o f th e S c o ttish

s c h o o l an d o f G all an d th e c e re bral t abl e which h e b e li e v e d
“
,

t o b e o n c e fo r all c o n struct e d his psych o l o gy c o n t a i ne d m o r e

,

th an o n e imp o rt an t and fe rtil e s e e d T o th e e cl e ctic .

p sy c h o l o gy which is no t p o sitive C o mte substitute d two

, ,

sc i e n c e s which are such I n th e first pl ac e an e xp e rim e n t a l

.
,

s c i e n c e o f t h e psychic al ph e no m e na studi e d in th e ir r e l ati o n

to th e ir o rg an ic c o n diti o ns it is th e physi o l o gic al psych o l o gy

o f which n o o n e to day qu e sti o n s t h e l e gitimity
-
Th e n by .
,

t h e i n tr o ducti o n o f th e s o ci o l o gic al p o i nt o f vi e w C o mt e ,

o p e ne d t h e wa
y to a wh o l e s e ri e s o f studi e s which b e gi n t o b e
d e ve l o p e d (s o ci al psych o l o gy e th n ic al psych o l o gy psych o l o gy
, , ,

o ft h e m ass e s e tc ) ,
I t is o ft e n s aid th at s o ci o l o gi c al l aws h av e
.

the ir fo u nd ati o n in ps y ch o l o gi c al l aws But th e r e v e rs e is n o .

l e ss tru e T h e psy c h o l o gic al l aws at l e ast th e m e nt al and

.
,

m o ral l aws are at th e s am e tim e so ci o l o gi c al l aws si n c e th e y

, , , ,

are o n ly r e v e al e d in t h e stud y o f t h e i n t e ll e ctu a l hist o ry o f

th e hum an sp e ci e s
“
We must no t e xpl ai n hum anity by
.

m an but m an by hum an ity

“ ” ‘ ' ”
, T o th e .Ty lfl a of m i i cre
-
v ro v

an ci e n t psych o l o gy th e p o sitive m e th o d substitut e s this

,

pre c e pt : T o k no w y o urs e lf k n o w hist o ry ,

M a n o nly .
”
 Psych olog y 2 09

b e c o m e s c o nsci o us o f himse lf wh e n h e b e c o m e s aw are

, of h is
pl ac e in th e e vo luti o n o f H um an ity .
BO O K III
 C H APTE R I
TH E T RA N S ITI O N F RO M A N I M A LIT Y TO HU M A N IT Y .

A RT A N D L A N G U A GE

O F th e phi l o so ph e rs wh o fl o u rish e d b e fo re th e r ise o f th e

p o sitive d o c tri ne th e gre at e r n umb e r assum e d as a p o st ul at e
,

in th e c o mp ar ativ e st udy o f m an and anim als th at th e r e was ,

b e tw e e n th e m a d iffe re nc e o f nature and no t m e re l y o ne o f

,

d e gre e Wh ate ve r fund am e nt al d iffe re nc e b e attrib ute d to

.

r e as o n l angu age m o ral se ns e re l igi o n e tc th e h um an

, , , ,
“
.
,

ki ngd o m is c o nc e ive d fo r th e m o st p art as sup e ri o r to

”

th e an im al ki ngd o m and as c l e ar ly s e p arat e d fr o m it T aki ng .

th e ir st and up o n an analysis o f t h e p re se nt state o f th e

hum an c o n sci e n c e th o se phil o s o ph e rs re c ognis e an o rd e r o f
,

m o r al r e al iti e s to whi c h an im al s h ave no ac c e ss Thus

,
”
.

th e y give to th e sc ie nc e o f M an a privil e ge d o bj e ct whi c h

se p ar at e s it fr o m the gr o up o f th e n at ural s c ie nc e s .

T h e p o sit iv e m e th o d admits n e ith e r this p o stul at e no r th e ,

c o ns e qu e nce s whi c h are dr aw n fro m it I n ge ne ral thi s m e th o d

.

is c h arac t e ris e d b yth e substituti o n o f th e o bje c tiv e to th e

an thr o po c e n tric p o i n t o f v ie w an d al s o by th e substituti o n o f
,

o bs e rv ati o n t o im agi nati o n I t d o e s no t s udd e nly c h ange its

.

o ri e n t ati o n wh e n it c o m e s t o t h e study o f m an T h e p o sitiv e

.

m e th o d is no t t h e re fo re c o nc e rne d with k no w in g wh at id e a
o rm s o f h ims e l f to da
m an f y and o f his r e l ati o n s with o th e r
-

l ivi ng b e i ngs I nt o thi s id e a e nt e r e l e m e nts o f re ligi o us and

.

m e t aphy sic al o rig in wh o se p re se n c e is e xpl ai ne d by histo ric al

,

re aso ns . T h e q ue sti o n is to o b se rv e th e nat ure o f m an in his

2 14 T h e P hilosophy f g
oA u u ste C o m te

rea l re al t io ns with o th e r b e ing s M an so c o n s id e re d at o nc e

.
, ,

t ak e s h is p l ac e agai n at th e to p o fth e z o o l o gic al sc al e .

T h e pr o bl e m will th e n b e se t in th e fo ll o wi ng t e rms G ive n

th at m an is i ncl ud e d in th e anim al s e ri e s o f which h e is th e ,

high e st te rm but still a te rm to acc o u nt fo r th e di ffe r e nc e s

, ,

whi c h to day pl ac e him so high ab o ve th e t e rm imm e di at e ly

-

b e l o w him This is t aki ng t h e ve ry re ve rs e attitud e o fne arly

.

all t h e phil o s o ph e rs wh o s e m a i n di f
,
ficulty is to give an acc o u nt
o f th e lik e ne s se s which e xist b e tw e e n m an a nd an im al s I t is .

th e p o siti o n which D a rwi n will t ak e in his Descen t of M a n .

C o mt e t ak e s his st an d up o n two p o stul at e s T h e fi rst affirm s .

th e fun d am e nt al id e n tit y o f th e e ss e n ti al fu n cti o n s in m an

and an im als S i n c e th e wh o l e o f th e m o ral and i nte l l e ctu al

.

fun cti o n s c o nstitute s th e ne c e ss ary c o mpl e m e nt o f an im al

life pr o p e rly so c all e d it w o uld b e di fficult to c o nc e ive th at all
-
,

th o se fu nc ti o n s which are fu n d am e nt al sh o uld n o t by this v e ry ,

fact b e c o mm o n at v ari o us d e gre e s to all th e high e r anim als

, , ,

an d p e rh aps e v e n t o t h e e n tir e gr o up o f t h e v e rt e br at a
1 ”
.

T h e an im al fu n cti o n s a re as a bl o ss o mi n g o u t o fo rg an ic li fe ,

d e sti ne d in th e first pl ac e to m ak e this life m o re p e rfe c t and

m o re c o mpl e x in th e s am e way th e i nt e ll e ctu al and m o r al ,

fu ncti o n s are o rigi n ally as it w e r e ano th er bl o ss o mi ng o ut o f

, , ,

an im al li f e a nd must c o n s e qu e n tly b e fo u n d
, at l e ast as a ,

p o ssibility wh e re v e r an im al life h as re ach e d a c e rt ai n d e gr e e

,

o f d e v e l o pm e n t .

This p o stul at e acc o rdi n g to C o mt e is su ffici e ntly e st ab l ish e d

, ,

by bi o l o gy by m e an s o f th e c o mp arative m e th o d All th e
, .

pri n cip al ch aract e ristics which prid e and igno ran c e se t up as

abs o lut e privil e g e s o f o u r sp e ci e s als o a p e ar m o re o r l e ss
p , ,

rudim e ntary in th e m aj o rity o f th e highe r an im al s T h e

,
?

mist ak e was m ad e b e c aus e m e t aphysic al id e o l o gy and psy

c h o lo gy pl ac e i n te llig e n c e fo r e m o st in th e study o f
psychic al fu ncti o n s I nt e llige nc e i nd e e d puts to day an
.
-

C 1
III 6 6
o urs, . P l p 1 . I 6 2
o . o s. , , 02 .
 F rom A n im ality to H u m an ity 2 1 5

imm e nse di st anc e b e twe e n m an and anim al s B ut a m o re .

ac c urat e p sy c h o l o gy r e c o g nis e s th at th e m o st e ne rge tic ,

t h e m o st fu nd am e nt al o f m e n t al fu nc t i o n s are th e affe ctive

fu nc ti o ns si nc e in d e fault o f th e impul se give n by th e m
, ,
!

inte l lig e nc e it se lf wo ul d no t b e d e v e l o p e d T h e anal o gy .

b e t we e n m an and th e an im als at o nc e appe ars : fo r th e affe c tive

fu nc ti o ns are c o mm o n to the m b o th I t is th e s am e w ith th e .

int e l l e ctu al func ti o ns wh e n al l o w anc e is m ad e fo r th e d e v e l o p

,

m e n t th e y h ave as su m e d in m an I n a w o rd ifth e dy nami c al .

,

supe ri o rity o f th e hu m an sp e ci e s o v e r th e o th e r sp e ci e s i s
stro ng its st atic al sup e ri o rity is w e ak T h e pro bl e m c o n si sts
,
.

i n fi ndi n g h o w t o such an app ar e ntly un imp o rt ant di ffe re n c e

,

in th e o rg ans su c h a c o n sid e rabl e di ffe re nc e in th e fu nc ti o ns

,

c o r re sp o n ds 1
.

H e re c o m e s in th e s e c o nd p o stul at e T h e fu nd am e nt al :

c o nstituti o n o f m an is i nv ari abl e E v olu tio n bu t no t tra ns .

”

form ation : this gre at pri n cipl e t ran smitte d by bi o l o gy to ,

s o ci o l o gy d o mi nat e s th e l att e r sci e nc e e ntire ly I n th e c ou rse

, .

( ” W e b -
w ;

o f th e l o n g iEPQ YY fl t h le ads h um an ity fr o m sav age an im a

h
lity t é pds itive ci vilis ati o n n o thi ng abs o lut e ly n e w app e ars
y

2
‘

.
,

Ev e rythi ng Which m an ife sts its e lf littl e by littl e pre e xiste d ,

-

an d this
“

in i ff a
”
-

st ate w ould perh aps ne ve r h ave c e as e d if a n umb e r o f fav o ur

’ “
' “

a bl e c o nditi o n s h ad n o t o ccurr e d t o g e th e r .

T h e m e n t al fu n cti o n s which are i n disp e n s abl e t o o rgan ic ,

an d t o an im al life pr o p e rly so c all e d quickly attai ne d th e ,

d e gre e o fd e ve l o pm e nt with o ut which th e spe ci e s w o uld h ave

d is app e are d O n th e c o ntrary th e high e st fu nd am e nt al “
,

disp o siti o ns o f o ur nature r e m ai ne d l ate n t fo r a l o n g tim e ,

an d o n ly m an ife st e d th e m se l v e s by d e gr e e s But if th e i r .

d e v e l o pm e nt h as b e e n sl o w it is in re tur n c o nti n uo us and , , ,

i n d e fi n it e A nd th e s e disp o siti o ns t e n d to pre p o n d e rate

.
,

a l th o ugh th e i nv e rsi o n o f th e prim itiv e e c o no my c an ne ve r

“

P l P I 63 8 9
1
o . o s. , C . I 8 -
.
z
o urs, . 1 .
2 1 6 T h e Philosophy of A ug uste Com te

b e c o m e c o mpl e

m o re and m o re m ark e d o f th e m o st ch aracte risti c pr o p e rt ie s

o fo ur e cie s I n this se n s e o u r so c i al so luti o n must b e u n d e r
sp .
,

st o o d as th e e xtre m e t e rm o f a pr o gre ssi o n c o n ti nu e d u n i n

t e rru pte dly thr o ugh o ut th e wh o l e livi n g ki n gd o m fr o m th e

m o st simpl e fo rms o fv e g e t abl e life th e pre d o mi nanc e o f th e

,

o rg an ic fu n cti o n s b e c o mi n g l e ss and l e ss e xclusiv e in o rd e r ,

in th e first pl ac e to m ak e r o o m fo r th e pr e d o mi n an c e o f th e
a n im al fu n cti o n s pr o p e r l y so c all e d and fi n ally f o r th at o fth e
,

i nt e ll e ctu al and m o ral fu nc ti o n s wh o s e d e v e l o pm e nt is th e

,

v e ry d e fi n iti o n o f hu m an ity 1
.
”

Thus th e ch ai n o f b e i ng is u n i nt e rrupte d But C o mt e as

,
.
,

we k no w did n o t acc e pt L a m arck s hyp o th e sis H e b e li e ve d

’
.
,

in th e fixity o f sp e c i e s . U n d o ubte dly h e admits in a m e as ure

which s c i e n c e will s o m e day fix acquisiti o n s sl o wly i nc o r
,

po rate d i n t o o rg an isms by h e r e dity But h e d o e s n o t thi n k

.

th at t h ey will g o so far as to tran sfo rm spe ci e s T h e wh o l e .

e v o luti o n o f m an must th e n b e e xpl ai ne d by its o riginal

c o nstituti o n I nd e e d C o mt e h e re m ai nt ai n s as e ve rywh e re
.
, ,

in n ature th e p e rfe ct c o rr e sp o nd e nc e b e tw e e n t h e st atic al and

,

th e dy n amic al p o i n t o f vi e w T h e c as e o f m an c anno t b e an
.

e xc e pti o n to this e n c c lo oe dic law which is v e rifi e d in all

y p ,

t h e o rd e rs o f ph e no m e n a fr o m the m o st simpl e t o th e m o st

c o mpl e x As th e wh o l e li ne o f t h e c urve c o rre sp o nds to th e

.

e qu ati o n so t h e wh o l e d e v e l o pm e n t o f hum an ity must c o r

,

r e sp o n d t o th e fund am e nt al n ature o f m an O n thi s

“
.

c o nditi o n al o ne is s o c i o l o gy p o ssibl e as a s c i e n c e No w .

p o sitive s o c i o l o gy e xists : th e re fo re th e p o st ul at e is j u st ifi e d .

1
C o urs, IV , 4 98 -500 .
 F rom A n im ality to H u m a n it
y 2 1 7

T he th e o ry o f th e r e l ati o n b e tw e e n m an and anim al s thus

fi nd s it se lf d e duc e d fr o m th e ge ne ral pri ncipl e s o f p o sitiv e
phil o so phy B ut it c an als o b e ve rifi e d a pos teriori th ro ugh th e
.
,

c r iti c ism o fth e a rgum e n t s o f th e adve rs e th eo ry by m e an s o f

o bs e rvati o n and e xp e ri e n c e .

T h e first o f th e s e a rgu m e n ts an d t h e o ne which in g e ne r al

m ak e s th e gre at e st i mpr e ssi o n c o n trasts th e i nsti n ct o f ,

a nim al s w ith t h e i n t e llig e n c e o f m an I t r e p re s e nts i nsti nct .

a s bli n d an d fat a l an d i nt e llig e n c e as fr e e a n d p ro gr e s siv e

, ,

But this an tith e sis c anno t withst an d th e e x ami nati o n o f fac ts .

I n sti n ct is c all e d to o h astily a fat al t e nd e ncy o f anim al s to

t h e m e ch an ic al e x e cuti o n o fa c ti o n s which are u n ifo rmly d e t e r
mi ne d by c o rre sp o ndi ng circumst anc e s and no t re quiri n g no r ,

e v e n a dmitti ng o f any e d uc a ti o n pr o p e rly so c all e d This ”

-
.

fatal t e nd e n cy d o e s no t e xis t I t is a gr atuito us supp o siti o n

.
,

p e rh aps a r e m nan t o f th e C ar te si an t h e o ry c o n c e rni ng th e

a ut o m atism o f an im als G e o rg e s L e ro y in his ch armi ng
.
,

L e ttres s ur les a n i m a ux h as sh o w n th at in t h e m amm als an d

,

in th e birds o f o u r d is t ricts th e fix ity in th e c o nstru c ti o n o f

,

h abit at i o n s in the h abits o f hu nti ng in th e m o d e o f migrati o n

, , ,

e tc.
,
o n ly e xist e d f o r n a tu ra lists wh o n e v e r l e ft th e ir study o r ,

fo r i natt e n ti v e o bs e rv e rs .
1

U nd o ubt e d ly h abits m ay b e c o m e h e re di tary But h e r e we

, .

o n l y h av e a ph e n o m e n o n c o mm o n t o m e n a n d a n im als and ,

t h o s e h abits are m o difi e d if t h e c irc u m stan c e s wh ic h h av e

’

p r o duc e d th e m c o m e t o ch an g e I t is in this s
. e n s e a l o ne th at

we c an admit M de Bl ai nvill e s fo rmul a : “ ’ ’

. L ins tin c t e st la
r ais o n fixée la rais o n e st l instinc t m o bil e
,
’
We must e spe c i .

a lly u n d e rst an d t h a t i n sti n ct is n o t Opp o s e d to i nt e llig e n c e .

Wh at o ught we re all y to i ndic at e by i ns t i n ct ? A sp o nt ane o us

impuls e in a dir e cti o n d e t e rmi ne d i n d e p e nd e ntly o f any ,

C 1
III 6 4 5
o urs, ,
2 -
.
 2 1 8 T h e P h ilosophy f A ug uste
o C om te

fo re ign i nflu e nc e But in this s e ns e th e w o rd app l ie s

.
,

to t h e ac tivity o f any faculty wh at e ve r t o th e i n t e l l e c tu al ,

fac ulti e s as w e l l as to th e o th e rs Th e r e is no c o ntrast .

b e twe e n i nsti nct and inte l lig enc e We say o f a c hild th at h e .

h as t h e i n sti n ct o f music o f dr awi ng o fc alcul ati o n e tc

“ ”
, In , , .

this s e n s e m an h as c e rt ai nly as m any and m o re instinc ts th an

'

an im als I f o n th e o th e r h an d we c all i nt e l l ige nc e th e fac ulty

.
, ,

o f m o difyi n g o ur c o n duct a cc o rdi n g to t h e circumst an c e s o f

e ach c as e an im als a re lik e m an m o re o r l e ss i n t e llig e n t and

’

, , ,

r e as o nabl e O th e rwis e th e y w o uld b e d o o m e d to dis app e ar

.

ve ry quickly .

But an im als h av e n o l angu ag e ! A no the r e rro r in o bs e rva

tio n .T h e high e r an im als h av e a c e rt ai n d e gr e e o f l an gu age
c o rre sp o ndi ng to th e nature an d t o th e e xt e nt o f th e ir r e l a
t i o ns This l an gu ag e is no m o re fix e d th an t h e so c all e d in
.
-

st in c ts T h e l angu age o f e a ch s o ci al sp e c i e s i s ch ar act e ris e d

.

by an arre st o f d e ve l o pm e n t pre cis e ly lik e th e s o ci e ty which

this sp e ci e s t e n d e d t o fo u n d T h e limits o fits pro gre ss b ey o n d
.
,

which i n d e e d it d o e s n o t g o re sult fro m th e wh o l e o f th e ,

o bst a cl e s which it e n c o u n te rs in c o n s e qu e nc e o f t h e c o m ,

p e titi o n with th e o th e r sp e ci e s an d p ar ticul arly wi th th e ,

hum an spe ci e s wi th o ut nami ng th o s e limits which th e imp e r

,

fe c tio n o fo rg an s m ay cr e at e .
1

M any an im als are c ap abl e o f e xp e ri e n ci ng ne e ds with o ut

r e g ard to a us e ful purp o s e F o r i n st anc e th e y lik e to e x e rcis e
.
,

th e ir anim al func tio ns fo r th e pl e asure o fd o i ng so th at is to

'

.
,

say t o pl ay
,
S o m e am o ng th e m e xp e ri e n c e ae sth e tic impre s
.

si o n s Th e y are als o with o ut th e slight e st d o ubt c ap abl e o f

.
, ,

a ltruistic fe e li ngs S o m e tim e s th e s e fe e li ngs sh o w th e ms e l ve s

.

in th e sh ap e o fd o m e stic affe cti o n an d t e n d to m ak e a s o lit ary ,

l ife u nb e arabl e to th e i ndividu al F amily life th e n b e c o m e s .

p e rm ane nt S o m e tim e s an an im al d e v o te s its e lf to th e

.

s e rvic e o fa sup e ri o r rac e Do we k no w to wh at l e ngths th e

.

P l p II 9 3 1
o . o s. ,
2 2 -
0.
 F rom A n im ality to H u m an it
y 2 1 9

pro gr e ss o faltruism w o uld g o in c e rtain an im al sp e c i e s if th e i r ,

i nte llige n c e c o uld h ave b e e n m o r e d e v e l o p e d and if th e ir ,

surro u ndi n gs h ad all o w e d o f th e i r m o re e xt e nsive s o ci al

pro gr e ss 1

Fi nally an im al s e ve n p o ss e s s a r udim e nt o f re l ig io n if by
, ,

this we u nd e rst an d an e nd e avo ur to i nt e rpr e t th e ph e no m e na

which strik e th e m Wh e n su ffi ci e ntly d e v e l o p e d to m an ife st
.
,

wh e re th e re is su ffi ci e nt l e is ure a c e rt ai n sp e c u l ativ e ac tivity

, ,

th e y r e ac h sp o nt an e o usly in th e s am e way as we do o ur ,

se lv e s ,
a k in d o f lo w fe ti c hi s m which c o n sists in s upp o si n g ,

th at e xt e r nal b o di e s are an im ate d by w ill and by p assi o n s ?

A child a s av ag e a do g a m o n k e y s e e i n g a w at c h fo r
, , , ,

th e first tim e will se e in it a ki n d o f an im a l

,
But C o mte .

a t o n c e adds th a t t h e chi e f di f fe r e n c e b e tw e e n m an and

an im als li e s in th e imp o ssibility f o r th e l a tt e r t o e m e rg e fr o m

t h e l o w e st d e gr e e o f fe tichism and to ris e t o a r e al r e l igi o n ,

.

N 0 anim al s o c i e ty c o mbi ne s s o ci ability with i nt e llige n c e

su ffi ci e ntly e ve r to c o n stitute a r e ligi o us a ss o ci ati o n 3
C o mt e .
”

w o uld pro b ably h ave appro v e d o f M de Qu atr e fage s de fin i . .

’

ti o n in which h e c alls m an a r e ligi o us an im al T h e d e cisiv e .

st e p was t ak e n o n th e day wh e n m an s i nte ll e ct p ass e d fro m ’

fe tichism to astro l atry 1

Th at gre at cre ati o n o f th e go ds
“
.
‘

was th e first tri a l in pur e ly sp e cul ativ e ac tivity m ad e by his

mi nd T h e wh o l e subs e qu e n t d e ve l o pm e n t o f hum an ity ar o s e
.

fro m this
~

Thus th e argum e n ts which cl ai m to e st ab l ish an i n sup e rab l e

,

dist an c e b e tw e e n m an and a nim als ge ne rally re st up o n imp e r ,

fe c tly o bs e rve d facts O n th e c o n tr ary in an im als we find t h e

.
, ,

m o re o r l e ss visibl e rud im e nts o fe ve rythi ng whi c h h as e v o lve d

so m ag n ific e n tly in hu m an ity We c anno t d e scrib e in d e t ail
.

h o w and why this sp e ci e s h as b e c o m e so to sp e ak inc o m par , ,

abl e and i n c o mm e n sur abl e with t h e o th e rs I t mu st h ave g o t .

1
P l p
o .I 6 34 os. C , 1V 3-
. P l p I I 3 48 9
o urs, . 0 . o . o s. ,
-
.

‘C V o urs, , 1 00 -1 .
2 2 0 T he P h ilosophy of A ug uste C om te

th e uppe rh and, no t vi rt ue o f thi s and th at p articu l ar

in
a dv ant ag e ( a l th o ugh a n imp o rt an t o ne
, ) such as t h e upright ,

p o siti o n o r th e p o ss e ssi o n o fa h and b ut o nac c o u n t o f th e c o ,

o p e r ati o n o f m any fav o ur abl e c o nditi o n s o fwhich th e t o t ality ,

all o w e d,
so t o sp e ak o f an alm o st i nd e fi n it e d e v e l o pm e n t
, .

Fro m a c e rtai n m o m e nt th e re was a d e fi nit e sto pp age in th e

,

s o ci al e vo luti o n o f th e o th e r sp e ci e s and th e pr o gr e ss o fth e ,

hu m an sp e ci e s was d e cisiv e We c anno t e stim ate th e i niti al

.

i n flu e nc e o f th e v ari o us c o nditi o n s acc o rdi ng to th e pre s e nt

d e ve l o pm e n t o fth e s e v e ral hum an faculti es fo r this d e ve l o p ,

m e nt is e sp e ci ally due to th e s o ci al life o fwhich th o s e c o n

dit io ns all o w e d E ach sup e ri o rity o fm an m ay h av e b e e n ve ry
.

littl e d e fi ne d o rigi nally Tim e th e acti o n o fth e o th e r high e r

.
,

fu ncti o n s e x e rcis e h e re dity h av e pl aye d th e i r p art h e re T h e

, , .

“
hum an attribut e s must th e n h ave gro w n c o nst an tly e ve r ,

c o n s o lid ati ng th e asc e nd e n cy whi c h th e y h ad d e t e rmi ne d

“
.

At th e s am e tim e th e c o rre sp o ndi ng attribute s must h av e

dimi nish e d in th e rival sp e ci e s as t h e y w e re br o ught to a st and
,

still in th e ir d e v e l o pm e nt U n d o ubt e dly by d e gre e s th e

.
, ,

i n t e rval h as wid e ne d u n til it h as b e c o me a g ap so bro ad and

so d e e p as t o m ak e it imp o ssibl e t o im agi ne h o w it c o uld e ve r

h av e b e e n cr o ss e d But bi o l o gy and s o ci o l o gy h e lp us to
.

j udge b e tt e r We must se e this in s o m e d e t ail in c o nne cti o n

.
, ,

with th e imp o rtant qu e sti o n o f l angu age .

T he th e o ry l
gu age d uri ng th e e ight e e nth c e n t ury h ad
o f an , ,

b e e n o n e o fth e fav o uri te subj e cts o fphil o s o phic al sp e cul ati o n

in g e ne r al it h ad pr o c e e d e d in this m att e r by way o fabstr ac t
, ,

and l o gic a l an alysis I t chi e fly saw in l angu age a pr o d uct o f

.

t h e i n t e ll e ctu al faculti e s o f m an But alre ady fr o m th e .

, ,

s e c o n d h alf o fth e c e ntu ry this c o nc e pti o n h ad be e n att ack e d

,

in G e rm any by t h e sch o o l which b e g an th e r e acti o n ag ai nst

 A rt a n d L an
g uag e 2 2 1

th e
“
phil o s o ph e rs and in whi c h th e m o st illu stri o us nam e is
,

th at o f H e rd e r I n Fr anc e th e traditi o nalist sch o o l fe lt th at

.

h e re o ne o fth e w e ak p o i nts o fth e phi l o s o phy o fth e e ighte e nth

c e ntury was b e i ng t o uc h e d I t i n siste d up o n th e ch aracte rs
.

o f l an g u ag e wh ic h this phi l o s o phy did no t e xp l ain C o mte .

k ne w th e w o rks o fthis scho o l and in p art ic u l ar th o s e o f M , , .

de B o nald wh ,
o m h e c a ll s a n e ne rg e ti c thi n k e r 1
But his .
”

m e th o d diffe rs fro m th e i rs and h e o n ly agre e s w ith th e m in

,

th e c ritic al p art o f th e ir d o c tr ine .

I f th e th e o ry o f l ang uag e s ays C o mt e is e nc umbe re d with , ,

inso lubl e qu e sti o ns th e fault li e s in th e m e th o d m ad e u se o f

,

by th e m e t aphysi c i ans Th e y h ave o n ly c o nsid e re d m an s

.
’

l angu age in its st ate o f high e st c o mpli c at io n Th e y h ave

,
.

at tribut e d e x c e ssiv e imp o rt an c e to th e sign s o f arti c ul ate

h u m an l angu age th e y h av e e x agge rat e d th e p art pl ay e d by
,

re fl e cti o n and mis und e rst o o d th at o f sp o nt ane ity C o ndill ac

,
.

e sp e ci ally and h is sch o o l attribut e d f ar to m u c h i mp o rt anc e

t o th e
“
disp o nibil ité o f sig n s T he sc i e ntifi c m e th o d will
” ?

no t i so l at e hum anity fro m th e o th e r sp e c i e s whi c h it

d o m inat e s I t w ill c o nne ct th e p o sitive study o f l angu age
.

with bi o l o gy and with s o ci o l o gy : w ith bi o l o gy m o re p arti

c ularly f o r t h e qu e sti o n o fo rigi n with s o ci o l o gy in so far as
th e d e v e l o pm e n t o f l angu ag e d e p e n ds up o n th e r e act io n o f

so ci al life up o n d o m e stic li f e .

T h e st arti ng p o i nt o f th e th e o ry is a fac t o f e xp e ri e n c e
-
.

Eve ry stro ng e m o ti o n is a cc o mp an i e d by th e impuls e to

m anife st it and thi s e xpre ssi o n re ac ts up o n th e e m o ti o n its e l f
, .

M any sp e ci e s e xhibit this 3

Si ngi n g and mimicki ng o r
.
,

r ath e r c ri e s and ge stu re s are o fte n us e d by the m as by m an

, , ,

n o t o n ly t o r e li e ve th e p assi o ns but t o e x c it e th e m m o r e F or
, .

i nst anc e ange r in c arnivo ro us anim al s gro w s to e x asp e rati o n

, ,

thr o ugh th e e xt e r nal sign s which th e an im al give s o fit C o mte .

is in acc o rd anc e with th e o bs e rv ati o n s o f B e ll and o fGr ati o l e t .

1C o urs,III 563 ,
P . P l II 2
48 5 05 . 1 1 P I 7 3
o .
, 2 -
2 .
3 1
0 . o s. , 2 2 -
.
2 2 2 T h e Philosophy f g
oA u u ste C om te

T he m o ve m e nts which c o o p e rat e in e xpre ssi o n h e s ay s c o in , ,

c id e in g e ne ral with th o se which are m ad e use o f in ac t io n .

M o re o ve r in th e h u m an sp e c i e s fo r th e m o st p art th e indi
, , ,

v idu al e xpre ss es his affe c t io ns in o rd e r to s ati sfy th e m be tte r ,

by i nd uci ng h is fe ll o w cre at ure s to s e c o nd him I t is an

-
.

a pp e al t o symp athy I f th e n th e e xpre ssi o n r e sult s fro m th e

.

fe e li ng it te nds c o nv e rs e ly to d e ve l o p and to c o ns o l id ate it

, ,
.

T h e o rigi n o f l angu age is th us affe c tive th a t is to say wsth etic , ,

si nc e we o nly e xpre ss o u rs e lve s a ft e r h avi n g fe l t str o n g l y

“ ”
.

L anguage the re fo re transl ate s fe e li ngs be fo re th o ughts and ,

this is wh at th e fo ll o w e rs o fth e id e o l o g ist th e o ry did n o t se e .

Eve n to day in o u r m o st d e ve l o p e d l ang uag e we c an st ill

-
, ,

trac e th is o rigi n I t r e ve als its e lf by th e musi c al ac c e nt o fthe

.

slighte st sp e e c h Expre ssi o n is alw ay s inspire d and m ai n

.

t aine d by s o m e af fe c ti o n e ve n in c ase s wh e r e it is app ar e ntly

,

l imite d to a simpl e s c i e ntifi c o r t e c h nic al e xp o siti o n T he .

a ff e c tiv e s o ur c e o f l ang uag e dis simu l at e d as it is by t h e in t e l

,

l e ctu al o p e rati o n s o f which it is th e instrum e nt re v e als its e l f ,

in t h e infl e x io ns o f th e v o ic e .

L angu age is m ad e up o f sig n s A cc o rdi ng to wh at h as .

j ust b e e n s aid natural sig ns are sp o nt an e o usly pro duc e d by

,

th e pl ay o f t h e e m o ti o ns As a v o lu n t ary m an ife st ati on

.

l angu age i s always artifici al T h e i nv o lu nt ary sig ns h ave b e e n

.

grad u ally divid e d i nt o th e i r c o mp o ne nt p arts and simplifi e d ,

whil e r e m ai ni n g i nte lligibl e All artifi c i al signs s ays C o mt e

.
, ,

e v e n in o u r sp e ci e s spri n g fr o m a v o lu n t a ry i mit ati o n o fth e

“
,

n at u r al sig n s which are S p o nt ane o usly pr o d uc e d I n this way .

b o th th e fo rm ati o n and th e i nt e rpr e t ati o n o f th e s e sig n s are

e xpl ai ne d
1
.

H o bb e s us e d to d e fi ne a sig n as a c o n st an t re l ati o n b e tw e e n
t wo ph e no m e n a s e e n by th e subj e ct
, T h e t wo ph e no m e na .

a re h e r e a st at e o f c o n sci o u sne ss a nd a m o ti o n S o m e tim e s .

t h e st at e o f c o n sci o us ne ss d e t e rmi ne s th e m o ti o n so m e tim e s ,

P l P 1
II 6 o . o s. , 2 2 .
 A rt a nd L ang uag e 2 2 3

th e m o ti o n c au s e s th e re appe aranc e o fth e st ate o f c o n sci o us

ne s s . T h e i nstituti o n o f a syst e m o f sig n s is a m e an s o f
c o nne c ti ng th e withi n with th e with o ut L angu age is thus
.
”

fo r m an a m e an s o f m aki ng th e s e ri e s o fhis i n t e ll e ctu al st at e s

p articip ate in th e re gul arity which c h aract e ris e s e xte r nal
o rd e r T h e l o gic al fu n cti o n o fl angu ag e th e r e fo r e spri ngs fr o m
.

its ve ry e ss e nc e in which th e ph e no m e na o fth e o bj e ct iv e w o rld

an d t h e ph e no m e na whi c h b e l o ng t o th e f e e li n g and thi n ki n g

subj e ct are j o i ne d . I t is e quival e n t to a syste m fo r re nd e ring

t h e m e n t al li fe o bj e ctiv e 1
.B e i ng thus m ad e o bj e ctive th e s e ,

ph e no m e na c an h e n c e fo rth b e pre s e rve d and c o mmu n ic ate d ,

with o ut m an o r th e anim als h avi ng h ad e ac h an e nd in vi e w ,

si nc e th e instituti o n o fth e fi rst sig n s is i nvo lu nt ary and aris e s ,

fro m th e c o mbi nati o n b e twe e n t h e muscul ar and ne rv o us

“

syst e m s Ext e r nal o rd e r h e re acts as a r e g ul ato r e ve n b e fo re

.
,

th o ught h as grasp e d it .

T h e sig ns which are sp o nt ane o usly p ro duc e d are n o t all

t rans fo rm e d i nt o v o lu nt ary sig n s Th o s e which app e al to
.
“

sight o r to h e ari n g pre se n t sp e ci al advant ag e s fo r this use and ,

as a m att e r o f fact th e t wo c l ass e s o f sig n s are c o n c u r re ntly

,

u s e d by t h e high e r an im al s G e sture s and c ri e s are th e o rigi n

.

o f wh at l at e r b e c o m e s t h e sy st e m o f a rtifici al sig n s By .

d e gre e s th e c o mmu n i c ati o n o fe m o ti o n

,
s gi v e s way t o t h e e x

pre ssi o n o f th o ughts Am o ng ve ry civilis e d p o pul ati o ns i t

.

e v e n c am e t o b e b e li e v e d th at s o n g h ad c o m e fr o m sp e e c h .

But o n th e c o n trary sp e e ch c am e fro m s o ng T o b e c o nvi nc e d

, , .

o f t his a gl an c e at t h e an im al w o rld is su f fici e nt .

Up to this p o i nt th e th e o ry o f l angu age h as b e e n bi o l o gi c al ,

and t h e acquir e d facts c an th us b e s umm e d up 1 M an d o e s ,

n o t e xpr e ss his th o ught in o rd e r t o c o mm un ic at e it but h e ,

c o mmu n ic ate s b e c aus e h e e xpre ss e s it 2 Wh at is first e x .

,

pre sse d is e m o ti o n no t th o ught By d e gre e s l angu age b e c o m e s

, .

i nt e ll e ctu ali z e d as t h e m e nt al li fe its e lf 3 Expre s si o n is

, .
,

1
P 1 P 0 . II 1
05 . , 2 2 0- .
2 2 4 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug u ste C om te

sp o ntane o us and prim ary I t aris e s fro m th e r e l ati o n b e twee n

.

t h e ne rv o u s an d mus c ul ar syst e m s I n th e p ro gr e ssiv e tr an s

.

fo rm at io n wh e re fro m b e i ng i n vo l unt ary th e sig ns gradu ally

, ,

b e c o m e vo lu nt ary th e y are at o n c e c aus e s and e ffe cts

,
.

T h e e s se nti al c o nditi o n fo r this t ransfo rm ati o n to t ak e pl ac e

is so ci al life .U nd o ubt e dly l angu age app e ars ve ry quickly as
, ,

s o o n as i ndivid uals o f t h e s am e sp e ci e s find th e ms e l ve s in

c o nst ant re l ati o ns with o ne ano th e r E ach o ne l e arns to .

attribut e th e ch ar act e r o f sig n s t o t h e m o v e m e nts which

acc o mp any his e m o ti o n s Simil ar b e i ngs in wh o m th e

.

s am e ph e no m e na t ak e pl ac e be c o m e s e qu ally c ap abl e o f,

i nt e rpre ti ng th o s e sig ns F ro m this m o m e nt a l angu age

.

is b o r n ; and this is tru e fo r t h e an im al sp e c i e s as fo r m an .

B ut hum an e vo l uti o n fo l l o ws a n e v o luti o n whi c h is p e culi a r to

its e lf and which d e t e rmi ne s th at o f l ang uag e O ur l angu age
,
.

w o uld no t h ave far e xc e e d e d th e pe ri o d in which it e spe ci ally

e xpr e ss e s e m o ti o n s if hum an s o ci e ti e s h ad r e m ai ne d pure ly
,

d o m e sti c gro upi ngs w ith o ut any o th e r o rg an is ati o n t h an th at

,

o f th e fa mily T h e i n stituti o n o f hum an l angu ag e s ays

“ ”
.
,

C o mt e app e ar s in s o c i o l o gy as th e chi e f c o n ti n u o us inst ru

, , ,

m e nt o f th e ne c e ss ary r e acti o n o f p o litic al up o n d o m e sti c

life .
1 ”

H e nc e fo rth we c an pict ure to o u rse l ve s in its bro ad o ut ,

l i ne s th e pre histo ric e vo luti o n o f l angu age O rigi nally it

,
.

c o mpris e d g e sture s and cri e s G e st ure s pre d o m inat e d i n th e

.

i
'

fir st pl ac e as be i ng m o re imm e di ate ly e xpre ssive B y de g re e s .

th e y t o o k a s e c o n d pl ac e As t he nat ur al sign s be c am e
.

divide dzup so as to b e c o m e a rtifi c i al th e s up e ri o rity o f v o c al ,

sig ns app e are d Am o ng o th e r r e as o ns it was due to th e

.

“
sp o nt ane o u s c o rre sp o nd e nc e be tw e e n th e vo ic e a nd h e aring
whi c h all o ws e ve ry o ne to d e ve l o p his o wn e du c ati o n We .

h e ar y o u n g childre n pr actisi ng fo r l o n g h o urs pl ayi ng with ,

t h e a rtic ul at e s o u n ds which th e y b e gi n t o e mit Fro m this .

P l P 1
II 7 o . os .
, 2 1 .
 A rt a nd L a ng u ag e

m o re o r l e ss o rg anis e d si ngi ng still a m e l o dy o f v o c al sig ns , ,

p oe try was bo r n Fi nally fro m p o e try mu c h l at e r spri ngs

.
, , ,

wh at is c o mm o nly c all e d pro s e th at is th e use o f no n , ,

rhythmic phras e s Thre e gr e at e vo luti o n s in th e hist o ry o f

.

h um anity : h o w m any c e nturi e s h ave no t b e e n re q uire d fo r

th e ir acc o mplishm e n t
Writi n g is to drawi ng w hat spe aki ng is to si ngi ng O rigi n .

all y it was no t an a rtific e i n ve n t e d t o h e lp v o c al l an gu ag e .

H e re ag ai n th e id e o l o gi c al th e o ry aggravat e s th e p art pl ay e d
by r e fl e cti o n M an was o be yi ng an i n sti nct whe n b y draw
.

ing h e r e pr o du c e d th e fa mili a r o bj e ct s which m e t h is g az e ,

o cc u pi e d his i m agi n ati o n and c aus e d his str o n g e st and m o st

,

fre q ue nt e m o ti o ns Gradu ally th e s e sp o nt ane o us e nd e avo urs

.
,

at i mit ati o n as sum e d t h e c h a r act e r o f sig n s b e c a m e divid e d ,

up an d simplifi e d and fi nally w e re c o o rdi nat e d with v o c a l

,
-

s o unds whi c h th e m se lve s h ad go ne thro ugh a s e p arat e

e v o l uti o n .

Thus l angu age and art h av e a c o mm o n o rigi n which is th e ,

wsthe tic th at is to say th e affe c tiv e e xpr e ssi o n

, , C o mte d o e s .

n o t se p a ra t e th ese two t e rms H e t a k e s th e w o rd aesth e ti c

.

at o n c e in its e tym o l o gi c al and in its m o d e r n s e nse Our

’

m o ve m e nts at first i nv o lu nt ary th e n v o l u n t ary tran sl ate o ur

, , ,

impre ssi o ns and r e ac t up o n th e m be c aus e th e y spri ng fro m ,

th em th at is th e h umbl e s o urc e fro m which e ve rythi n g e ls e

is d e riv e d With an im als it o nly give s ris e to i nart ic ul at e
.

v o c al s o u n ds and to a m o re o r l e ss e xpre ssive mimicry I n

,
.

m an it is th e pri nc ipl e o f l angu ag e an d o f art

,
T h e l att e r .

be g ins by be i ng a simp l e imit ati o n Th e n th e r e pro ducti o n .

o f o bj e c t s is p e rfe ct e d I t b e c o m e s m o re faithful by bri ng

.

ing o ut b e tt e r t h e chi e f fe ature s which w e r e at first o bscure d

by an e mpiric al mixture “
I d e alis ati o n c o nsists in this
.
” ”
.

Fi nally e xpre ssi o n pro pe rly so c all e d is d e ve l o p e d and

“ ”
,

styl e
”
1
.

P l p I 88 9 1
o . os
.
, 2 -
.
2 2 6 T h e Ph ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

Thus if we c al l l an guage th e wh o l e o f th e m e an s s uitabl e

,

fo r th e tr an sm issi o n b e y o n d o urs e lve s o f o u r v ar io us im

pre ssi o ns this wh o l e fo rms a syste m in whi c h th e m o st
,

c ust o m a ry and l e ast e xpr e ssiv e p o rti o n l angu age was at , ,

first mi ngl e d with th e p o rti o n whi c h be ar s th e n am e o f art ,

t aki n g art in its m o st pr imitive e l e m e n ts s o n g and d raw ing .

The se two p arts b e ca m e di ffe re n ti at e d in e v o luti o n O ur .

s o ci al re quir e m e n ts h av e c o n ti n ually i ncr e as e d t h e use and

e xt e n si o n o f th e v o c a l an d visu al sig n s which are m a d e use o f

i n a ctiv e life and in sp e cul ativ e th o ught Th e s e sig ns h av e .

b e c o m e simpl e r and simpl e r and e ve n abstract : to s uc h an

e xt e nt th at t h e ir o rigi n e n d e d by b e i n g c o n sid e r e d t h e r e su l t

o fa c o n ve n ti o n
1
.

T h e primitiv e p are nt age o f l angu age an d o f art ac c o unt s

fo r m any fa cts which curr e nt th e o ri e s do n o t e xpl ai n F or .

i nst anc e l angu age is n o t o nly c re ate d but pre s e rve d by th e

,

p e o pl e Gramm a ri ans e v e n m o re abs urd th an l o gici an s 2

.
, ,
”

i n g e ne r al h av e u nd e rst o o d no thi n g ab o ut it Th e ir cl aim to .

a uth o rity i s a musi n g But it is to p o pul ar sp o n t ane ity at o nc e

.
,

c o ns e rvative and pro gre ssive th at o ur l ang uage s o we th e ir ,

a dmir abl e r e ctitud e T h e b asis o f e ach l angu ag e c o l l e c t s

.

wh at is e ss e nti al and u n ive rs al in t h e aesth e tic e v o luti o n o f

h um an i ty H e nc e th e m agic c h arm o f p o e t ry th e m o st
.
,

a n ci e n t o f all t h e arts W o rds p o ss e ss a p o w e r o f e vo ki n g

.

i m ag e s fro m whi ch t h e artist dr aws i ne xh austibl e e ffe ct s .

O fte n duri ng th e l o n g childh o o d o f hum an r e aso n e v e n th e

p o w e r o fw o rds must h av e s e e m e d to be supe r natur al Nom ina
Nu m ina B y di n t o f c o nsid e ri ng l angu ag e as id e o l o gi sts and
.

lo gici an s we h av e fo rg o tt e n th at its n ature is e m o ti o n al and

,

ae sth e tic .H o we ve r e v e n to day th e myst e ri o us p o w e r o f

,
-

w o rds h as no t dis app e are d H o w gr e at is th e a cti o n o f fo rms .

o f pr ay e r o n t e n d e r s o uls e v e n wh e n faith h as d e s e rt e d th e m !
,

Ne xt to ac ti o n it se lf l angu age is th e m o st p o w e rful o f th e

,

P l p II 5
1
o . P l p
o s. , II 5 4 6
, 2 0- 1 .
2
o . os .
, , 2 -
.
 A rt a nd L ang uag e 2 2 7

exciti ng c ause s o f fe e li n g and re ligi o n s are w e l l aw are o fth is

,

fact . Th e y k no w h o w to m ak e use o f i t t o c o n q ue r o r t o
re tai n so uls .

T he l o gic al func t io n o fl an gu age is th e o nly o ne whi c h h as

b e e n st udi e d by phil o s o ph e rs ; th at is by th e o nto l o gi sts
“
,
”

an d t h e m et aphysic ian s But e v e n th e ir study h as re m ai ne d

.

i n c o mpl e te C o ndill ac and his s c h o o l h av e so l e ly c o nsid e re d

.

th e l angu ag e which l e n ds its e lf t o l o gic al an alysis C o nse .

qu e ntly th e y o nly saw a si ngl e ki nd o f c o mbi nati o n whi c h

,

m ay b e c a ll e d th e l o gic o f sig n s But in r e ality th e l o gi c o f

.
, ,

sig ns r e sts u p o n th e l o gi c o f im age s and this o ne o n th e l o gi c ,

o f fe e li ngs . T h e s o c all e d l o gici an s thus c o n c e ive a n arro w

-

and fal s e id e a o f o ur i n t e ll e ct ual m e ch an ism wh e n th e y c o n ,

c e n trat e all th e ir atte n ti o n upo n th e m o st v o l unt ary but th e

'

l e ast p o w e rful o f th e thre e e s se nti al m o d e s o f which th e

m e nt al c o mbi nati o n ad mit s 1
.
”

T h e l o gic o f fe e l i n gs is th e art o f facilit ati n g th e c o mb in a

ti o n o f no ti o n s acc o rdi n g to th e c o nne c ti o n b e twe e n th e
c o rre sp o ndi ng e m o ti o n s I t is th e m o st i nsti n ctiv e it is th e
.
”

s o urc e o f all th e gre at i nspirati o n s o f o ur i n te llige nc e We .

c an thi n k n o thi n g wh ich c o n tr adicts it o r e v e n which is n o t ,

impli e d in it B ut it h as two grave d e fe cts I ts e l e m e n t s are

. .

n o t pr e cis e e no ugh and it is n o t at o u r disp o s al

,
I t o nl y .

o pe ra te s u n d e r c e rt ai n giv e n c o n diti o ns an d t h e app e aranc e ,

o f th e s e c o nditi o n s d o e s n o t re st with us We se e it at .

w o rk fo r i nst anc e a m o n g an im als wh o o cc asi o nally pro vo k e

, , ,

o u r admira ti o n f o r th e m a rv e ls sugg e st e d t o th e m by this

l o gi c which is s o cl o s e ly b o u n d up with th e e m o ti o ns T h e .

l o gic o f im age s th o u gh l e ss stro n g is m o re fre e and pre c is e

, ,

t h an th e l o gi c o f fe e li n gs N e v e rth e l e ss if we o nly h ad the se

.

1
P o l po s . .
, 11 , 2 40- 1 .
2 2 8 T h e P hilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

t wo we sh o u l d stil l b e i n c ap ab l e o f rea lisi n g c o mb inati o ns

c o n c e ive d and p re p are d by us Thi s o ffi c e b e l o ngs to th e
.

l o gic o f signs F o r to u s alm o st e ntire l y b e l o ngs th e dispo s al

.

o f th e se sig ns a nd it is this which h as a ll o w e d o f th e d e v e l o p

,

m e nt o fabstrac t l angu age and o fth e sci e nc e s .

But we mu st no t s e p ar ate this l ast l o gi c fro m th e two

o th e rs T h e l aw s o f o ur nature alw ays c au se th e l o gic al use
.

o f fe e li ng s and im ag e s t o pr e v a il o v e r th at o f sig ns Un .

d o ubt e dly th e u ni o n be tw e e n sig ns and th o ughts m ay b e c o m e

,

dire c t and m o re o v e r in th e c as e o fabstrac t no ti o n s it c o uld no t

, ,

b e o th e rwi se Thus o ur i nne r w o r ld is artifici ally u nite d to

.

t h e o ut e r w o rld We h ave an abstr ac t and symb o l ic al re pre

.

se ntatio n o f it w ith o ut g o i n g thr o ugh t h e fe e li ngs o r e v e n

, , ,

stri c tly sp e aki ng thro ugh th e im age s But th is re l atio n h as

,
.

far l e ss c o n sist e n c y th an th e o ne whi c h is e st ablish e d by th e

i nv o lu n tary i nte rve nti o n o f im age s and o f fe e l i ngs As th e .

abstr act sig n h as its o rigi n in t h e sig n appr e c i at e d by th e

s e ns e s which it se lf pro c e eds fro m th e r e l ati o n o fth e mus c ul ar

,

s y st e m with th e ne rvo us syst e m ; so th e re l ati o ns b e t we e n

,

sig ns h ave th e ir o rigi n in th e r e l ati o ns b e twe e n im age s and ,

th e se in th e i r t ur n pro c e e d fro m th e re l at io n s be twe e n

, ,

fe e l i ng s .

T h e facility with whi c h we m anipul at e sig n s hid e s thi s

truth fro m us it is n o ne th e l e s s c e rt ai n th at th e se sign s are
u nite d to o ur th o ughts in a far l e ss i n tim ate and l e ss sp o n
t aneo us m ann e r th an th e fe e l i n gs and e v e n th e im ag e s .

T h e p o sitive th e o ry furt h e r all o ws us n o t i nd e e d to s o lve

, ,

but t o adj o ur n th e qu e sti o n o f a u nive rs al l angu age I nd e e d .

are we c o n c e r ne d with a p u re ly sci e ntific l angu age ?

M ath e m atic al anal y sis in p art fulfils this deside ra tu m It .

all o ws us t o e xpr e ss th e l aws o f t h e simpl e st ph e no m e na by

symbo ls whi c h are at e ve ry o ne s dispo sal But if it is a qu e sti o n

’
.

o f a c o mpl e t e l an gu ag e d e s t i ne d to b e in c omm o n u se a m o n g
,

all m e n wh o d o e s no t se e th at this c o nc e pti o n is i n c o mp atibl e

,
 A rt a nd L ang u ag e 2 2 9

with th e pre s e n t st at e o fhum anity ? H o w c o u l d we e stabl ish

a u nive rs al l angu ag e whil e all o wi ng th e pre v al e nc e o f
,

“
dive rge nt b e li e fs and o f h o stil e c ust o ms 1
T h e u nifi c at io n .
”

o f t o ngu e s will a ris e fr o m t h e u n ific a ti o n o f p e o pl e s Wh e n

'

t h e l att e r h as b e e n r e alis e d u nd e r th e ac ti o n o f p o sitiv e

,

phil o s o phy th e o the r will fo ll o w as a ne c e ss ary c o ns e qu e nc e

, .

M o re o ve r fro m th e pre s e nt tim e a u niv e rsal l anguage

, ,

e xists ! I t is Art th e o nly fo rm o f l an gu age which i s

“
,

u n ive rs ally u nd e rst o o d at o n c e in th e wh o l e o f o ur sp e c i e s 2

.
”

Truly this u niv e rsa l l angu age h as its di al e cts C o mt e s .

’

re m ark is no ne th e l e ss striki ngly ac c urat e T h e m aste r .

pi e c e s o f Gre e k s c ulpture R e mbrandt s p ai nti ngs B e e th o ve n s

,
’
,
’

symph o n i e s are acc e ssibl e to milli o n s o f hum an be i ngs wh o

h ave ne ve r k no wn a w o rd o f Gr e e k o f D ut c h o r o f G e rm an , , .

T o t e ach all childre n music an d d rawi n g as C o mt e r e quire s ,

in his p o sitivist pl an o f e du c ati o n is n o t t o m ak e th e m ,

p articip ate in th e l ux ury o f ac c o mplishm e n ts

“
I t is pl aci ng .
”

withi n th e ir re ach w o rks which appe al to th e wh o l e o f ’

hum an ity it is givi ng th e m a stro nge r se n s e o f th e so lid arity

which is th e e ss e nti al ch arac t e ristic o f hum an s o ci e ty ; fi nal ly
it is t e ac hi ng th e m th e u nive rs al l ang uag e o f whi c h th e y
p o ss e ss t h e i nsti nctive rudim e n ts and wh e nc e h ave spr un g ,

th e v e ry l an gu ag e s which t o day app e ar as frigid syst e m s of -

symb o ls and gr a phic r e pre s e nt ati o n s I s it n o t fai r t o .

all o w th e m th e e nj o ym e n t o f a p atrim o ny as anci e nt

p e rh ap s as hum an ity h e rs e lf ? S o m e wh e re C o mte c o mp are s .
,

l an gu age to pro p e rty 3

Lik e it l an gu ag e h as facilit ate d
.
,

acquisiti o n s and pr e s e rv e d s o c i al w e al th But it h as an .

adv an t age o v e r pr o p e rty th at o f ad mitti n g o f e qu al p o sse s

,

s i o n by all at t h e s a m e tim e A rt pre s e nts this adv an t age

.

n o l e s s th an l an gu ag e W o rks o f art are th e c o mm o n

.

pro p e rty o f th e wh o l e o f h um an ity and no o ne sh o uld be

d e prive d o fth at i nh e ritan c e .

1
P l p
o . II 6
os. , 2P l p
0 -2 II 2 3 7
1
oP 1 p
, II 54 6
o s. , , .
3
0 . os .
, , 2 -
.
 C H APTER I I
G E N E RA L CO N S I DE RA T I O N S O N SO CI AL S CI E N C E

S O CI A L sci e nc e h ad at first be e n c all e d s o c i al physic s by

C o mt e L ate r o n h e i nve n t e d th e n am e o f s o ci o l o gy fo r
.
”
1

it I t st an ds at th e summit o f th e e ncy c l o p ae dic l add e r o f

.

t h e sc i e n c e s A c c o rdi ngly it Offe rs c e rt ai n ch ar ac te ristics

.
,

w h ic h th e o th e r s c ie n c e s do no t pre s e n t .

U nd o ubt e dly by th e d e fi n iti o n o f its o bj e ct and by its

,

m e th o d it is p e rfe ctly h o m o ge ne o us with th e re st o f p o sitive

,

k no wl e dge S o c i o l o gy studi e s th e l aws o f s o ci al ph e no m e na

.

as m ath e m atics i nquire s i n t o th e l aw s o f ge o m e tric al

ph e no m e na I n this s e ns e b e twe e n th e s e e xtre m e sci e nc e s
.
,

th e re are n o o th e r di ffe re nc e s th an th o s e which aris e fro m

th e div e r sity Of th e ph e no m e na which are studi e d But .

m ath e m atic s and th e o the r fu nd am e nt al sci e nc e s e xc e pti ng

, ,

so ci o l o gy ,
are disti n c tly pre limi nary S o ci o l o gy is fi nal . .

E ach Of t h e pre limi nary sci e nc e s sh o uld b e cultivat e d o n ly in

t h e m e asur e ne c e ss ary in o rd e r th at th e fo l l o wi ng o n e m ay in

t ur n assum e th e p o sitive fo rm S o c i al sci e nc e which is

.
,

n o t pr e p ar at o ry to any o th e r e st ablish e s th e pri n c ip l e s o f

,

m o r als and o fp o litic s I t is as h as b e e n s e e n t h e key sto ne

.
, ,
-

o f p o sitiv e ph ilo so ph v I t is in it and thro ugh it th at ’

.
, ,

p o sitive phil o s o phy ac quire s th e unive rsality which hith e rt o

it h ad l ac k e d .

Fi nally th e re is a l ast di ffe re nc e which C o mt e l ik e s to thi nk

,

h e is su cc e ssfully re m o vi n g ; th e o th e r sci e n c e s are m o r e

C IV 1
o urs, , 2 00 .
 Ge neral C onsideration on S ocial S cie nce 2 3 1

or l e ss fo rm e d ; e ve ryth ing h as to be d o ne fo r so c i al sc ie nce .

No t th at m any tri als h ave no t b e e n atte mpte d C o mt e d o e s

.

n o t ig n o r e th e m and h e prid e s him se lf u p o n d o i n g j ustic e t o

,

h is pr e curs o rs H e go e s b ac k t o Ari st o tl e in wh o m h e
.
,

a dm ir e s an i n c o mp a r abl e sci e n tifi c and ph il o so phi c al g e n ius .

I n him h e se e s th e i nv e n t o r o f so c i al st ati c s H is P olitics are .

st il l re ad with p o t But Arist o t l e c o uld h ave n o id e a o fa

r fi 1 .

s o c io l o gy and in p arti c ul ar o f p o sitive so ci al dy nam ics F o r

, .

th at h e l ack e d (with o ut sp e ak ing o f th e fu n d am e nt al sci e n c e s

wh ich e x c e pti ng m ath e m ati c s w e re ye t to b e b o rn) a
'

s ufli c ie ntly wid e and v a ri e d k no w l e dg e o f h ist o ry a n d t h e

id e a o f pro gr e ss .

M o nt e squi e u was in advanc e o f h is tim e wh e n by th e , ,

i n sight o f his ge n ius h e ge ne ralis e d th e id e a o f nat ural law

,

s o as to bri n g u nd e r it t h e p o litic al j udic ial e c o no mi c al a nd , , , ,

ge ne rally spe aki n g all s o ci al ph e no m e na H e re ally c o n c e iv e s

, .

t h e id e a o f s o c i al sci e n c e But th e e x e c uti o n did n o t re sp o nd

.

to th e c o n c e pt io n H o w c o uld M o nt e squi e u h ave s uc c e e d e d

.
,

si nc e h e was still with o ut two indisp e ns ab l e e l e m e nts : in th e

first pl ac e th e p o siti ve sci e nc e o fm an fro m th e bi o l o gic al p o i nt
,

o f v ie w an d th e n t h e id e a o f pr o g re ss a vit a l n e c e ssity f or
'

, ,

e v e ry p o sitiv e phil o s o phy o f hist o ry ? H avi ng fail e d to

appr e h e n d th e fu n d a m e n t al l aws o f s o c i a l dy na mics M o n t e s ,

q uie u m ad e to o much use o f th e c o mp ar ativ e m e th o d .

C o n s e qu e ntly h e t o o k s e c o nd ary l aws fo r e ss e nti al l aws

,
'

such as the l aws r e l ati ng to th e i nflu e n c e o f c lim ate I n th e .

s am e way h e h as e x agge rat e d the imp o rt anc e o f vario u s

fo rms o fp o litic al c o nstituti o n ?

C o nd o r c e t c am e aft e r M o nte squi e u and T u rgo t and h ad ,

be e n fo rm e d in th e sch o o l o f d A le m be rt H e c am e ne are r ’
.

th an any o ne to th e s o ci al sc i e nc e wh ic h was to be fo und e d .

H e und e rst o o d admir ab l y th at t h e e vo l uti o n o f th e h u m an

C IV 9 1
o urs, , 1 1 -2 .

2
C u I V 1 93 99 ; P l p I V App ndi p 06
o rs, ,
-
o . o s. , , e ce , . 1 .
2 3 2 T h e Ph ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

r ac e c o nsid e re d as a si ngl e b e i ng is subj e ct t o l aws H e

, ,
.

bro u ght th e id e a o f pr o gre ss i nt o full d aylight But ne ve r .

,

t h e le ss po siti v e s o ci o l o gy d o e s n o t o we to him its o rigi n

,
H e .

sh ar e d th e pre j udic e o f his tim e o n th e subj e ct o fth e i nd e fi n ite

p e rfe ctibility o f m an ; this prej udic e was o n ly to dis app e ar
b e fo re t h e p o sitive sci e nc e o f i nte ll e ctu al and m o ral m an .

M o re o v e r in t h e h e at o f th e r e vo luti o na ry c o nfli c t h e
, ,

misu nd e rst o o d t h e Co n c r e te r e ality o f th e pro gr e ss wh o s e ,

a bstr act n e c e ssity h e h ad so w e ll r e alis e d By p ai nti ng th e .

c e n turi e s pre ce di ng th e X V I I I c e n tury in th e d ark e st c o l o urs

.
, ,

h e m ad e th e pr o gre ssiv e e vo l uti o n o f hum an ity a ki n d o f

m ir acl e d o ubly i nadmissibl e in a d o ctri n e which d o e s n o t
“
,

imply a Pro vid e n c e .

”1

But s o o n C ab an is and G all bri ng fo rward th e p o sitive th e o ry

o f th e m o r al an d i nt e ll e ctu al faculti e s o f m an T h e Fr e nch .

r e v o luti o n thro ws a vivid light up o n th e p e ri o d which s e p arat e s

us fro m th e Middl e Age s At l ast th e th e o rists o fth e c o u nte r
.
,

R e vo luti o n sh o w th at t h e phil o s o phy o f th e X V I I I c e ntury .

,

i f it e xc e ll e d in th e p o w e r o f d e m o lishi n g was i nc ap abl e o f ,

r e c o n structi ng and th e y als o S h o w th at o rd e r must b e inse par

,

a bl e fro m pr o gr e ss C o mte re gard s hims e lf as a C o n d o rc e t

.

wh o h as pr o fit e d by th e s e l e ss o n s o f e xp e ri e n c e H e h as .

w o rk e d with S ai nt Sim o n h e h as re ad De M a istre I n sh o rt

-
, .
,

h e is p o ss e ss e d o f all th e n e c e ss a ry e l e m e n ts fo r th e fo un da
ti o n o f s o ci o l o gy .

At th e m o m e n t wh e n h e und e rtak e s it th e o l o gic al and ,

m e t aphysic al phil o s o phy is still d o mi nant o ve r th e c o n

t e mp o r ary c o n c e pti o n o f s o ci al fa cts I n it im agi nati o n is .

n o t s ub o rdi n at e d to o bs e rv ati o n M e n do n o t a pply th e m .

s e lve s to th e analysis o f facts in o rd e r to disc o ve r the ir

re l ati o n s and th e ir l aws th e y pre fe r to c o nstruct phil o s o phi e s
Of hist o ry which appea r as no n sc ie ntific hyp o th e s e s th at is
,
-
,

t o s ay which are n o t v e rifi abl e

,
Ab so lute re sults are so ught
.

C 1
IV o urs, 5 ; P l p
, I V Ap p di p 9
z oo -2 0 o . o s. , en ce , . 10 .
 Ge n eral C onsideration on S oc ial S c ie nce 2 33

fo r, as if in this o rd e r o f fac ts as in all th e o th e rs th e abs o lut e

, ,

was n o t i n acc e ssibl e Fro m th e practi c al p o i nt o f vi e w

.
,

n o b o dy d o ubts th at m an c a n m o difys o ci al fa cts as h e pl e as e s ,

a nd th at h i s a cti o n c an b e e x e rcis e d th e r e with o ut an d e fi n it e

y
limits b e i ng pl ac e d up o n it I t is supp o s e d in a w o rd th at
.
, ,

p o litic al s o c i e ty h as no l aws which r e gul at e its natur al de

v e lo pm e nt .

T he s am e pre j udic e s and th e s am e fals e id e as h ave al re ady

pre d o mi nate d in th e p ast o n t h e subj e ct o f th e m o re simpl e
ph e no m e na which a fte rw ard s b e c am e Obj e c ts o f p o sitive
,

s c i e nc e . Sh o uld no t this an al o gy c aus e phi l o s o ph e rs to

c o nc e iv e th e rati o nal h o pe o f als o su c c e e di ng in th e dissi
“

p ati o u o f th o s e e rro rs o fc o nc e pti o n and o f m e th o d in th e

syst e m o f p o litic al id e as N o thi ng is m o re n atural th an
.
” 1

t h at th e s c i e n c e o f t h e m o st c o mpl e x ph e n o m e n a sh o uld b e

t h e l ast t o r e ach t h e p o sitiv e st ag e I t w o uld e ve n h av e b e e n

.

imp o ssibl e fo r it to h av e b e e n o th e rwis e Fi nally b e y o nd th e .

,
.

d i fficulti e s whi c h b e l o n g t o t h e c ompl e xity o f its o bj e c t ,

s o ci o l o gy h ad to o v e rc o m e o th e rs which a ris e fro m p o litic al ,

p a s si o n s .Pro bl e ms o f this ki n d are i ndi ffe re nt t o no o ne .

I n th e m t h e i nt e re sts o f e ach o ne are i nv o lve d and th e y ,

i n fl ue n c e e v e n with o ut o ur k no wl e dge t h e dir e cti o n t a k e n ,

b y o u r th o ughts P o litic al p arti e s e xc e l in frami ng p l ausibl e

.

t h e o ri e s ad a pt e d t o th e ir r e quir e m e n ts Thus a c o nst an t .

e ffo rt at disi nt e re st e d ne ss is n e c e ss ary o n th e p ar t o f

a ny o n e wh o purp o s e s to t ak e up t h e sci e n c e o f abs t r act

p o l itics .

At any r ate if the s e re as o ns m ak e us u nd e rst and th at

,

s o ci o l o gy sh o uld m a k e its app e ar a n c e l a st am o n g th e fu n d a

m e nt al s c i e nc e s no ne o f th e m imply th at i t w o uld no t h av e
,

a r ise n in its t ur n O n th e c o n tra ry b e sid e vit al physics

“ ”
.
,

“
ino rg ani c physics s o ci al physi c s was o ne day t o
“ ”
a nd ,

t ak e its pl ac e Fro m 1 8 2 4 C o mte h ad a ve ry cl e ar id ea o f

.
,

C I V 43 4
1
o urs, , 2 -
.
2 34 T he Ph ilosophy of g
A u uste C om te

th is . We do no t se e h e s ays why th e ph e no m e na whic h

, ,

th e d e v e l o pm e n t o f a s o c i al sp e ci e s pr e se nts sh o u l d n o t h av e
l aws l ik e th e o th e rs why th e s e l aws sh o u l d no t b e c ap abl e
,

o f b e ing dis c o v e re d by o bs e rv ati o n lik e th o s e o f th e o th e r ,

ph e no m e na with thi s re se rv ati o n o nly t h at th e n ature o f this

,

s e c ti o n o f phil o s o phy m ak e s its study m o re di fficult I will .

m ak e it fe lt by t h e v e ry fac t th at th e r e are l aws as d e te rmi ne d

fo r th e d e v e l o pm e n t o f th e hum an sp e ci e s as fo r th e fal li n g o f
a st o n e .C o mt e l at e r o n atte nuate d th e rigidity o f th e s e
1

e xpre ssi o n s H e r e c o g n is e d th at th e s o c i al ph e n o m e na w e re
.

o f all o th e rs th e m o st m o difi abl e But h e no ne t h e l e s s

“ ”
.

m ai n t ai ne d th at th e y w e re rul e d by l aws .

II
S o ci o l o gy an abstract and wh o lly th e o re tic al sci e n c e o nly
, ,

se ts its e l f th e t a sk o f disc o v e ri n g t h e l aws o f ph e no m e na ,

with o ut first t aki ng i n to acc o u n t any p o ssibl e app l i c ati o n s .

I sh all no t h av e s ays C o mt e to c o n c e rn mys e lf dire ctly with

, ,

p o liti c al anarchy H e re m o re th an anywh e r e e ls e sci e nc e

?
, ,

must b e s e p arate d fro m t h e c o rre sp o ndi n g art T h e s am e .

r e as o ns which le d to physi o l o gy b e i n g c o nstitut e d ap art fro m

m e dici ne with which it h ad fo r so l o ng b e e n c o n fus e d als o
,
'

re quire th at s o ci al sci e nc e sh o uld b e disti nguish e d fro m

p o liti c s o f which up to th e pre s e n t tim e it h as o nly b e e n
, , ,

a m o r e o r l e ss e mp iric a l o r a rbitr a ry i n t e rpr e t ati o n .

C o mt e wh o t o o k such p ai ns to d e fi ne th e physic al fact th e ,

ch e mi c al fact th e bi o l o gic al fac t h as no t give n a d e fi niti o n o f

, ,

t h e s o ci o l o gic al fac t T h e r e as o n s fo r this are no t di f

. fi c u l t to
se e . I n t h e first pl ac e this fact d e fi ne s its e lf so t o sp e ak by
, ,

e limi n ati o n A s th e re are n o ph e n o m e n a acc e ssibl e to us m o r e

.

c o mplic ate d th an th o s e o f th e s o ci al life all th e phe no m e na ,

whi c h are no t studi e d by th e pre c e di ng s c i e nc e s are o f c o urs e

L t i V l t p 3 8 9 (8 pt mb
1
e t res a a , . 1 -
se e e r,

c IV 2
o at s, ,
 General C onsideration on S ocial S cie nce 2 35

th e subj e c t o fso c io l o gy M o re o ve r th e re might be a re aso n to

.
,

se e k f o r a d e fi niti o n o f t h e s o ci o l o gic a l fac t i f we st art e d fr o m

,

t h e c o n sid e r ati o n o f th e i n dividu al to ris e t o th at o f s o ci e ty .

B ut C o mt e s c o n c e pti o n is r adic ally di ffe r e n t F o r hi m it is

’
.

t h e i n dividu al wh o is an ab str acti o n ; and s o c i e ty is th e tru e

r e ality H e m ust no t e xpl ai n h u m anity by m an but o n th e
.
,

c o n tr ary m an by hu m an ity Fro m this m o m e nt all th e

,
.
,

hum an ph e no m e na p ro p e rly so c all e d are ipso facto s o ci o -

l o gic al I t is an e s se nti al ch arac te risti c o f C o mt e s syste m

.
’

th at m an c o n sid e re d individu ally is n o t an Obj e ct o f sci e n c e

, ,
.

T h e sci e nc e o f m an b e l o ngs fo r o ne p art to bi o l o gy fo r th e ,

o th e r to s o ci o l o gy T o d e fi ne t h e s o c i o l o g ic al fact am o u nt s
.

the n to e st ablishi n g t h e re l ati o n s b e tw e e n bi o l o gy and

so c i o l o gy .

We h av e alre ady s e e n th at th e s e re l at io n s are e xtre m e ly

cl o s e O n th e o ne h an d s o c i o l o gy c o uld no t b e c o nstitut e d
.
,

so l o ng as high e r bi o l o gy h ad n o t r e a c h e d a c e rt a i n d e gr e e o f

d e ve l o pm e nt H ist o ry h as fur ni sh e d us with a pro o f o f this

.

t h e st at e o f i n fan cy o f bi o l o gy c o n trib ut e d l a rg e ly to t h e
failure o f M o n t e sq u i e u s and C o ndo rc e t s s o c i o l o gi cal at
’ ’

t e mpts B ut o n th e o t h e r h and th e study o f th e int e l

.
, ,

l e ctu al and m o ral fu ncti o ns th at is to say th e high e st p art

, ,

o f bi o l o gy c an o n ly b e m ad e fr o m t h e s o ci o l o gic a l p o i n t o f
,

vi e w H e re we h ave a ki nd o f mix e d d o m ai n which p ro

.
,

pe rly b e l o ngs ne ith e r t o th e o ne no r to th e o th e r o f th e

sc i e nc e s .

C o u l d we no t th e n c o nsid e r s o c i o l o gy as a s impl e e xte nsi o n

o f bi o l o g y an e xt e n si o n whi c h w o uld b e f
,
ar m o r e imp o rt an t

in th e c as e o fth e hum an sp e ci e s th an in any o fth e o th e rs ? Do

we no t do th is impl icitly wh e n we attribut e th e st udy o f th e
i nt e l l e c t ual and m o r al fu ncti o n s to bi o l o gy si nc e e ve ryth in g ,

which b e ars th e nam e o f m o ral sci e nc e histo ry law ,

”
, ,

p o litic al e c o no my e tc fi nally re sts up o n th e s e fu nc ti o n s ?

, .
,

Wh at is the use o fa ne w fu nd a m e ntal sci e nc e fo r th e stud y

2 36 T h e Ph ilosophy o f g
A u uste C o m te

fph e no m e na wh ic h at bo tt o m re d uc e th e m se l ve s to b io l o gic al '

ph e no m e na ?
C o mt e pro te ste d agai n st t h is i nt e rpre t ati o n o f h is d o c trine .
l

Ac c o rdi ng to him so c i o l o gy is no l e ss irre du c ibl e to bi o l o gy

, ,

th an th e l att e r is to ch e mi st ry T h e s o c i o l o g ic al ph e no .

m e na i nd e p e nd e ntly o f th e m o re ge ne ral l aws which are

,

c o mm o n t o th e m with th e subj ac e n t o rd e rs h av e l aw s o f th e i r ,

o wn which r e gul at e th e m I f an i m al so c i e ti e s o nly e xist e d as

.

we see th e m to day it w o uld p e rh aps n o t b e imp o ssib l e t o

-
,

c o n sid e r s o ci o l o gy as an a ppe ndix Of bi o l o gy B ut h u m an .

s o ci e ty e x c lud e s any att e mpt o f this ki nd F o r it is so c i al .

life which h as m ad e th e e xtr ao rdi nary d e ve l o p m e nt o f th e

i n te ll e ctual and m o ral fu nc ti o ns p o ssib l e in m an and this de ,

ve lo p m e n t is th e v e ry d e fi niti o n o f h u m an ity N o w th e first .

,

c o ns e qu e nc e o f this d e ve l o pm e n t is that bi o l o gy pro p e rly

so c a ll e d n o l o nge r su f
-
, fi c e s for stud y i ng i t We ne e d a ne w .

m e th o d in it th e m e th o d Of hist o ric al o bs e rvati o n Alre ady

,
.
,

we re it fo r this reas o n a l o ne th e r e c an b e no qu e st io n o f re ,

duc ing s o ci o l o gy to bi o l o gy .

I n th e s e c o n d pl ac e wh e n we p as s fr o m th e i ndividu al t o
,

th e c o ll e ctiv e o rg an ism th e c o nti nue d e xp an si o n and t h e

“
,

a lm o st i n d e fi n it e p e rp e tuity o f th e l att e r m ak e s it a l m o st
”

imp o ssib l e no t to s e p arat e it fr o m th e fo rm e r in a s c i e ntifi c

s tudy C o mte is no t d e c e iv e d by th e anal o gy b e tw e e n th e
2
.

t wo ki nd s o f o rg an i sm T o sp e ak acc ur at e l y s o ci o l o gy with
.
,

him h ardly e ve r c o nsid e rs anythi ng e x c e pt asi ngl e o rganism

, .

L e t us l e av e asid e t h e littl e th at it s ays o f an im al s o ci e ti e s .

I t re pre s e nts th e hum an rac e as c o nstituti ng in tim e and in ,

sp ac e an i mm e ns e and e te r nal s o ci al u n ity wh o s e v ar io us

“
, ,

o rg an s i ndividu als an d n ati o n s u n it e d by u n iv e rs a l s o lid arity

, , ,

e ach ac c o rdi n g t o a d e te rmi ne d m anne r an d d e gre e c o ncur

,

in th e e v o luti o n o f H um an ity
”
.

C 1
I V 3 9 V I 7 7 5 6 ; P l p I V App d i p 4 7
o urs, , 1 ,
-
o . o s. , , en ce , . 12 -
.

1
P o l po s
. .
,
11 . 2 8 8 -9
 Ge ne ral C onside ration on S oc ial S c ie nce 2 37

O ne o ft h e id e as whi c h C o mte m o st adm ire s in C o nd o rc e t ,

and which h e r e g ards as i n disp e n s abl e t o s o c i al sc i e n c e is th a t ,

whi c h m ak e s a si ngl e b e i ng in pro c e ss o f e v o luti o n o f t h e

t o tality o f th e hum an sp e c i e s H e nc e fo rth t h e p arall e lism
1
,

“
b e tw e e n this i mm e ns e so ci al u n ity and th e o rg an ism s ”
,

s tudi e d by bi o l o gy c o u ld no t b e a st r i ct o ne T h e c o mpl e x .

nature o f t h e fo rm e r s ay s C o mt e hims e lf d e e ply di ffe rs

” “
, ,

fro m th e i ndivisibl e c o nstituti o n o f livi ng be ings We must .

”

the n k no w h o w to re strai n c o mp aris o n wi s e ly in o rd e r th at

“
,

i t sh o uld no t give ris e to faulty appro xim ati o ns i nst e ad o f ,

pre c i o us i ndic ati o n s C o mte h as so m e tim e s fai l e d in c arry

.
!

ing o ut this prud e n t pr e c e pt fo r i nst an c e wh e n in th e s o ci al

, ,

o rg an i sm h e l o o ks f o r wh at is an al o g o us t o tis su e s o rg an s and , ,

syste ms studi e d by th e anat o mi sts But h e h as no ne th e l e s s .

, ,

t rac e d ve ry firmly th e limits b e y o nd whi c h th e u se o fanal o gy

h e re b e c o m e s an ab use .

Th e s e limits are d e te rmi ne d by th e sp e cific c h ar ac te r o fth e

s o c i al re ality which e s c ap e s th e grasp o f th e b io l o gic al
,

m e th o d F o r th e pri nc ip al ph e nom e no n in so c i o l o gy th e o ne
.
,

which e st ablish e s m o st e vid e ntly its sc i e ntifi c o rigi nali ty is ,

t h e gr ad ual an d c o nti n u o u s i n fl ue nc e o f hum an g e ne r ati o ns

upo n o ne ano th e r No w o ur i nte llige n c e c anno t gu e ss t h e

.
“

p rincip al d e c isiv e ph as e s o f su c h a c o mp l e x e vo luti o n w ith o ut

an hist o ric al analysis pr o p e rly so c all e d H e re is th e fi nal
” -
.

w ord n o hist o ry n o s o c i o l o gy C o mt e h ad alre ady writte n

, .

in 1 8 2 2 T o r e d uc e s o ci o l o g y to bi o l o gy is to annul t h e
d i re c t o bs e rvati o n o fth e s o c i al p ast U nd o ubt e dly th e re aso n .

fo r m an s sup e ri o rity o v e r th e o th e r an im als li e s in th e re l ative

’

p e rfe c ti o n o fh is o rgan is ati o n I n th is se nse s o c i al phy sics

.
, ,

th at is to say th e study o f c o ll e c tive d e ve l o pm e n t o f th e

,

hum an sp e ci e s is re al ly a br an ch o fphysi o l o gy I n this s e ns e

, .
,

t h e hist o ry O f civilis ati o n is but t h e s e qu e l and th e indispe n s

abl e c o mpl e m e n t o f th e n at u r al hist o ry o f m an But ’

.
,

1
C IV 3 6
o urs, . C
2 . IV 387 2
o urs, . .
2 3 8 T h e Ph ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

imp o rt an t it is t o fo rm a pro p e r c o nc e pt io n and ne ve r to

as ,

l o s e sight o f this r e l ati o n ye t it w o uld b e a mist ak e to ,

c o n c l ud e fro m it th at n o c l e ar divisi o n S h o uld b e e st abl ish ed

b e tw e e n s o c i al physic s and physi o l o gy pro p e rly so c al l e d -
.

F o r in th e c ase o f th e hum an r ac e th e re is hist o ry wh ich

, ,

be reach ed hy qfdeduction
1
ca n n o t a p rocess .

III .

Alre ady in bi o l o gy th e nature o f th e o bj e c t h ad c o mpel l e d

,

sci entifi c m e n t o st art fro m th e c o n sid e rati o n o f t h e wh o l e

t o r e a ch th at o f th e p arts t o pr o c e e d fr o m th e c o mpl e x t o t h e
,

simpl e With still gr e at e r r e as o n th e s a m e i nv e rsi o n o f

.
,

m e th o d imp o s e s its e lf in s o ci o l o gy F o r alth o ugh th e .

,

i n dividu al e l e m e n ts o f s o ci e ty app e ar to b e m o re s e p ar abl e

th an th o s e Of th e livi ng b e i ng th e s o c i al consensus is still cl o se r ,

th an th e vit al consensus 2
.

T h e spirit o fth e s o ci o l o gic al m e th o d will th e n b e always to

c o nsid e r simult an e o usly th e v ari o us s o ci al a sp e cts wh e th e r in ,

st atics o r in dy n a mics U nd o ubte dly e ach o f th e m c an b e

,
.

t h e o bj e ct o f a sp e ci al study by th e way o f pre limi n ary

“
,
.

e l ab o r ati o n But as s o o n as th e s c ie nc e is su ffi ci e ntly

.
”
,

a d v an c e d th e c o rre l ati o n o f ph e no m e n a will s e rv e as a guid e

,

fo r th e ir analysis P o litic al e c o no my h as pro v e d by fac ts

.

th at th e is o l ate d study o f a s e ri e s o fs o ci al ph e no m e na is '

c o nd e m ne d to re m ai n irr ati o nal and b arre n Th o s e th e n .

wh o in th e syste m o f so ci al studi e s wish to imit at e

,
“
th e ,
-

m e th o dic al p arc e lli ng o ut which b e l o ngs to th e i no rganic ,

sci e nc e s misu nd e rst and wh at th e e ss e nti al c o nditi o n s o f

,
”

th e ir subj e ct re quire H e re t h e m o st ge ne r al l aws must be

.

k no w n first I t is fro m th e m th at sci e nc e mu st th e n d e s c e nd

.

t o t h e m o r e p articul ar l aws .

T h e m o re c o mpl e x th e ph e no m e na th e m o re n um e ro us a re ,

1
P l p I V App d ix p 4 7
o . os .
, . C en I V 79 8
, . 12 -
.
11
o urs, . 2 -
0 .
 G e neral C onside ration on S oc ial S c ience 2 39

the pro c e ss e s o f m e th o d at o ur disp o s al fo r studyi n g th e m .

Thi s law o f c o mpe n s ati o n is ve rifi e d aga i n in t h e pre s e nt c ase .

S o ci o l o gy o v e r and abo ve th e pro c e ss e s m ad e use o f by th e

,

pre c e di ng sci e nc e s p o ss e ss e s s o m e whi c h are p e culi arly its o wn .

T o put it m o r e pl ai nly in its c apac ity o f fi nal sci e nc e th e

, .
,

wh o l e p o sitiv e m e th o d b e l o n gs to it A s m e th o d is o nly
.

l e ar nt by practic e th e s o ci o l o gist will th e r e fo re h ave to b e

,

fo rm e d by a c o mpl e t e sci e n tific e du c ati o n fr o m m ath e m atics ,

whi c h will give him t h e fe e li ng o f p o sitivity to bi o l o gy which ,

will t e ach him th e c o mp arative m e th o d T h e C o urs de.

h i l oso h ic p os i tive pr e cis e ly r e tr a c e s this m e th o dic a l asc e n t

p p ,

which l e ads th e hum an mi nd b y succ e ssi ve d e gre e s up to

, ,

s o c i al sci e n c e A nd si n c e th e i nt e ll e ctu al e vo luti o n o f th e

.
,

in dividu al re pr o d uc e s th a t o f t h e sp e ci e s t h e s o ci o l o gist will

,

c o v e r th e s am e gro u nd to re ach th e s am e e nd .

At any r at e if a m ath e m atic a l e duc ati o n is i ndisp e n s abl e

,

s o as t o accust o m him t o t h e p o sitiv e m o d e o f th o ught h e ,

will h o w e ve r a ck no wl e dg e th at s o ci al ph e no m e na do n o t
, ,

a ll o w o f t h e u se o f n u mb e rs o r o f m ath e m a tic al an alysis n o r ,

m o re e sp e ci a lly o f th e c alcul ati o n o f pro b abiliti e s C o mt e .

tre a ts L apl ac e s att e mpt up o n this p o i nt as absurd an a tt e mpt

’
,

which h as b e e n t ak e n up agai n by o th e r m ath e m atici an s H e .

lik e s to qu o t e it as a pr o o f o f th e l ack o f th e phil o s o phi c al

spirit am o n g g e o m e t e rs I nd e e d acc o rdi ng to him to apply
.
, ,

t h e c alcul ati o n o f pr o b abiliti e s t o hist o ric al e ve n ts impli e s a ,

failure t o u n d e rst an d th at th e s e ph e no m e na are subj e ct to

i nv ari abl e l aws l ik e all o th e r ph e no m e na .

I n d e fa ult o f t h e p o we rful i n strum e n t furn ish e d by

m at h e m atics s o ci o l o gy m ak e s use o f th e m e th o ds e mpl o y e d
,

in th e physi c al and n atur al sci e n c e s O f th e s e o bs e rvati o n

.

is th e first S o ci al ph e no m e na s e e m e asy to o bs e rv e b e c au se
.
,

th e y are v e ry c o mm o n and th e o bs e rv e r t ak e s p art in

,

th e m m o r e o r l e ss But o n th e c o ntrary th e s e two circum

.
, ,

st anc e s re nd e r s o ci o l o gic al Obs e rvati o n ve ry di fficult We .

2 40 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

on ly o bs e rve w e l l o n c o nditi o n th at we pl ac e o u rse l ve s

O ut sid e wh at we o bs e r ve S o ci o l o gic al fac ts o ught th e n
.
1

t o app e ar o bj e ctiv e t o us d e t ac h e d fr o m us i nd e p e n d e n t o f
, ,

t h e st at e o f o u r in divid ual c o n sci o us ne s s N o thi ng is m o re .

d i ffi c ult to re alis e I n o rd e r to o bt ai n and m o re e spe c ially

.
,

t o m ai n t ai n su c h an i nv e rsi o n o f th e sp o nt ane o us p o i nt o f
“
,

v i e w th e mi n d m ust a lre ady h ave p artly c o n structe d wh at it

,
”

wish e s to se e W e re it n o t alre ady pro vid e d with a pre

.

l imi nary th e o ry fo r t h e m o st p art th e o bs e rve r w o uld no t

,

k no w wh at h e must l o o k fo r in th e fac t whi c h is t aki ng pl ac e

u nd e r h is e y e s I t is th e re fo re by th e pre c e di ng facts th at we
.

l e arn to see th e fo ll o wi ng o ne s Th e re li e s th e imm e ns e

“
.

difli c ulty Of so c i o l o gy in which we a re thus o blige d in a

' ”
, ,

c e rt ai n m e asure to d e t e r mi ne simult ane o usly th e fac ts and th e

,

l aws I f we are no t a lre ady p o ss e ss e d o f th e ne c e s sary

.

sp e c ul ative i ndi c ati o ns to grasp th e m th e fac ts re m ai n b arre n ,

and e v e n u nse e n alth o ugh we are so to sp e ak imm e rs e d i n

, , ,

th e m .

C o ns e qu e ntly a s o ci al fact c an h av e no sci e ntific sig n ific an c e

,

if it is no t br o ught i n to re l ati o n with ano th e r fac t I n an

is o l at e d c o nditi o n it re m ai ns in th e st ate o fa simpl e ane c d o te
, ,

c ap abl e at m o st o f s atisfyi ng idl e c urio sity but u n fit fo r any

“ !

r ati o nal use A n i nfi n it e n umbe r o f facts m ay b e us e ful to

.

s o ci o l o gy app are ntly v e ry i n sig nific ant custo ms all ki nd s o f

, ,

m o num e nts th e an alysis and th e c o mpari so n o f l angu age s ;

,

but th e mi nd must be pro vid e d fo r the ir o bs e rv ati o n with

ge ne r al p o i n ts o f vi e w O nly o n this c o nditi o n will a mi nd
.
,

w e ll pr e p are d by r ati o nal e du c ati o n b e abl e to transfo rm th e ,

a cti o n s which t a k e pl ac e b e n e ath its e y e s i n t o s o c i o l o gic a l

i ndic ati o ns acc o rdi ng to th e m o re o r l e ss dir e ct p o i nts o f

“
,

c o nt ac t which h e will be abl e to disc e r n in th e s e acti o n s with

,

t h e highest n o ti o n s o f sci e n c e in vi r t ue o fth e c o nne xi o n o f

,

t h e v ari o us s o c i al asp e cts

”
.

C I V 3 37 1
o urs, . .
 Gene ral C onsideration on S ocial S c ience 2 4 1

Th e re c an be no q ue sti o n o f e xpe rim e n ti ng in s o c io l o gy .

1

No t th at we c annot ac t up o n th e so c i al ph e no m e na : th e y are o n ,

t h e c o n tr ary th e m o st m o difi abl e o f all

,
But an e x pe rim e nt .

p ro p e rly so c all e d c o nsists in c o mp ari ng two c as es which di ffe r

-

fr o m e ach o th e r b y a c e rt ai n d e fi n ite c ircumst anc e and by

-

th at o ne al o ne We h ave no m e ans o fd e t e rmi ni ng t wo c ase s

.

o f this ki n d in s o c i o l o gy I t is tru e th at in th e abs e nc e o f

.

dire c t e xp e rim e n ts nat ure pr e s e n ts i ndire ct o ne s Th e y are .

th e p ath o l o gic al c as e s u n fo r tu nat e ly to o fr e qu e n t in th e li fe o f

,

s o c i e ti e s t h e m o r e o r l e s s s e ri o us p e rturb ati o n s which th e y

,

u nd e rgo thr o ugh ac c id e n t al o r p assi ng c aus e s Su c h are th e

r e v o luti o na ry p e ri o ds whi c h c o rre sp o nd to dis e as e s in livi n g
b o di e s I f we pro p e rly e xte nd B ro ussais pri ncipl e to so ci
.
’ ’

o l o gy,
th at is to say if we admit th at m o rbid ph e no m e na
,

are p ro du c e d by th e e f fe c t o fth e sam e l aws as no rm al ph e no

m e na th e n s o c i al p ath o l o gy wil l in s o m e m e asure re pl ac e
,

e xpe rim e n ts I t will b e s aid th at th is study h as b e e n

.

fruitl e ss up to th e pre s e nt tim e B ut th e re as ) n o f this is .

,

a c c o rdi ng t o C o mt e th at dire ct o r i ndire ct e xpe rim e n ti ng

,

o ught lik e S impl e o bs e rv ati o n t o b e subj e ct t o r ati o n al c o n

, ,

c e p tio n s B o th are o nly pr o ductive in a s o ci o l o gy alre ady

.

p o ss e ss e d o f its e ss e nti al l aws .

T h e c o mp ar ative m e t h o d so use fu l t o th e bi o l o gist is als o

, ,

p re ci o us fo r th e s o ci o l o gist I t draws t o ge th e r th e v ari o us

.

st at e s o f hum an s o ci e ty which c o e xist o n th e diff e r e n t p arts o f

t h e e arth s surfac e and a m o n g p e o pl e s i n d e pe n d e n t o f o ne

’

an o th e r U n d o ubt e dly if th e to t al d e ve l o pm e n t o nly is c o n

. ,

side re d th e e v o luti o n o f H um an ity is o ne

,
I t ne ve rth e l e ss .

r e m ai n s tru e th at ve ry c o n sid e rabl e and ve ry v ari e d p o pul ati o ns

h ave as ye t o nly re ac h e d th e m o re o r l e s s i nfe ri o r d e gre e s o f ’

this e v o luti o n We c an thus o bs e rve the m simult ane o usl y

.

and c o mp are th e ir su c c e ssiv e ph as e s Fro m th e F u e gi an s .

to th e m o st c ivili se d n ati o n s in Eur o p e we c an im agi ne n o ,

C I V 34 44 1
o urs, , 2 -
.

I 6
2 4 2 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

s o ci al sh ad e which is no t at pre s e n t re alis e d o n s o m e p o rti o n

o f t h e gl o b e Fre qu e ntly withi n th e s am e nati o n t h e so ci al
.
, ,

c o n diti o n o fth e v ari o us cl ass e s re pre s e n ts st at e s o f civili sati o n

which are ve ry far r e m o ve d fro m o ne ano th e r P aris to day .
-

c o nt ai ns m o re o r l e ss faithful sur v i v o rs o fne arly all th e

“

a n t e ri o r d e gr e e s o f s o c i al e v o l uti o n e s pe ci ally fr o m t h e i n t e l
,

l e ctu al p o i nt o f vi e w 1
This c o mp arati v e pro c e ss h o lds g o o d
.

fo r s o ci a l st ati c s as fo r s o ci al d y n a mics Ev e n in st atics a .

c o mp aris o n c an b e e st ablish e d b e tw e e n a n im al s o ci e ti e s and

hum an s o ci e ty .

H o w e v e r this typ e Of m e th o d is n o t d e v o id o f inc o n

,

v e n ie n c e in s o ci o l o gy I t d o e s n o t c o nsid e r t h e ne c e ss ar y
.

s ucc e ssi o n o f t h e v a ri o us ph as e s in t h e s o ci al e v o luti o n : it

s e e ms o n t h e c o ntrary to c o nsid e r t h e m all as simul tane o u s .

C o ns e qu e n tly it pre ve nts us fro m s e e i ng th e filiat io n o f s o c i al

,

fo rms . I t als o ru ns t h e risk o f falsifyi n g t h e an alysis o f th e

c a s e s which a re o bs e rv e d an d o f c ausi n g simpl e s e c o n d ary
,

fa ct o rs to b e t a k e n fo r m ai n c a us e s This is wh at h app e ne d .

t o M o n t e squi e u wh o c o mp a r e d i n diffe r e n tly th e citi e s o f

a n tiqui ty t h e Fr an c e o f t h e Middl e Ag e s t h e E n gl a nd o f th e
, ,

X V I I I c e ntu ry t h e re public o f Ve n ic e t h e go v e r n m e nt o f
.
, ,

By z an tium th e Empir e o f th e Sul tan an d th at o f th e Sh ah

, ,

o f P e rsi a
’

S o t h e c o mp ar ativ e m e th o d is o n l y a n a uxili ary pr o c e ss in

s o ci o l o gy Lik e o bs e rvati o n an d e xp e rim e nt it h as to b e m ad e
.
,

s ub o rdi n ate t o a r ati o n al c o n c e pti o n Of t h e e v o l uti o n of

hum an i ty T h e l att e r in turn d e p e nds up o n th e use o f an

.

o rigi n a l m e th o d o fObs e r v ati o n b e l o n gi ng t o s o ci a l ph e n o m e na

, ,

a n d fr e e fr o m t h e d an g e rs pre s e n t e d by t h e pre c e di n g o n e s .

This sp e cific s o ci o l o gic a l m e t h o d this tran sc e n d e n t pr o c e ss

,
”
,

b y which t h e p o si t i ve m e th o d is c o mpl e te d is s ays C o mt e , ,

t h e h is to ric al m e th o d .
2

1 C o urs. IV .
3 5 4 sq- 2
C o urs, IV , 3 60 .
 Gen eral C onsidera tion on S oc ial S cie nce 2 43

S o ci o l o gy is an abstract s c i e n c e : hist o ry whi c h is its ,

e ss e n ti al m e th o d c ann o t th e r e fo r e b e hi st o ry m e r e ly c o n sid e r e d
,

as a na rr a tiv e . Th e re are two w ays o fc o nc e ivi ng hist o ry th e ,

o ne abstr act a nd t h e o th e r c o n cre t e T h e l att e r d o mi nat e s in

.

t h e hist o ric al w o r ks writte n up to th e pre s e n t tim e Th e ir .

e nd is t o r e l at e an d to a rr ay in chro no l o gic al o rd e r a c e rt a i n

s e qu e n c e o f e ve nts U nd o ubt e dly in th e X V I I I c e ntury

. .

e ffo rts w e r e m ad e t o c o o rdi n at e po litic al ph e no m e n a a nd t o

d e te rmi ne th e ir filiatio n But fo r all th at this ki nd o f w o rk

.

h as no t c e as e d to b e d e scriptiv e a nd lit e r ary T h e o th e r fo rm .

o f hist o ry which d o e s no t e xist up t o t h e pr e s e n t h as f

,
o r it s ,

e n dt h e r e s e a rch o f t h e l aws which r e gul at e t h e s o ci al d e ve l o p

m e n t o fth e hum an sp e ci e s .
1

Differe nc e o fo bj e ct l e ads to diffe re n c e o fm e th o d I f an his .

t o ri an pr o p o s e s t o hims e lf t o c o mp o s e e x ac t ann als t o r e l at e

“
,

thi ng s as th e y t o o k pl ac e h e will b e gi n by th e sp e ci al hist o ry

,

o f th e v a ri o u s p e o pl e s which in its tur n is fo u nd e d up o n th e

, , ,

chro n icl e s o f th e pro vi nc e s and th e t o w ns I t will be ne c e ss ary .

fo r him t o i n ve stig ate d o cu m e n ts in d e t ail an d to n e gl e ct no ,

s o urc e : th e w o rk o f c o mbi nati o n will o n ly c o m e subs e qu e ntly .

But if o u r e nd is th e abstract sci e n c e o f hist o ry th at is to s ay ,

t h e li n ki n g t o g e th e r o f s o ci al ph e n o m e n a quit e a diff e re n t ,

c o urs e will h av e to b e fo ll o w e d I nd e e d all th e cl ass e s o fthe s e

.

ph e n o m e na are simultane o usly d e v e l o pe d and u nd e r th e ,

mutu al i nflu e n c e o fo ne ano th e r We c anno t e xpl ai n th e li ne .

o f ad v an c e fo ll o w e d by any o n e am o ng th e m with o ut h avi n g ,

firs t c o nc e i v e d in a ge ne r al way th e pro g re ssio nZo fth e wh o l e

~

B e fo re all thi ng s th e n we must se t o urs e lv e s t o c o nc e ive th e

d e v e l o pm e n t o f th e hum an sp e ci e s in its wid e st ge ne r ality ,

th at is to say to o bs e rve and to li n k t o g e the r am o ng th e ms e l ve s

,

t h e m o st imp o rt an t st e ps t o w ards pr o gr e ss which it h as suc

C 1
IV 5o urs .
,
2 2 ,
2 44 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

c e ssive ly t ak e n in th e v ari o us fund am e nt al dire c ti o n s Th e n .

we sh all s ubdivid e t h e p e ri o ds and th e cl ass e s o f th e ph e no

m e na to b e o bs e rv e d .
1

Th e s e v ari o us fu n d am e nt al dire cti o ns c o rr e sp o n d to wh at

C o mte c all e d l at e r th e s o c ial se ri e s
“
By this h e i ndic at e s .
”

th e gr o ups o fs o ci al ph e no m e na arr ang e d fo r a s c i e ntific study .

O nc e th e s e gro ups are fo rm e d th e n acc o rdi ng to t h e t o t ality ,

o f hist o ri c al fa cts t h e s o c i o l o g i st s e e ks to d e t e rmi ne th e c o n

,

t inuo u s g ro wth o f e ach physic al m o r al i n t e ll e ctu al o r p o litic a l

'

, , ,

disp o siti o n o r faculty c o mbi ne d with th e i nd e fi n ite d e cre as e o f

,

t h e o pp o sit e disp o siti o n o r fac ulty : fo r i n st an c e t h e t e nd e n cy ,

o f hum an s o ci e ty to p ass fr o m th e w arlik e fo r m t o th e i n dus

tri al fo rm fro m r e ve al e d r e ligi o n to d e m o n strat e d re ligi o n

, ,

e tc . Fr o m this will b e draw n th e sci e ntifi c fo re c ast o f th e

triumph o f th e o ne and th e fal l o f th e o th e r pro vid e d th at ,

this c o nc l usi o n is als o in c o nfo rmity with th e ge ne ral l aws o f

t h e e v o luti o n o f H um an ity .

Such a fo re c ast c o uld ne v e r b e fo u nd e d up o n th e k no wl e dge

o fth e pr e s e n t al o ne F o r th e pr e s e n t e xp o se s us to th e d ang e r
.

o fc o n fusi ng th e pri n cip al with th e se c o n d ary facts o f pl aci ng ,

n o isy p assi ng d e m o n str ati o n s ab o v e d e e p s e at e d t e nd e n ci e s -

,

and o f r e g ardi ng i n stit uti o ns o r d o c tr in e s as gr o wi n g which

a re r e ally o n t h e d e c li ne O ur st at e sm e n sc arc e ly l o o k b ack

.

b e y o nd th e X V I I I c e n tury o u r phil o so ph e rs be y o n d th e
.
,

X V I This is to o littl e I t d o e s no t e ve n su ffic e to m ak e us

.
,

u nd e r st and th e Fre n ch r e vo luti o n T h e st udy o fth e hist o ric al

“
.

s e ri e s al o ne all o ws t h e und e rstandi ng o f th e pre se nt and th e

” !

pre visi o n o f th e future T h e s o c i o l o gist will e ve n e x e rcis e

.

hims e lf in pre dicti ng th e p ast th at is to say in acquiri ng a , ,

r ati o nal k no wl e dge o f it and in d e duci ng e ach hist o ric al ,

situ ati o n fro m th e wh o l e Of its an te c e d e nts H e will thu s .

be c o m e famili ar with t h e spirit o f th e hi sto ric al m e th o d .

H o w e v e r if this abstract hist o ric al m e th o d w e re us e d by

,

C 1
I V 3 66 q ; P l p I V App d i p 3 5 q
o urs, .
, s o . os .
, . en ce , ,
1 s .
 Ge neral C onsideration on S ocial S c ience 2 45

t he so c i o l o gist to th e e x c l usi o n o f e v e ry o th e r h e w o uld ,

s o m e tim e s c o m e to a wro n g c o n cl usi o n and t ak e th e c o n ,

t in uo us d e c r e a s e in a natur al fac ulty fo r a t e nd e ncy to t o t al

e xti n c ti o n F o r i nst an c e as civilis ati o n b e c o m e s m o re re fi ne d

.
, ,

m an e ats l e ss th an fo rm e rly N o b o dy c o nc l ud e s fro m this .

th at h e te nds no t to e at at all B ut th e ab surdity whi c h is .

p alp abl e h e re might in o th e r c ase s p as s u np e rc e ive d Th at

, ,
.

is why th e histo ri c al m e th o d in so c i o l o gy re quire s to b e

c o ntro ll e d by th e p o sitive th e o ry o f h um an nature A ll th e .

indu c ti o ns which might c o ntr adi c t this th e o ry are t o b e

r ej e ct e d I nd e e d th e wh o l e so ci al e vo l uti o n is at b o tto m
.
,

but a simpl e d e ve l o pm e nt o f hum an ity with o ut th e cre ati o n ,

o f ne w fac ulti e s T h e g e rm at a ny r at e o fall th e disp o siti o n s

.
, ,

or ef fe c tiv e fac ulti e s whi c h s o c i o l o gic al o b se rva ti o n (and in ,

p arti c u l ar hi st o ry ) m ay m ak e k no wn m ust the n b e fo u nd in

, , ,

t h e prim o rdi al typ e which bi o l o gy h as c o n stru c t e d b e fo r e

h and fo r s o ci o l o gy A cc o rd an ce b e twe e n t h e c o n clu si o ns o f

.

hist o ri c al analysis and t h e pre limi nary no ti o n s Of th e bi o l o g ic al

th e o ry is th e i ndisp e ns abl e g uar ante e Of so ci o l o gi c al d e m o n
1
strat io ns .

Thu s c o nc e ive d th e hist o ric al m e th o d r e sts upo n th e

p o stul ate give n by C o mt e as we h ave se e n as a b asis t o h is , ,

so ci o l o gy This p o stu l ate is th us e n u nci at e d : The na tu re qf

.

m a n evolves wi tho u t being tra nsfo rm ed T h e vari o us phys ic al .

,

m o ral and i nte ll e ctu al fac ulti e s m ust be fo und t h e s am e at all

.
,

th e d e gre e s o f hist o ric al e vo luti o n an d alw ay s simil ar ly c o ,

o rdi nat e d am o ng th e m se lv e s T h e d e ve l o pm e nt whi c h th e y.

r e c e iv e in th e s o ci al st ate c an ne v e r ch ange thei r n at ure no r ,

c o n s e qu e ntly d e stro y o r c re ate any o ne o f th e m no r e ve n ,

int e rv e ne in th e o rd e r o fth e ir imp o rt anc e .

C IV 37 1 3 P l p I 6 4 6
1
o urs, ,
- o . o s. , , 2 -
.
2 46 T h e P h ilosophy o
f A ug uste C om te

In a wo rd th e chi e f r e gul at o r o f s o ci o l o gy is th e s c i e nc e o f
,

hum an n ature I t c an e ve n b e s aid with o ut fo rc i ng th e

.
,

m e an i ng o f C o mt e s t h o ught th at s o ci o l o gy is r e ally a
’

psych o l o gy : no t i n d e e d it is tru e a psych o l o gy fo u nd e d

1
, ,

up o n th e i ntro sp e cti ve an alysis o f th e i ndividu al subj e ct but ,

a psych o l o gy wh o s e o bj e ct is t h e an al y sis by hist o ry o f t h e ,

u n ive rs al subj e ct th at is to say o f H um an ity

, ,
.

C o m te e nd e avo urs to bri ng th e c o mpl e xity a nd th e e xtre m e

vari e ty o f s o ci al ph e no m e na i nt o an i nt e lli gibl e u n ity This .

c o mpl e xity is such th at we c o uld no t d e te rmi ne th e l aws by

st arti n g fro m th e o bs e rv ati o n o f t h e simpl e st ph e no m e na to
re ach th e m o re c o mpl e x o ne s a ft e rw a rds M o re o ve r th e s e .
,

fac ts o nly p o ss e ss s o ci o l o gic al sig n ific an c e if th e Obs e rv e r is

alr e ady pr o v id e d with a g e ne r a l th e o ry b e fo r e h e a sc e rt ai n s

th e m But o n th e o th e r h and hist o ry c ann o t b e d e duc e d

.
, ,
.

Give n an alr e ady p o siti ve k no wl e dg e o f hum an n ature and o f

“
i n which it e v o lv e s we c o uld n o t say a p ri o rz
”
th e m ilie u ,

h o w it will e v o lv e H ist o ry must th e n t e ach us h o w as a

.
,

m at te r o f fact s o ci al life h as d e ve l o p e d H u m anity N e v e r

, .

t h e le ss o n c e this c o n c e ssi o n h as b e e n m ad e t o o bs e rv at i o n
,

t h e m e th o d b e c o m e s a g ai n d e duc t i v e Si nc e s o ci o l o g y is a .

sci e nc e it o ugh t lik e th e o th e r sci e nc e s to b e abl e to substitut e

, ,

rat io n al p re v isio n t o t h e e mpiric al e st ablishm e n t o f facts .

T O c o mpl e t e t h e ch a r act e risi ng o f this fi n al sci e nc e it m ust ,

b e at o n c e p o siti v e lik e t h e subj ac e n t fu n d am e n t al sci e nc e s

, ,

an d u n iv e rs a l lik e phil o s o phy which a l o n e up t o t h e pr e s e n t

,

tim e h as l o o k e d at t h i ngs fro m th e p o i n t o f vi e w o f t h e

“

wh o l e H e n c e fo rth th e se two c o nditi o n s are fulfill e d I n

.
”
.

t h e first pl a c e t h e p o sitivi ty o f s o ci o l o gy c an n o t b e d o ubt e d

,
.

I n it s o ci al fac ts are c o nc e iv e d as subj e ct to l aws an d C o mt e ,

a bst ai n s fr o m an
y r e s e arch as t o th e ir m o d e o f pr o ducti o n .

Th e n s o ci o l o gy in spit e o f th e e x t re m e di ffi culti e s o f its

, ,

o bj e c t h as as sum e d t h e d e ductive fo rm and h as bro ught

, ,

P l p III 4 7 4 8 1
o . os .
, ,
-
.
 Ge nera l C onside ration on S ocial S c ie nce 2 47

s e c o n d ary l aws u nd e r m o re ge ne r al l aws C o mte is e ve n .

c o nvi n c e d th at his s o ci o l o gy c o m e s n e are r to th e p e rfe ct

sci e ntific fo rm th an phy sics o r ch e mistry By his disc o v e ry .

o f t h e gr e a t dy n a mic law o f th e thr e e st at e s h as h e n o t giv e n ,

it a u n i ty which is to b e fo u n d as c o mpl e te no wh e re e ls e b u t
‘

in as tr o no my ? B u t at th e s am e tim e it is truly u n i ve rs al
, , . ,

si nc e it is a phil o s o ph y o f histo ry o r in o th e r w o rds th e , , ,

sci e nc e o f hum an i ty c o n sid e r e d in its e v o lu t i o n As this .

sci e n c e pre su pp o s e s bi o l o gy and as bi o l o g y in tur n pre supp o s e s

,

t h e sci e n c e o f t h e m ilie u in which li v i n g b e i n gs a re imm e rs e d ,

s o ci o l o gy b e c o m e s at o n c e th e su mm ary an d th e cro w n o f
t h e sci e n c e s which pr e c e d e it .

Thus in re pl aci n g m an in H u m an ity and H um an ity in th e ,

s ys te m o f it s c o n di t i o n s o f e xist e n c e C o m t e c o n s t ructs a fi n a l
,

sci e n c e which is at t h e s a m e ti m e t h e supre m e sci e nc e t h e ,

o n ly sci e n c e t h at is t o say phil o s o phy I f th e l aws o f

“
.
, ,

s o ci o l o gy c o uld b e suffici e n tl y k n o w n to us t h e y a l o ne w o uld ,

s uffic e to re pl ac e all th e o th e rs s ave th e di fficul t i e s o f,

d e d uc t i o n
.
” 1
T h e sci e n c e o f H um an ity is t h e c e ntr e a ro u n d
which t h e o th e rs r ange t h e ms e lv e s in o rd e r .

Alre ady wi t h D e sc a r te s th e a n thr o p o l o gic al ch ara ct e r o f

,

phil o s o ph y was s t r o n gly m ark e d Afte r him phil o s o phic al

.
,

sp e cul ati o n t o o k m an fo r its c e n t re m o re an d m o r e This .

t e n d e n c y a ls o pr e d o m i n ate s in C o m te s d o ctri ne But in it it

’
-
.

a ssum e s a s o ci a l ch a r a c te r H e re th e u n iv e rs al subj e ct is
“ ”
.

n o l o n g e r t h e i n te ll e c t u a l c o nsci o us ne ss o f K an t o r th e ,

abs o lu te o f F ic h te ; it is H um a n ity e v o lvi ng in tim e

“
e go ,

wh o s e u n i ty is displ ay e d thr o ugh t h e succ e ssi o n o f ge n e r ati o n s

c o nn e c te d i n s t rict s o lid arity wi th e ach o th e r H e n c e fo rth .

t h e phil o s o phic al pr o bl e ms n o l o n g e r pr e s e n t t h e ms e lv e s fr o m
,

t h e p o i n t o f V i e w o f m an c o n c e ive d in th e abstr act o r in hims e lf

a p art fr o m tim e . T h e c o n sid e r ati o n o f hi st o ry n e c e ss aril y

i n te rv e ne s Pr o bl e ms are fo rmul at e d in s o ci al te rms Th e re
. .

1
P l p
o .I 44 o s, , 2 .
2 4 8 T h e Ph ilosophy of

li e s th e d e e p s ig nifi c an c e of th e d o c tri ne syste m at ise d by

C o mt e .
 C H A PTE R I I I
S O CI A L S T A TIC S

A S b io l o gy disti nguish e s th e anato mic al p o int o f v ie w ,

r e l ati ng to th e id e as o f o rg an is ati o n and th e physi o l o gical

,
”

p o i nt o f vi e w r e l ati n g to th e id e as o f life so s o ci o l o gy
,
“
,
”

s e p ar at e s t h e study o f t h e c o n diti o n s o f e xi st e nc e o fa so c ie ty

( s o ci a l st a ti c s,) a n d th a t o f t h e l a ws o f i ts m o v e m e n ts (s o c i al
dy namics ) .

Thi s disti n ct io n h as th e ad van t age o f c o rr e sp o ndi ng e x act l y

t o th at o f o rd e r and pr o gre ss fr o m t h e pr actic a l p o i n t o f V ie w
, ,

whil e it is c lo se ly alli e d to th e e n c yC I O pze dic law c all e d th e

_
“

pri nc ipl e o fth e c o h din e n s o fe xist e n ce ”

'

C o mte will no t admit t hat h e is m ak in g two disti nc t

s ci e nc e s o f s o c i al st at ic s and so c i al dy namics S o ci o l o gy .
,

a c c o rdi n g t o him is c o nstitut e d by th e c o n st an t dr aw in g

,

t o g e th e r o f t h e se t wo c o rr e sp o n di n g studi e s H o w e ve r th e y
.
,

e ach h av e th e ir o wn o bj e ct and C o mt e h as tr e at e d th e m
,

s e p a r at e ly
. I n d e e d s o ci al st a tics and d y nami c s are far fro m
,

h avi ng th e s am e imp o rt anc e in his w o rk .

T h e e ss e n ti al p art o n hi s o wn sh o wi n g is dy n ami c s
, ,
1
.

Wh e n h e m ak e s hist o ry t h e ch ar ac te ristic pro c e ss o f th e

S o c i o l o gi c al m e th o d wh e n h e sh o ws th at th e t raditi o n
,

tran smitte d fro m e v e ry ge ne rati o n to t h e fo ll o wi ng o ne is

pre e mi ne n tly th e s o ci o l o gic al ph e no m e no n wh e n fi n ally h e ,

c o nsid e r s th e n e w sci e n c e as h av i ng b e e n f o un d e d fro m th e

day wh e n t h e law o f th e thre e st at e s was dis c o ve re d is h e n o t ,

C1
I V 43
o urs, , 0
.
2 50 T h e P hilosophy of A ug uste C om te

pl aci ng hims e l f at th e dynami c p o i nt o f vi e w ? Aft e r h avi ng

d e m o nstrate d th at dy namic l aws o f s o ci al ph e no m e na e xist ,

h e c o nclud e s th at th e s e ph e no m e n a are als o subj e ct t o st ati c

l aws : th e r e w o uld b e a c o n tradicti o n in admitti ng t h e o ne
se t o f l aws with o ut t h e o th e r I n C o mte s mi nd th e n
’
.

d y namics pre c e d e d st atics Ev e n fro m an Obj e ctive p o i nt O f

'

vi e w dy na mics S e e m to b e th e m o st imp o rtan t F o r i f we

,
.
,

k ne w th e dy n amic l aws it w o uld no t b e imp o ssibl e to d e duc e

t h e s t at ic l aws fr o m th e m whil e t o do th e r e v e rs e w o uld b e
,

impr actic abl e at any rat e fo r mi nds c o n stitute d lik e o u rs

,
.

S o in t h e C o u rs de ph ilosop h ic pos itive s o ci al st atics h o lds

, ,

a v e ry sm all pl ac e c o mp a r e d with th a t o ccupi e d by dy n a mics .

I t is t ru e t h at i t t ak e s up th e wh o l e o f th e s e c o n d v o lum e o f
t h e P olit iq ue p os i ti ve But th e r e C o mt e bri ngs int o it m any
.

c o n si de r ati o n s which aris e s m o re fro m e thics and r e ligi o n

th an fro m s o ci o l o gy pr o p e rly so c all e d .

T he id e a o f th e s o ci a l conse nsu s m o re re stric te d th an t h at O f

,

t h e vit al co ns ensus d o mi n at e s th e wh o l e o f s o ci al st atics

,
T he .

sci e nc e S e ts its e lf to study th e c o n ti n u al acti o n s an d re ac ti o n s

which th e v ari o us p a rts o ft h e s o ci al sys t e m e x e rcis e up o n o ne
an o th e r E ach o f th e n um e ro us e l e m e nts o f this sys te m
.
,

i ns te ad o fb e i ng o bse rve d by its e lf must b e c o nc e ive d as in

,

re l ati o n with all th e o th e rs wi th which it h as c o n s tant s o lid

,

a rity . Fr o m wh at e ve r s o ci al e l e m e nt we st art it is alw ay s ,

c o nne cte d in a m o re o r l e ss dire ct way with th e wh o l e o f t he

, ,

o th e rs e ve n with th o s e which at first sight a pp e ar i n d e p e n d e nt

1
.
,

Wh at are th e ultim at e s o ci al e l e m e nts ? I n bi o l o g y

”
,

an at o mic al a n alysis was t o st o p at t h e tissu e o r at l e ast a t ,

t h e c e ll I n s o ci o l o gy st atic al an alysis will st o p a t t h e

,

family . H um an s o ci e ty is m ad e up o f famili e s an d n o t
C 1
I V 58
o urs, . 2 .
 S oc ial S tatics 2 5 1

i
o f nd ividu als : it is an e l e m e nt a ry axi o m in s ta tic al s o ci o l o gy .

I n th e e y e s o f s o ci al sci e nc e th e i n divid u al is a n a bstr acti o n , .

All s o ci al stre ngth is th e re sult o f a m o re o r l e ss e xte nd e d

“

c o o p e r at i o n th a t is to say o f th e c o mbi ne d acti o n o f a

”
-
,

gre ate r o r sm all e r n umb e r o f i ndivid uals Th e re is no thi ng .

pure ly i ndi v idu al e xc e pt physic al fo rc e But wh at is th e .

physic al fo rc e o f a m an al o ne with o ut a rms o r t o o ls ? (fo r ,

th e s e alre ady imply a c o Op e r ati o n o f s o ci al activiti e s )

-
In
t e lle c t ual p o w e r is o f v alu e o n ly wh e n o th e rs p articip at e in it

so it is wi t h m o r al p o w e r .

O n t h e o t h e r h an d i f all s o ci al fo rc e is th e r e sult Of u n i o n
, ,

all s o ci al fo rc e is n e ve rth e l e ss r e pr e s e nt e d by a n i n dividu al

, .

T h e s o ci al o rga nism is c o ll e ctiv e in its n atur e and i n dividu al

“
,

in its fu n c t i o n s I n this way t h e p a r t pl ay e d by t h e in

” 1
.

dividu al ag ai n b e c o m e s a ve ry c o nsid e r abl e o ne I f t h e .

i ndividu al in S O far as h e is a s o ci al fo rc e alw ays r e pre s e nts

, ,

s o m e gr o up h e is no ne th e l e ss p o ss e ss e d o f his o wn p e rs o n a
,

lity which m ay pre cis e ly h av e t ak e n a gre at p a rt in th e

fo rm ati o n o f such o r such a gro up We k no w th at th e s o ci al .

o rg an ism must n o t o n all p o i nts b e c o mp a r e d with t h e livi n g

o rg an ism . I f t h e fa mily is th e ultim ate e l e m e n t fo r s o ci al

s tatics t his e l e m e nt is h o w e ve r its e lf m ad e up o f p e rs o n s wh o
,

a re natur ally i n d e p e n d e n t an d wh o c a n n o t b e c o mp a r e d to
,

c e lls.

T h e p o sitiv e th e ory o f t h e family is fo u n d e d u p o n t h e .

bi o l o gic al th e o ry o f th e physic a l and m o r al n ature o f m an .

This n atur e is s o ci abl e T h e hum an S p e ci e s b e l o ngs to t h e

.

c at e go ry o f th o s e in which i ndividu als n o t o n ly live in m o re o r

l e s s p e rm ane n t b ands but fo rm d e fi n i te and d urabl e s o ci e ti e s
, .

This is a fact in o ur e xp e ri e n c e T h e s o ci al st at e is fo r m e n .
, ,

t h e st at e o f n atur e T h e c o n tr act th e o ry c a n no t th e n b e
“ ”
.

m ai n t ai ne d C o m te do e s no t st o p to cri ticis e it T h e th e o ris ts

. .

O f th e c o u nt e r Re vo l uti o n h av e suffici e n tly r e fu te d R o uss e au

-
.

P l p II 65 1
o . o s, , 2 .
2 52 T h e P h ilosophy f g
oA u u ste C om te

Ac c o rdi ng to C o mte s o c iab ility is sp o nt ane o us in th e hum an

,

s p e c i e s in virt ue o f th e i n sti n c tiv e l e an i n g t o w a rds c o mm o n

,

life i nd e p e n d e ntly o f any p e rs o nal c al c u l ati o n and o fte n

,
“
,

a g ai nst th e m o st imm e di at e int e re st o fth e i n dividu al S o ci e ty .

is no t th e n fo und e d up o n utility wh ic h c o uld m o re o v e r o nly

'

a pp e ar in a st at e o fs o c i e ty a l r e ady e st ablish e d
1 ”
.

Thus th e family is th e ulti m ate s o c i al e l e m e nt B e i ng

,
.

pre o ccupi e d by thi s id e a C o mte wh o h ad such a d e e p c l e a r

, , ,

s ight e d f e e li ng o f th e e v o luti o n o f s o c i e ti e s d o e s n o t ask ,

hims e lf wh e th e r t h e family h as e vo l ve d fro m s o m e thi ng whi c h

e xist e d pr e vi o usly F o r him it is s o m e thi n g n atur al th at is
.
,

t o say s o m e thi n g giv e n b e y o n d which we sh o uld no t g o b ack

, ,

and o fwhi c h o n ly t h e b io lo g ic al c o nditio ns c an b e d e t e rmi ne d

'

I t is fro m this p o i n t o fvi e w th at C o mt e d e fi ne s th e r e l at io ns

o f m an and w o m an in t h e family H e b as e s h ims e l f up o n .

bi o l o g y (th at is to say b o th up o n phy si o l o gy and psych o l o gy) ,

t o r e pr e s e n t t h e fe m al e se x as l ivi ng in a ki n d o f st at e o f
“

c o n ti n u o us childh o o d Wh e nc e h e c o n c lud e s to th e n atur al

”
.

sub o rdi n ati o n o f w o m an Thi s i n fe ri o rity d oe s n o t m o re o ve r

.

e xt e n d to th e wh o l e o f h e r m o r al n ature in ge ne r al
“
fo r , , ,

w o m e n are as sup e rio r to m e n by t h e natural d e v e l o pm e nt o f

symp athy and s o c i ability as th e y are i nfe ri o r to th e m wh e r e
, ,

i nt e ll e ct and re as o ni ng p o w e rs are c o nc e rne d 2

O n th is l ast .
”

p o i nt J o h n S tu art Mil l h e ld th e c o ntrary o pi ni o n and this dis

, ,

a gr e e m e n t c o ntribut e d n o t a l ittl e to ali e nat e him fr o m p o sitiv e

phil o s o phy L at e r o n in his s e c o n d c are e r C o mte wh o

.
“
, ,
”
,

m o re and m o re c am e to subo rdi nate th e inte ll e ct to th e h e art ,

still m o r e e xt o l l e d th e m o ral e xc e ll e nc e o f w o m an and e nd e d ,

by c o n sid e ri ng h e r as i nte rm e di ary b e twe e n hum anity and

“

m an . But e ve n th e n whil e pro cl aimi ng th e s e ntim e nt al

”
, ,

m o ral and aesthe tic sup e ri o rity o f wo m an h e p e rsiste d in

, ,

m ai n tai ni n g th at fro m th e i nt e ll e c tu al p o i nt o fvi e w by re aso n

, ,

C I V 43 6 1
o urs, , 2 -
.

2
C i 4 59 C
o urs, p d
v, d C mt
. t d J h St
o rre s o n t M ill p
anc e e 9 88o e e e o n uar , . 2 1 -
2 .
 S ocial S tatics 2 53

of immut ab l e bi o l o gic al c o nditi o ns , sh e r e m ai ns i n fe ri o r to

m an .

Fro m anal o go us m o tive s C o mt e r e g ards m arri age as a

,

un iv e r sal n at u r al disp o siti o n th e first n e c e ss ary b asis o f all

“
,

s o ci e ty . Eve ry thi ng whi c h te nds to w e ak e n m a rri age t e n d s

”

t o di so rg an is e th e family an d c o nse qu e ntly to d e str o y s o ci e ty

, , ,

in its c o n stitutive e l e m e n ts C o mt e will th us c o nd e m n div o rc e

.
‘

o f which h e hims e l f h ad th e b e st r e as o n s f o r appr e ci ati ng th e

adv ant ag e s G e ne r ally C o mt e s th e o ry o f th e family is

’
.
,

m o d e ll e d up o n th e Christi an fa mily Acc o rdi ng to his c o n st ant .

prac ti c e h e s ee ks to d e t ac h th e i nstituti o n s Of C ath o licism

, ,

whi c h h e admire s fro m its d o gm as which h e b e li e ve s to b e

,

alm o st d e ad The s e instituti o ns e xc e ll e nt in th e ms e lve s o nly

.
,

su ff e r fr o m b e i n g b o u nd up with b e li e fs whi c h are dis app e a ri n g .

S o l o ng h e says as th e family c o n ti n u e s to h av e n o o th e r
, ,

int e ll e ct ual b asis th an r e l igi o u s d o c tri ne s it will ne c e ss a rily ,

p a rticip a te i n th e i r g ro wi n g di scr e dit P o sitive phil o s o phy .

c an al o ne h e nc e fo rth e st ablish th e S pirit o f th e fa mily up o n

an imm o v e abl e fo u n d ati o n with t h e m o d ifi c ati o n s suit abl e to

,

th e m o d e r n c h ar ac t e r o f th e s o c ial o rg an ism This n e w

1 ”
.

i nt e ll e ctu al b asis is e st ablish e d by p o sitiv e psy c h o l o gy and

s o c i al st atics T h e c o nstit uti o n o f th e family re m ai ns th e
.

s am e But its fo u n d ati o n is h e n c e fo rth p o sitive d o gm a i n st e ad

.

O f r e ligi o u s d o gm a d e m o n strat e d b e li e f i n st e ad o f re ve al e d
,

faith .

P e rh aps we must r e c o g nis e in th e e ne rg e tic d e fe nc e m ad e

by C o mte o f th e family and o f m arri age as h e fo u nd th e m
e st ablish e d by th e sid e o f C ath o li c i n flu e n c e a d e sir e n o t ,

t o b e c o n fus e d wi th th e fo ll o w e rs O f S ai n t Sim o n o f F o uri e r , ,

and th e o th e r r e fo rm e rs o f h is t im e Th e s e did no t h e sit ate

.

t o c o n tr adict curr e n t an d tr aditi o n al cust o ms I n C o mt e s

’
.

v ie w this c o n t radic ti o n is a sig n o f e rro r S ci e nti fic t ruth

,
.

is fo un d in th e pro l o ng ati o n o f public r e as o n and o f c o mm o n

C I V 45
1
o urs, ,
0.
 u u ste C o m te
2 54 T h e P h ilosophy f g
oA

s e nse H e re C o mt e s e e s a n e w and n o t o ne o f th e l e ast

. ,

imp o rtan t argum e nts in supp o r t o f his o wn th e o ry

,
.

A s o ci e ty is c o mp o s e d o f fa mili e s : it is n o t its e lf a gr e at e r
fa mily N e ith e r is it an ass e mbl ag e o f c o ntigu o us famili e s
.

li v i ng t o ge th e r T h e family and s o ci e ty are disti n guish e d

.

fro m e ach o the r by ve ry cl e ar diffe re n ti al ch arac te ris ti c s .

T h e family is a u n i o n o f an e ss e n ti ally m o r al n atur e

“ ”
,

an d s e c o n d aril y i n t e ll e ctu al T h e chi e f c o n s t itu e n t o f th e

1
.

fa mily is fo u n d in th e affe ctive fu ncti o n s (th e mutu al t e nd e r ,

n e ss o fhusb an d an d wife o fth e p a r e n ts f o r t h e childr e n

, ,

S o ci e ty is o n th e c o nt rary no t a u n i o n but a c o Op e r ati o n

, , ,
-

o f a n e ss e n t i all y i n t e ll e ctu al n atur e an d se c o n da rily m o ral

‘

, .

U n d o ub te dly an ass o ci at i o n o f m e n c anno t b e c o nc e ive d as

,

subsisti n g wi t h o ut th e ir s y mp ath e tic fe e li ngs b e i n g i nte re st e d

in it
-
. N e v e r t h e l e ss wh e n we p ass fr o m th e c o n sid e rati o n o f
,

t h e si n gl e fa mil y t o t h e c o o rdi n at i o n o f s e v e r a l fa mili e s t h e

-
,

pri n cipl e o f c o o p e r ati o n n e c e ss arily e n ds by pre vaili ng S o

-
.

R o uss e a u s th e o ry is n o t fals e o n all p o i n ts M e taphysic al

’
.

phil o s o phy e sp e ci ally in Fr anc e s ays C o m te h as u n d o ubt e dly

, , ,

c o mmi tte d a n e rro r o f c apit al i mp o rt an c e b y attributi n g

th e v e ry cr e at i o n o f th e s o ci a l s t ate t o t his pri n cipl e fo r ,

it is e v id e n t t h at c o o p e rat i o n far fro m h av i n g b e e n abl e

-
,

t o pr o duc e s o ci e ty pr e supp o s e s it
, But if we c o n fi ne this .

ass e rti o n t o s o ci e ty pr o p e rly so c a ll e d ( th e famil y b e i ng se t -

a sid e ) it is n o t s o s t ar tli n g F o r if c o o p e r at i o n c o uld n o t

.
,
-

“
cre ate hum a n s o ci e t i e s it al o ne at l e as t h as b e e n abl e to
,

c o mm un ic ate t o t h e s e sp o ntan e o us ass o ci at i o n s a d e fi nite

ch ar act e r and a l as t i n g c o n sis te n c y .
”

This C O Op e rati o n is c all e d to day th e di visi o n o f l ab o ur

-
“ -
.

C o mte k ne w this e xpre ssi o n Ad am S mith h ad alre ady m ad e

C I V 47 q 1
o urs, , 2 s .
 S oc ial S tatics 2 55

it fam o us I f C o mte did no t m ak e use o f it it is be c aus e

. ,

e c o no mist s h ad li mit e d t h e id e a an d th e t e rm t o m e re ly
“

m ate ri al us ag e s H e wish e s o n th e c o ntr a ry to c o n sid e r

.
, ,

c o o p e r ati o n in th e wh o l e o f its r ati o n al e xt e n si o n

- I t the n .

b e c o m e s an e xtre m e ly ge ne ral pri n cipl e d o mi nati ng th e ,

wh o l e O f so ci al st atics and fi n di ng its a pplic ati o n in th e

.
,

gre a te st as in th e m o st limi te d s o ci al gro ups This pri nci pl e .

l e ads us to r e g ard no t o n ly i n dividu als and c l as se s but als o , ,

in m any r e sp e cts th e diffe ren t p e o pl e s a s p a rticip ati n g ,

t o g e th e r in a suit abl e way and a d e t e rmi ne d d e gr e e in an ,

i mm e n s e c o mm o n w o rk wh o s e d e ve l o pm e nt u n i te s t h o s e
a ctu a lly c o o p e r at i n g with t h e s e ri e s o f t h e ir succ e ss o rs an d
-

t h e ir pr e d e c e ss o rs Thus we se e th e r e l ati o n b e twe e n th e

”
.

dy namic al an d th e s tatic a l l aws o f s o ci al c o n ti n uity whi c h

bi nds succ e ssive g e ne r ati o n s with s o ci al s o lid arity which ,

u n it e s m e n livi n g in th e s am e p e ri o d This s o lid arity .

a ris e s e sp e ci a lly fr o m t h e divisi o n o f l ab o ur T h e l a tt e r is .

the
“
primitive c aus e o f th e e xte nsi o n an d o f th e gro wi ng
c o mpl e xity o f th e s o ci al o rganism w hich m ay be c o nc e ive d
a s c o mprisi n g t h e wh o l e o fo u r S p e c i e s .

T h e fo u n d e r o f s o ci al st atics Arist o tl e h ad fo rmul at e d its , ,

m o st ge ne r al pri n cipl e : s e p ar ati o n o fo ffi c e s an d c o mbi nati o n

“

Of e ffo rts . With o ut th e s e p ar ati o n o fo ffic e s th e re w o uld

” 1 “ ”

o n ly b e a n aggl o m e r ati o n o f fa mili e s an d n o t a s o ci e t y B ut .

t h e i n disp e n s abl e c o u n t e rp a rt Of th e s e p a r at i o n o f Offic e s is

t h e c o mbi nati o n o f e ffo r t s th at is t o say a g e ne r a l th o ught

,

which d ir e cts th e m in a w o rd a g o v e rn m e nt
, , .

Thus th e id e as o f s o ci e ty and o f g o ve rn m e nt are impli e d

,

in o n e ano th e r I nd e e d th e re is n o s o ci e ty pro p e rly S O c all e d

.
,
-

with o ut th e divisi o n o f so ci al l ab o u r a divisi o n imm e di at e ly ,

ge ne r ati n g c o n s e qu e nc e s which m ak e g o v e rn m e nt a ne c e ssity .

S o c ie ty in d e ve l o pi ng gr o ws m o r e an d m o re c o mpl e x I n st e ad .

o f a sm a ll gr o up o f a f e w famili e s it e n ds b y n umb e ri n g ,

1
P l p II 8 3 ; I V App d i p 6 7
o . os ,
.
, 2 1- , en c e, . .
2 5 6 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

h undr e ds t h o usands and e ve n milli o ns o f th e m At th e

, ,
.

s am e tim e th e divisi o n O f l ab o ur Ofte n give s r i se to i nd ividu al

d i ffe r e nc e s at o nc e i nt e l l e ctu al and m o ral Mi nds are de
,
.

ve lo p e d but e ach o ne acc o rdi ng t o its sp e c i al

,
l ine at l e as t ,

a cc o rdi ng t o th at O f his pr o fe ssi o n o r o f his c l ass T he c o m .

mu n i o n o f fe e l i n g and o f th o ught t e n ds to b e c o m e w e ak e r
.
.

This l ast is no t th e l e ast s e ri o us i nc o nv e ni e n c e S mith h ad .

a lr e ady p o i n t e d it o ut fr o m t h e e c o n o mic al p o i n t o f vi e w an d ,

th e ut o pi an r e fo rm e rs F o uri e r e sp e ci ally h av e sh o w n stro n gly

, ,

its e xt e n t and its d an ge rs .

This is acc o rdi ng t o C o m te wh at it is th e missi o n o f a

, ,

g o ve rn m e nt to r e m e dy I ts s o ci al fu n cti o n c o nsists in
.

re p re ssi ng and in O pp o si n g as far as p o ssibl e th e t e nd e ncy to

t h e sc att e ri ng o f id e as o f fe e li ngs an d Of i n t e r e sts
, Thi s , .

t e n d e ncy is th e re sult o f th e v e ry d e v e l o pm e n t o f s o c i e ty and ,

l e ft to its e lf it w o u l d e nd by st o ppi ng this d e v e l o pm e n t

, .

G o v e r nm e nt m ay thus b e d e fi ne d in its abstract and e l e m e n

t ary fu n cti o n as th e ne c e ss ary r e acti o n o f th e wh o l e up o n
“

t h e p arts
”
1
.

G o v e r nm e nt at first app e ars sp o ntane o usly A s H o bbe s

, , .
”

cl e arly saw it is th e n in th e h an ds o f th o s e to wh o m fo rc e
,

b e l o ngs But it s o o n b e c o m e s re gul aris e d and o rg anis e d i nt o a

.

d e fi nit e s o c i al fu ncti o n As in th e d e ve l o pm e nt o fth e sci e nce s

.
, ,

th e gr o wi n g diff e r e n ti ati o n o f th e ir o bj e c t r e n d e r e d r e s e a rch

m o re an d m o r e sp e ci al and at l ast c aus e d th e appe aranc e o f a

,

p articul ar cl as s o f l e ar ne d m e n (th e phil o s o ph e rs ) wh o s e o wn

, ,

fu nc ti o n is to att e mpt th e sy n th e sis o fhum an k no w l e dge ; so ,

in th e divisi o n c o n st an tly m o r e ram ifie d o f s o ci a l fu n cti o ns a ,

n e w o ne h ad t o b e c o n stitut e d c ap abl e o f i nte rv e n i n g in th e

,

acc o mplishm e n t o f all th e o th e rs u nc e asi ngly to re c all in ,

the m th e th o ught o f th e wh o l e and th e fe e li ng o f c o mm o n ,

s o lid ari ty .

We are th e n e nti re l y mistak e n wh e n we w ant to re d uc e ,

C IV 48 5 1 o urs, , 2 -
.
 S oc ia l S tatics 2 57

th e fu n cti o n o f go ve r n m e n t to vulg ar attributi o n s o f m at e ri al

o rd e r G o ve r n m e n t is n o t a simpl e i nstituti o n o f p o lic e a
”
.
,

gu aran te e o f public o rd e r n o r as was s aid in th e X V I I I

, , .

c e n tury a ne c e ss ary e vil which will re duc e its e l f to a mi n imum

,

with pr o gre ss o r e ve n will t e n d to dis app e ar O n th e c o n

, .

t rary t h e m o r e a s o ci e ty is d e ve l o p e d t h e m o r e i n disp e n s abl e

, ,

th e fu n cti o n o f g o v e r n m e n t b e c o m e s in it t h e m o r e imp o rt
,

an c e it a ssum e s Pr o gre ss in th e fut ure will m ak e a m o re

.

an d m o r e c o n sid e r abl e pl ac e f o r it in s o c i a l life Alth o ugh it .

d o e s no t its e lf r e alis e any d e t e rmi ne d s o ci al pro gr e ss go v e r n ,

m e nt ne c e ss arily c o ntribut e s to wh at e ve r pr o gr e ss s o ci e ty c an
m ak e .

I f th e id e a o f th e divisi o n o f l ab our is no t to b e u n d e rst o o d

in a pur e l y m at e ri al an d e c o n o mic al s e n s e t h e pri n cipl e o f ,

soci a l coh es io n which C o mt e c alls g o v e r n m e n t c an n o t an

, y m o re
,

b e fo u n d e d up o n a si n gl e c o n fo rmi ty o f i n t e r e sts This w o uld .

n o t su ffic e t o m ai n t ai n a hum an s o c i e ty F o r such a s o ci e ty

.

to subsist th e r e m ust b e a c e rt a i n c o mmu n i o n o f b e li e fs

“ ”
, ,

and fe e li n gs Of s y mp athy which th e ms e lve s d e p e nd in a

,

c e rt ai n m e asur e up o n th e s e b e li e fs U n d o ubt e dly s o ci e ty

.
,

c o ul d no t re sist a d e e p an d dur abl e dive rg e nc e o f i nt e re sts .

But it w o uld still l e ss r e sist i n c o mp atibility o f fe e li ngs and ,

e sp e ci ally o f b e li e fs a m o n g its m e mb e rs I n a w o rd th e b asis

.
,

o f hum an s o ci e t y is i n t e ll e ctu a l b e fo r e all t hi n gs A n d as .

,

t h e first o bj e ct o f t h e mi n d o f m an is t h e i n t e rpr e t ati o n o f th e

w o rld which surro u n ds him th e c o n sti t utive b asis o f hum an
,

s o ci e ty is r e ligi o n T h e gro ups which are u n ite d in th e s am e

.

g e ne r al c o n c e pti o n o f th e u n i ve rs e are p art o f th e s a m e s o ci e ty .

H e n c e in th e p ast we see e n dl e ss c o nflict s b e twe e n th e

, ,

so ci e ti e s wh o s e r e ligi o n s w e r e diff e r e n t ; h e n c e in t h e futur e, ,

t h e u n ity o f t h e hum an sp e ci e s will fi n ally b e c o m e e n tire ly

ralli e d ar o u n d p o sitiv e r e ligi o n .

I f this is th e c as e , g o ve rn m e n t which is b y d e fi n iti o n th e

,

high e st and m o st g e ne ral s o ci al fu n cti o n which r e pre s e n ts t h e

I 7 ,
2 5 8 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

S pirit o f th e wh o l e c an no t b e c o n fi ne d to t e mp o ral acti o n

, .

I ts o bj e ct is no t o nly t o assur e th e s e curity o f pro p e rty

and o f p e rs o n s I t must at th e s am e tim e stre ngth e n and
.

pre s e rv e th at c o mmu ni o n o f b e li e fs which is th e b asi s o f

“ ”

hum an s o ci e ty I t must gu arante e th e u n i o n Of i nt e ll e c ts by

.
, ,

e st ab l ishi ng and t e achi n g u n iv e rs ally a cc e pt e d pri ncip l e s It .

must in a wo rd b e a spiritu al p o w e r
,
“
,
I n this c ap acity in .
”
,

p o sitive s o ci e ty it will e x e rcis e an acti o n at l e ast e qu al to

,

t h at e n j o y e d by t h e c ath o lic cl e rgy in th e Christ e nd o m o f th e

Middl e Age s as l o ng as th e P o p e s pre s e rve d its supre m e

,

dir e cti o n .

Th e s e c o n s e qu e n c e s are l e gitim ate ly draw n fr o m C o mt e s ’

pri ncipl e s H is phil o s o phy m ad e s o ci al r e o rg an is ati o n de

.

p e n d e n t up o n th e r e o rg an is ati o n o f m o rals and th e re o rg ani ,

s ati o n o f m o rals up o n th at o f id e as H e was th e re fo re in .

, ,

s o ci al st atics to s e e k fo r th e fo u nd ati o n Of s o ci e ty in th e
,

h arm o ny o f i n t e ll e c t s a nd to d e fi ne g o ve r n m e nt by its S piritu al

a s much as by its t e mp o r a l fu n cti o n .

III .

C o mt e s s o ci al st atics are far fro m fulfilli ng th e pr o gramm e

’

which h e i n dic at e d in a w o rd wh e n h e c all e d it s o ci al “

ana t o my U n d o ubte dly h e is right in no t pushi ng th e

”
.

c o mp aris o n b e tw e e n livi ng b e i ngs and s o ci e ty t o d ang e r o us

o r childish att e mpts a t pr e cisi o n B ut in s o ci o l o gy as i n
.
,

bi o l o gy h e s e p arat e s th e study o fth e o rgan s fro m th at o f th e

,

fu n cti o n s and we must a dmit th at h e i nsiste d v e ry littl e up o n

,

t h e a n al y sis Of t h e s o ci a l o rg an s Fr o m th e st atic al p o i n t o f
‘

v i e w h e o n l y disti ngu ish e s t h e i n dividu a l th e fa mily and so ci e t

y , ,

t ak e n as a wh o l e M o re o ve r th e c o n sid e r ati o n o fth e i ndividu al

.

is o nly pre limi na ry si nc e th e famili e s r e pre s e nt th e re al s o ci al

,
1

e l e m e n ts .H e th e re fo r e se e s o r a t l e ast h e studi e s n o thi n g

,

i n te rm e di a ry b e twe e n t h e s e e l e m e n ts and th e t o t ali ty o f th e

s o ci a l b o d y t h at is to say th e hum an sp e ci e s H e limits him
,
.
 S oc ial S tatics 2 59

se lf to i ndic ati ng th e s e p arati o n o f O ffi c e s which i nc re as e s with

t h e e xt e n si o n o f t h e s o ci al b o dy But wh at is t h e stru c t ure
.

o f this b o dy wh at d ive rsity o f o rg an s an d app ar atus d o e s it

,

c o nt ai n ? S o ci al st atics t e lls us no thi ng o f this T he .

P oli tiq ue posi tive sc arc e ly give s uS a fe w bri e f i nd ic ati o ns o n

t his p o i n t . T h e c o ll e ctiv e o rganism w o uld b e c o mp o s e d first
o f famili e s which c o nstitut e its re al e l e m e n t th e n o f th e
, ,

c l a ss e s o r c a st e s which fo r m its tis sue s and fi nally o f t o w ns o r

,

vill age s which are its r e al o rg an s .

This is v e ry v agu e O nly in t h e dy n amics sh all we find

.

v i e ws a littl e m o r e pr e cis e o n th e a pp e a r an c e t h e stru c t ur e , ,

an d th e fu n c t i o n s o f t h e diff e r e n t so ci a l fo rms Ev e n th e n .

C o mt e d o e s n o t r e ally t ak e t h e phy si o l o gic al p o i n t o f v ie w

,

a ny m o r e t h an in st atics h e t ak e s t h e r e a l ly anat o mic al p o in t

o f vi e w . B e fo re all thi ngs his s o ci o l o gy r e m ai n s a ph il o

,

s o phy o f hist o ry I t an alys e s th e p ast o f hum an ity th at it

.
,

m ay fin d in it th e i n t e rpre t ati o n o f its pr e s e n t an d t h e r at io nal

p r e visi o n o f its futur e .

This s c i e nc e diffe rs pro fo u n dly th e n fro m th e fu n d am e nt al

sci e nc e s which pre c e d e it in th at it studi e s a S i n gl e b e ing
, ,

o f whi c h it c ann o t an aly se th e ph e no m e n a o r disc o v e r t h e

l aws e xc e pt by c on sid e ri ng it in th e first pl ac e in its

t o t ality . C o mt e h ardl y e v e r in s o c i al st a tics (and far l e ss in
d y n amics ) s ays s o ci e ty as in bi o l o gy h e s aid an im als an d
, ,

v e ge t abl e s H e s ays th e collective org a n ism : a S impl e im

.
,

m e n s e o rg an ism wh o s e l if
, e i n d e fi n it e ly e xt e n ds i n t o t h e p ast

a n d i n t o t h e futur e in a w o rd H um an ity
, ,
This c o nc e pti o n
.

r e pre se nt i n g hum an ity as a si ngl e B e i ng which is an hyp o

t h e sis fo r sci e n c e b e c o m e s an id e al f
, o r e thics an d an o bj e ct ,

o f l o ve fo r r e ligi o n I n s e n sibly C o mte p asse s fro m o ne

.

o f th e s e p o i n ts o f vi e w to th e o th e r A t th e s am e tim e th e
.
o

c h ar ac t e r o f s o ci al st atics ch an g e s Fro m be i ng an abstract

.

s ci e n c e in t h e C o u rs in th e P oli ti q ue it is tr an sfo rm e d i n t o a
,

p ictur e o f futur e H um an ity .

 C HAPTER I V
S O C IAL D Y N A M I CS

F O R C o mt e s o ci al dynamics is th e chi e f p art o f s o ci o l o gy

,
.

H e t e lls us th a t it o ccupi e d his att e n ti o n in a pr e p o n d e r ati ng

“

an d e v e n a lm o st e xclusiv e m anne r This pr e fe re nc e is

.
” 1

e asily e xpl ai ne d I n th e first pl ac e th e id e a which b e st

.

disti n guish e s s o ci o l o gy fr o m bi o l o gy th e id e a o f th e gradu al,

d e v e l o pm e n t o f hum an ity be l o ngs to so ci al dy namics Th e n .

,

th e m e th o d which p articul arly b e l o n gs t o s o ci o l o gy t h e ,

hist o ric a l m e th o d appli e s e sp e ci ally to d ynamics F inally

,
.
,

th e v e ry c o n c e pti o n o f a s o ci al sci e n c e b e c am e fix e d in
C o mte s mi nd by th e disc o ve ry O f th e law o f th e thr e e st ate s
’

which is a dy na mic law .

S o ci al d y namics is d e fi ne d as th e sci e n c e o f th e n e c e ss ary

“

and c o n ti n u o us m o v e m e n t Of hum an ity o r m o r e bri e fly t h e

” 2
, , ,

s c i e n c e o f t h e l a ws o f pr o gr e ss H e re as in s o ci al st atics and
.
, ,

e v e n still m o r e e xclusiv e ly a si n gl e c as e is studi e d n am e ly th e

, , ,

c as e Of th e hum an sp e ci e s re gard e d as a si n gl e i ndividu al and

, ,

c o nsid e re d in th e wh o l e o f its p ast and futur e d e ve l o pm e n t .

H e nc e fo rth with o ut misu n d e rst an di ng th e d isti ncti o n be twe e n

,

bi o l o gy and s o ci o l o g y S h o uld we n o t in th e first pl ac e

,

s e e k s o m e o f th e c o n diti o n s o f s o ci al pro gre ss in th e physi c al

and m o r a l n atur e o f t h e i n dividu al m an ? This qu e sti o n
did n o t e sc ap e C o m te and h e s ays th at it w o uld b e right
,

t o b e gi n a m e th o dic al tr e atis e o n s o ci a l sci e nc e with i t .

H o w e ve r h e did no t e xpre ssl y de al with th e qu e sti o n H e

, .

1
C
o urs, I V 43
, 0 . C 2
I V 99 S l h p t II i B k I
o u rs, , 2 . e e a so c a er n oo .
 S oc i a l Dynam ics 2 61

c o nte nte d hims e lf wi th i n dic ati ng this fu n d am e nt al i n s ti n ct

which is t h e c o mpl e x r e sul t o f th e ne c e ss a ry c o o p e rat i o n b e -

twe e n all o u r n atur al te nd e nci e s which u rg e s m an c e as e l e ssly ,

t o a m e li o r at e his c o n diti o n in all r e sp e c t s an d alw ay s t o d e v e l o p ,

t h e wh o l e o f his m o r al i n t e ll e ctu al an d physic al life in e v e ry

, ,

way as much as th e sys te m o f c o n diti o n s in which h e fi n ds

hims e lf pl ac e d all o ws o f it This i ndic ati o n is c o mpl e te d
.
” 1

by th e s t udy o f th e c o ndi ti o n s which d e t e rmi n e d th e first

ef fo rts o f m an wh e n h e h ad t o o v e rc o m e his n at ur al l az i ne ss
, ,

at t h e d aw n o f civilis at i o n I t su ffic e s at l e ast to S h o w th e

.

cl o s e un i o n wh ic h e x ists in C o m te s th o ught b e tw e e n s o ci al
’
’

dy namics and psych o l o gy I t is t ru e t h at th e s o ci o l o gic al

.

l aws c an no t b e deduced fro m th e bi o l o gic a l l aws N o thi ng .

c an r e pl a c e a dir e ct o bs e rv ati o n o f s o ci a l ph e n o m e n a But .

th e v e ry fact o f pr o gr e ss which i s th e Obj e ct o f s o ci al

,

dy n amics w o uld n o t e xist wi t h o ut th e i n divid u al impuls e s

,
“

which are its o wn e l e m e nts .

”

U nd e r th e n a m e o f pr o gr e ss C o mt e u n de rstands a s o ci al
a dv an c e t o w a rds a d e fi n i te a lth o ugh n e v e r at t a i n e d t e rmi na

t i o n by a s e ri e s o f n e c e ss arily d e te rmi ne d s tage s This id e a ”

.
,

wa s n e v e r cl e a rl y d e fi n e d in ant iquity T h e m e n o f an ci e n t ?

t im e s w e r e m o r e i n cli n e d t o r e pr e s e n t s o ci al m o v e m e n t s as

o scill at o ry o r circul ar Up o n S p e ci al p o i nt s fo r i nst an c e in

.
,

m o r a ls t h e y h ad a fo r e sh ad o wi n g o f t h e id e a o f pro
,

gre ss Th e y c o nc e i ve d an e ffo rt t o w ards impr o ve m e nt But

.
3
.

t h e sci e n tific id e a o f s o ci al pr o gr e ss in its e n tir e ty r e m ai n e d

fo r e ig n t o t h e m F o r t his id e a is o n ly fo rm e d by o bs e rv ati o n
.

a n d by t h e a n al y sis o f hist o r y Th e ir hist o ric al o utl o o k was

.

ye t t o o n arr o w fo r such a sugge sti o n .

T h e id e a Of pr o gr e ss app e ars with th e phil o s o phy o f hist o ry

1 Co urs,IV 9 7 ,
2 0C -
IV 8 6 2
o urs, P l p II 3 3 3
,
1 2 -
.
3
o . o s, ,
2 -
.
2 62 T h e Philosophy o f A ug uste C om te

t aught by Christi anity ; fo r thi s r e ligi o n give s a r ati o nal , .

e xp l anati o n o f un ive rsal hi st o ry c o n sid e r e d as a wh o l e It .

pro cl aims th e supe ri o rity o fth e Christi an w o rld o v e r th e p agan

w o rld and o f th e ne w law o ve r th e o ld But scarce l y h as
, , .
1
,

t h e id e a o f pr o gr e ss thus c o m e i n t o e xist e n c e wh e n it b e c o m e s

c l o ud e d o ve r and t e nds to fad e aw ay C ath o licism cl e arl y .

s e e s pro gre ss in th e s e ri e s o fe ve nts which c aus e d it to s ucc e e d

a fo rm e r st ate b u t it d e n i e s t h e pr o gre ss which c o n ti n u e s
,

fro m th at m o m e nt I t c o nsid e rs its e lf as fi nal I t limits

.
“
.

o nw a rd pr o gr e ss t o t h e a dv e n t o f Christi an i ty It cl aims to ”
.

fix an i nvari abl e d o gm a which c o nt ai ns immu t abl e and

abs o lut e truth T his is t h e ve ry ne g ati o n o f t h e p o sitiv e id e a
.

o f pr o gr e ss I n o rd e r t o find this id e a cl e arly c o n c e ive d and

.

sci e ntific ally fo rmul at e d we must c o m e to C o nd o rc e t an d

, ,

e ve n t o t h e X I X c e n tury th at is to say t o t h e fo u n d ati o n o f

.
, ,

s o ci a l sci e nc e by C o mte H e was e sp e ci all y le d to it h e s ays

.
, ,

by t h e histo ric al study o f t h e d e ve l o pm e nt o f th e sci e nc e s .

F o r o f all th e s o ci al s e ri e s this is th e o ne wh o s e e v o luti o n i s

, ,

m o st ad v anc e d NO o the r sugge sts so cl e arl y t h e id e a o fa

.

pro gre ssi o n wh o s e t e rms succ e e d e ach o th e r by virtu e o f a

” '

n e c e ss a ry filiat io n P asc al alre ady g av e a ve ry fine fo rmul a Of

.

it in his P rcf
, face da T ra ite du Vide I S it n o t r e m ark abl e th at
’

. ,

in h is sk e tch o f th e jpo sit ive id e a o f pr o gre ss h e sh o uld h av e ,

be e n le d a t o nc e to th e e ss e nti al hyp o th e sis o f s o ci al

dy namic s t h at is to say t o c o nsid e r th e wh o l e succ e ss i o n
, ,

o f g e n e r ati o n s as a S i n gl e m an alw ays livi n g c o n ti n u ally

, ,

l e a r n i ng ? 2

N e ve rth e l e ss th e id e a o f pro gre ss so w e ll appli e d to t h e

, ,

e v o l uti o n o f t h e sci e n c e s in th e X V I I c e ntury c o uld no t .

,

th e n be e xte n d e d to all s o ci a l facts I t h ad m e t with .

an insurm o u nt abl e o bst ac l e in t h e Middl e Age s M en .

c o nsid e re d th at p e ri o d as o ne o f re tro gre ssi o n and b arb arism ,

alth o ugh as a m att e r o f fact it was ch aracte ris e d by th e

“
, ,

C V 3 66
1
o u rs, C , I V 85 7
.
2
o urs, , 1 -
.
 S ocial Dynam ics 2 63

v r l p e rfe c ti ng o f h u m an s o ci abi l ity T h e id e a o f pro

uni e sa .

gre ss th e re fo re r e m ai ne d a sp e ci al o ne Thus o rigi nate d .

t h e qu arre l o f th e A n ci e nts an d th e M o d e m s wh o s e imp o rt

1

anc e h as no t b e e n s uffici e n tly u n d e rst o o d T h e e mi ne n t F o n

“ ”
.

te ne lle and th e judici o us P e rr ault h av e v e ry cl e arly sh o w n

in r e sp e ct to i nt e ll e ctu al activity g e ne ral l y c o n sid e re d wh at ,

P asc al h ad a lre ady e st ablish e d fo r sci e nc e pr o p e rly so c all e d ? -

T h e X V I I I c e ntury was full o f th e id e a o fpr o gre ss

. But .
,

fai l i ng to fo ll o w a p o sitiv e m e th o d it g ave a fal se dire cti o n t o ,

thi s id e a I t b e li e v e d in th e i nd e fi n it e p e rfe ctibility o f m an

.

and o f s o ci e ty No w this no ti o n d o e s no t c o i ncid e with th at

.
,

o f pr o gr e ss I t is e v e n fu nd am e nt al l y o pp o s e d to it P ro
. .

gre ss sig nifi e s d e ve l o pm e nt subj e ct to fix e d c o nditi o ns and

“
,

o p e rati n g in virtu e o f n e c e ss ary l aws which d e te rmi ne its ,

adv anc e an d its limit ati o n s I t is pre cis e ly th e ig no ranc e o f

”
.

th e s e c o nditi o n s and o f th e s e l aws whi c h give s ris e tp th e

id e a o f i nd e fi n it e p e rfe ctibility I f H e lve tius and C o nd o rc e t .

h ad h ad a p o sitiv e k no wl e dg e o f hum an nature th e y w o uld ,

no t h av e e n t e rt a i n e d so m any ill usi o n s and u n r e as o n abl e

h o p e s Bi o l o gy th at is to say sci e ntifi c psych o l o gy w o uld

.
, , ,

h ave t aught th e m th at hum an n ature is i nvari abl e in its b asis ,

th at th e pr e p o nde r an c e o f th e s e lfish o ve r th e altruis ti c

i nsti nc ts is e ss e nti al to this n ature and th at if pro gre ss favo urs , ,

th e de v e l o pm e n t o f th e a ltruistic fe e li ngs it c ann o t h o w e v e r , , ,

o v e rtur n th e n atur a l e quilibrium o f o u r i n cli n ati o n s In a .

w o rd i nd e fi n ite pe rfe ctibility is a m e taphys ic al id e a I m agi na

, .

ti o n pl ays a gre at e r p art in it th an o bs e rvati o n T h e phil o .

S o ph e rs wh o c o nc e iv e d it did no t re alis e th e re l ati o n s which

bi nd th e i nt e ll e ctu al and th e m o ral life o f m an to th e stru c ture
o fh is o rg an ism .

1
Th i f d i th A th m i d t th f m q
s re e rre n e u li F
’
or s h lit t
n o e a o us uarre n re nc e ra ure

b tw th dm i
e een e af i t p t y lik B il
re rs o wh d l
anc e n d it t b p i
oe r e o e au, o e c are o e su e r o r

t m d
o o p t y d th i pp t lik P
e rn oe r , an lt dF
e r o t ll wh t k th
o ne n s e e rrau an o n e ne e, o oo e

c o ntrary vie w .

2
C o urs, IV , 2 57 9
-
.
2 64 T h e P h ilosophy of A ug u ste C om te

I n o rd e r th at th e id e a o fp ro gre ss sh o uld re ach its fi n al fo rm

it was ne c e ss ary in th e first pl ac e th at p o sitiv e psy ch o l o gy
, ,

sh o uld h av e put an e nd to th e dre ams o fi n d e fi nite p e rfe ctibility .

I t was als o n e c e ss ary th at th e Fre nch R e v o lu t i o n S h o uld c o m e

t o r e n d e r t h e c o urs e o f th e hist o r y o f hum an ity i n t e lligibl e .

I nd e e d a cc o rdi ng to C o mt e a pr o gre ssio n c anno t b e

, ,

u nd e rst o o d so l o n g as we do n o t k n o w at l e ast thre e o f its

,

t e rms T wo t e rms do no t suffic e to d e fi ne it No w up t o

. .
,

th e t im e o f t h e Fr e n ch R e v o lu t i o n s e v e r a l pro gre ssi o n s o r “

,

s o ci al s e ri e s u n d o ubt e dl y o ffe re d th e r e quire d n umbe r o f

t e rms to sci e n tifi c r e fl e cti o n ; fo r i nst anc e th e e v o lu t i o n o f
’
,

such and such a S ci e nc e o r o f such a nd such a n a rt But in .

,

s o ci o l o gy t h e k no wl e dge o f s e c o n d ary l aws is sub o rdi nat e d

,

t o th at o f prim ary l aws an d t h e a dv an c e o f such an d such a

,

s o ci al s e ri e s c an o n ly b e u n d e rst o o d i f th e d e v e l o pm e nt o f
s o ci e ty in g e ne ral is k n o w n in its fu n d a m e n t al law T O dis .

c o v e r this law th e n we must p o ss e ss at l e ast thre e t e rms 0 1

, ,

t h e g e n e r al
“
pro gre ssi o n No w b e fo r e th e Fr e n ch Re vo lu
.
”
,

ti o t w t rms nly w e r e give n : t e r Zg m a th e so c ie tie s

n o e o h e i f e -
‘

o f an t iquit y a n d t h e Christi an re i m e ( th at is to say th e o n e

, g ,

which att ai ne d its high e st d e gr e e o f p e rfe cti o n in t h e C ath o lic

o rg a n is ati o n o f t h e Middl e Ag e s
) T h e Fr e n ch R e v o luti o n
.

c am e to fur nish th e t hird t e rm I t bro ugh t th e id e a o fa n e w.

reg i m e . As K an t h ad s aid in t e rms which w e re c e r tai nly

,

u n k n o w n to C o mt e it g av e m e n th e id e a o fa s o ci al o rgan is a
,

t i o n fo u n d ed up o n pri n cipl e s diffe r e n t fr o m th o s e o f t h e

e x is t i ng s o ci e t i e s H e n c e fo rth th e id e a o fpro gre ss c o uld appl y

.

its e lf t o th e wh o l e o f t h e hist o ric al d e ve l o pm e n t o f hum an i ty .

I t is to this s alu tary dis t urb an c e s ay s C o mt e th at we o we

“
,
”
,

t h e str e n gth a n d t h e a ud acit y t o c o n c e i v e a n o t i o n up o n

which re sts t h e wh o l e o f s o ci al sci e n c e a nd c o ns e qu e ntly th e ,

wh o l e o f p o sitive phil o s o phy o f which this fi nal sci e nc e a l o ne

,

c o uld c o n stitut e th e u n ity .

” 1

P l p 1
I 6 3o . o s, , 0- .
 S oc ial Dyn am ics 2 65

This s o ci al sci e n c e re m ai ne d to b e c o n struct e d I t will .

b e th e sp e ci a l w o rk o f August e C o m te Acc o rdi n g to him .

,

t h e Fr e n ch R e v o l u t i o n o n ly br o ught a n imp e rfe ct id e a o f

s o ci al pro gre ss I t h e lp e d to bri n g ab o u t th e c o nc e p t i o n o f

.

t h e id e a o f a diffe r e n t reg i m e but with o u t ac t u ally fo u n di n g

,

it T h e fu n cti o n s o f th e ne w phil o s o phy will b e to re alis e

. .

t h e p o si t i v e id e a o f s o ci al pr o gr e ss I n a w o rd t h e re v o lu .
,

t io n ary impuls e m ad e this phil o s o phy p o ssibl e I t h as n o t .

d o ne aw ay wi t h its utility .
1

S o ci o l o gy b e i ng an abs t r act an d S p e cul ativ e sci e n c e in th e

s am e way as th e o th e r fu n d a m e ntal sci e n c e s pr o gr e ss in it i s ,

n o t u n d e rs t o o d in a utilit ari an o r m o r al s e n s e Fr o m 1 8 2 6 .

C o mt e e x e rt e d hims e lf to pre v e n t any e q ui vo c ati o n o n this

p o i n t T h e i n su ffici e n cy o f l angu ag e h e s ay s o blig e s him to
.
, ,

m ak e u se o f th e w o rds impr o v e m e n t an d d e v e l o pm e nt
“ “ ”
,
”

o fwhich t h e fo rm e r an d e v e n t h e l a tt e r a lth o ugh cl e a r e r r e c a lls , ,

id e as o f abs o lu te g o o d an d o f i nd e fi n i te am e li o r ati o n which ,

C o mt e h as no i nte nt i o n o f e xpr e ssi ng Th e s e w o rds fo r him .

h av e th e simpl e sci e n tific Obj e ct Of i ndic ati ng in s o ci al phy sics , ,

a c e r t ai n succ e ssi o n o f s t ate s o f t h e hu m a n sp e ci e s b e i ng “

,

e ffe ct e d a cc o rdi n g t o d e te rmi ne d l aws a us age e x a c tl y :

a n al o g o us t o t h e o n e which ph y si o l o gis t s m ak e o f t h e m in th e

study O f th e i ndi v idu al o rg an ism to i n dic ate a succ e ssi o n o f

'

tr an sfo rm ati o n s wi th which n o id e a o fc o n ti nu o us am e li o r at i o n

o r d e t e ri o r at i o n is c o nn e c t e d I t w o uld b e e as y to tr e at
” 2
.

o f t h e wh o l e o f s o ci a l physics wi t h o u t o n c e u si n g t h e w o rd

i mpr o v e m e nt and alw ay s re pl aci ng it by th e sci e n t ific te rm

,

d e v e l o pm e n t F o r th e q ue s ti o n is no t t o a ppre ci ate th e
.

r e spe cti ve v alu e o f succ e ssiv e st at e s re fe rr e d to a n id e al

st at e but simpl y to e s tablish th e l aws o f th e ir succ e ssi o n
, .

C
1
I V 88
o u rs, , 1 P l P
. I V App d i p 99
2
o . o s, , en c e, . 1 .
2 66 T h e P h ilosophy o f g
A a uste C om te .

T h e p re se nt is full o f th e p ast and big with th e future .

L ie b nitz s fo rmul a thus e xpr e ss e s th e g e ne r al id e a Of pro gr e ss

’
.

C o mt e o nl y m ak e s it p o sitive by dis c o ve ri ng the g e ne r al l aws

o f thi s pro gr e ss a nd by S h o wi ng th at th e y a re c o rr e l at e d to
,

t h e l aws O f so c ial st atics

‘

A S a m att e r o f fact d o e s th e d e ve l o pm e n t o f hum an ity l e ad

,

t o impr o v e m e n t o r pr o gr e ss in th e m o r a l an d pr actic al s e n s e
,

o fth e w o rd ? S o ci al sci e nc e h as no t to an s we r this qu e sti o n .

H o w e ve r C o mt e thi n ks th at this impr o v e m e nt t ak e s pl ac e

, ,

and t h a t pr o gr e ss s o u nd e rst o o d ,
c an b e sh o w n at o n c e in ,

o ur c o n diti o n and in o u r n a t ur e As pro o fs o f this in t h e 1

.
,
.

fi rst pl ac e h e giv e s th e i ncre as e in th e p o pul ati o n at l e ast in

, ,

th at p o rti o n o f hum an ity which h e ne arly al ways c o n sid e rs

al o n e , th e whit e r ac e ; t h e n h e m e n ti o n s t h e law—acc o rdi n g

t o which e x e rcis e p e rfe cts th e o rg an s This pro gre ss is fix e d ‘

by h e re di ty C o m te thus admits this pri n cipl e l aid d o w n by

.

L am arck with this r e s e rvati o n th at e v o luti o n ne ve r tran sfo rms

, ,

n atur a l disp o siti o n s

”
.

As to o ur c o n diti o n it is impro v e d acc o rdi ng to th e m e asur e

,

i n which we c an ac t up o n n at ur al ph e no m e na and thi s p o w e r ,

in turn d e p e n ds up o n th e k no wl e dg e we h av e acquire d Of t h e
l aws o f ph e no m e n a V isi o n bri n gs pre visi o n and thus facili
.
“

t at e s pro visi o n Pr o gr e ss is h e re m anife st e d by th e e xt e n si o n

.
”

o fo ur sci e n tific k no wl e dg e a nd by th e impr o v e m e n t o ft h e arts

fo u nd e d up o n this k no wl e dge I f sci e n tific k no wl e dg e which .

,

is ne c e ss ari ly abstr act h as to b e s e p ar at e d fro m practi ce in

,

o rd e r t o s e e k f o r t h e g e ne r a l l aws which re gul ate ph e no

m e na sci e nc e o nc e c o n stitut e d m ak e s p o ssibl e a syste m o f
, , ,

re as o ne d applic ati o ns which r e ach e s imm e asur ably farth e r“

th an e mpiric al art Lik e D e sc arte s C o mt e fo u nds th e m o st

.
,
'

a mbiti o us h o p e s up o n t h e p o sitiv e sci e n c e o f n atur e .

No w th e m o st m o difi abl e ph e no m e na th o s e in which

,
”
,

o ur i nt e rve n ti o n is m o st e ffi c aci o us are th e hum an ph e no m e na , ,

C IV 3 4 6 1
o urs, , 0 -
.
 S ocial Dynam ics 2 67

be th e y i ndividu al o r c o ll e ctive O n th e o the r h and o ur .

,

ac t io n up o n t h e e xt e r n al w o rld e sp e ci ally d e p e n ds up o n t h e

disp o siti o n s o ft he age nt I n e v e ry way th e n we m ust impro ve

.

th e s e disp o siti o n s T h e m o st imp o rtan t impr o v e m e n t will b e

.

th at o fo ur i nte r nal n ature I t will c o nsist in bri ngi ng ab o ut

.

t h e gr e at e r and gr e at e r pr e v al e n c e of t h e a ttribut e s which

dis ti nguish m an fro m th e an im als th at is to say i nt e ll ig e nc e , ,

and s o ci ability c o rr e l at e d faculti e s which are at o n c e as a

, ,

m e ans and as an e nd to o ne an o th e r We k no w m o re o ve r th at .
, ,

th e re are limits to this pr o gre ss T h e p e rfe ct pre p o nd e ran c e .

wi thi n o urs e l v e s o f hum anit y o ve r an im ality is a li m i t ne are r ,

to which o u r e ffo r t s must e v e r bri n g us with o ut e v e r actu ally ,

r e achi ng it .
1

Wh e th e r it b e a qu e sti o n o fo u r c o nditi o n o r o fo ur nature

t h e impr o v e m e n t in b o th c as e s c an o n ly b e v e ry S l o w
, ,
I t is .

n e v e r e a sy t o sub stitu te to natur a l o rd e r an a rtifici al o rd e r

r e sti ng up o n th e sci e n tific k no wl e dge o fth e fo rm e r O f th o s e .

diffe re nt fo rms o f pro gre ss th e first which C o mte c all s t h e

, ,

m ate ri al pro gre ss b e c aus e it is th e e asi e st is t h e m o st advan c e d

, , .

T h e gr e at attr ac ti o n which it h as fo r th e m e n o fto day is thus -

e xpl ai n e d but t h e imp o rt anc e giv e n to it is q u

,
ite e x agge rate d .

I f o u r n at ure c o uld b e bro ught to a high e r d e gre e o f p e rfe cti o n

it w o uld assur e dly b e pre fe r abl e But it is p e rh aps ne c e ss ary .

th at o u r m at e ri al c o n diti o n s o f e xiste nc e sh o uld first h a ve

b e e n am e li o r ate d
T h e impr o v e m e nt in o ur n atur e m ay b e physic al i n t e ll e ctu al , ,

o r m o r al . T h e first w o u ld c o nsist in an additi o n t o th e a ve r ag e

dur at i o n o f hum an li fe it d e p e n ds up o n th e pro gre ss o f
bi o l o gy and c o nse qu e ntly o f m e dic ine and hygi e ne I nt e l
, , , .

l e ctu al (sci e ntific and ae sth e tic ) impro ve m e nt w o uld b e still ,

m o re d e sir abl e I t m e an s a gre ate r s o ari n g upwards th an

.

is r e pr e s e nt e d by all physic al impr o v e m e nts o r a fortiori by a ny

m ate ri al impro v e m e nts fo r th e inte lle c t is a u n ive rs al t o o l
“

Di l p it p itif p 5 9 6
1

1 ’
sc o u rs sur cs r os , .
-
0 .
 2 68 T h e P hilosophy f
o A u u ste C o m te
g

wh o s e us e s h av e a u n iv e rs al applic ati o n B ut hum an h appi ne ss

d e p e n ds far m o re up o n m o ral pr o gr e ss o ve r which we h av e ,

als o m o r e c o mm an d a l t h o ugh it is m o r e di f
,
ficul t No i nte l .
”

l e ctu al impr o v e m e nt c o uld b e e qu al in v alu e to an i n cre a s e in

g o o d ne ss o r in c o ur ag e I f we we r e wis e o u r wh o l e e n d e av o ur
.

t h e r e fo r e w o uld b e in t his dir e c t i o n A t any r at e we o ugh t .

alw ay s t o r e m e mb e r t h at o t h e r fo rms o f pr o gr e ss a re d e sir abl e

S imply as m e an s and m o r al pro gr e ss al o ne as an e n d

,
?

T h e th e o ry pr o gre ss is th e pri n cipl e o fs o ci al d y na mics

of ,

i ts e lf t h e e ss e n t i al p ar t o f s o ci o l o gy whil e s o ci o l o g y li e s at ,

t h e h e ar t o f p o si t i v e phil o s o ph y I t was t h e re fo r e t o b e .

e xp e c te d t h at t h e a dv e rs a ri e s o f t his phil o s o phy w o uld

e sp e ci ally s e e k t o rui n t h e th e o r y o f pr o gr e ss which supp o rts ,

e v e r y thi n g e ls e I n d e e d th e Obj e c ti o n s h av e b e e n n um e r o us and

.

pre ssi n g O f t h e s e o bj e c t i o n s C o m te h ad fo re s e e n th e t wo
.

m o s t imp o rtan t and h e h ad e nd e av o ur e d to a n s we r th e m b e

,

fo re h an d Acc o rdi ng to him th e t h e o ry o f pr o gr e ss impli e s

.
,

n e i th e r fatalism n o r Op t imism n o r t h e qui e tism which h as b e e n ,

r e pr e s e n te d as a c o n s e qu e n c e o f it ?

O n th e firs t p o i n t C o m te dr aws o u r at te n t i o n t o t h e fac t

,

t h at t h e n e c e ss ary c o n s e qu en c e o fhis pri n cipl e o f l aws is n o t

t h e abs o lu t e d e t e rmi n ism o f ph e no m e n a wh e t h e r i t b e a ,

qu e sti o n o f s o ci al o r o th e r ph e no m e na P o si ti ve phil o s o phy .

a d m i t s n o thi n g a bs o l u te D e te rmi n ism lik e fre e will is a

.
,
-
,

m e taphy sic a l t he sis C o m te is n o t c o mp e ll e d to t a k e S id e s

,

e i t h e r wi t h o n e o r t h e o th e r h e l e av e s th e m t o mu tu all y r e fu te
e ach o t h e r .T h e p o si t i v e c o n c e pt i o n o f t h e m o r al a n d i n t e l
l e c tu al facul ti e s o f m an as G all cl e arl y e s t ablish e d d o e s n o t
, ,

i mply th at hum an ac t i o n s might n o t b e o th e rwis e t h an t h e y

1
P l P o I 68
. o s, P 1 P, 10 I 54 56 -
.
2
0 . O S, ,
-
.
 S oc ia l Dynam ics 2 69

are . Simil arly if in ge ne ral n atural ph e no m e na a re subj e c t

,

to l a ws this d o e s n o t pr e v e n t us fr o m c o n c e ivi n g th e s e ph e n o
,

m e na as m o difi abl e by m an s i nte rve nti o n No w o f all ’

.
,

n atur a l ph e n o m e n a s o ci al ph e n o m e n a a re pr e cis e ly th e m o st
,

m o difi abl e ; so much S O th at fo r a l o ng tim e it was p o ssibl e

t o ig no r e th a t th e y w e r e g o v e r n e d by l aws .

Th e re is th e n no c o ntrad icti o n in affirmi n g th e r e ality o f

th e s e l aws and in c o n sid e ri ng at th e s am e tim e t h e inte rve n
,

ti o n o f hum an activi ty in s o ci al ph e no m e n a as e ffic aci o us As .

e arly as 1 8 2 4 C o mt e wr o t e t o his fri e n d V a l at : I t w o uld b e

misu nd e rst andi ng my t h o ught to c o n clud e fro m it th at I fo rbid
all impr o v e m e n t si n c e o n t h e c o n tr a r y I fo rm ally e st ablish
, , ,

t h at e v e ry g o v e r n m e n t must ch an g e in c o n s e qu e n c e o f t h e
pr o gre ss Of civilis ati o n and th at it is in n o way a m att e r o f ,

i n diffe re n c e th at th e s e ch ang e s sh o uld t ak e pl ac e by th e m e re

fo rc e o f circumst an c e s o r by c alcul at e d pl ane s b as e d up o n,

Ob se rvati o n I do no t d e ny th e p o w e r o f p o litic al m e asure s

.
,

I limit it .
”1

I t b e l o ngs to s o ci al sci e nc e to d e t e rmi ne th e limits o f th e

us e ful ac t i o n o f m an up o n s o ci al ph e no m e na Th e se limits .

are n arr o w e no ugh M an c an o n ly m o di fy fr o m th e st ati c

.
,

p o i n t o f vi e w th e i nt e nsity and fr o m th e dy na mic p o i n t o f

, ,

vi e w th e sp e e d o f s o ci al ph e no m e na I n d e e d h e re as e ls e
,
.
,

wh e re m o dific ati o n s c an o n l y b e pro duc e d in c o n fo rmity with

,

l aws T o supp o s e th e c o ntrary w o uld b e to d e ny th e ve ry

.

e xist e n c e o f th e s e l a ws No w th e fu n d a m e nt al law o f st ati c s

.
,

is th e i ntim ate s o lid arity an d th e mutu al d e p e n d e n c e o f all

s o ci al e l e m e nts at all th e m o m e nt s o fth e ir c o mm o n e vo l uti o n
, .

Th e re is th e re fo re no dis turbi ng i nflu e nc e wh ate ve r its o rigi n

, , ,

m ay b e which c an c aus e u nsymp ath e tic o pp o si ng e l e m e n ts

“
,

t o c o e xist in a giv e n s o ci e ty R ath e r wo uld it d e stro y this ”2

-
.

s o ci e ty All th at is p o ssibl e is to m o di fy th e re sp e ctive

.

t e n d e nci e s which i nd e e d c o e xist in this s o ci e ty but with o ut -

,

1 L tt aV l t p 4 (8 pt mb
e res a a , . C 1 IV 3 4
0 se e re ,
2
o urs, , 1 2 0
-
.
2 70 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

c ausi ng th e app e aran c e o r dis app e aranc e o f any o f th e m I n . .

t h e sam e way fr o m t h e dy n amic p o i n t o f v i e w t h e o rd e r o f

, ,

t h e succ e ssiv e ph as e s o f pr o gr e s s is d e t e rmi ne d by l aws N0 .

e xt e r nal i nfl u e n c e (n o r in p a rti c ul ar t ha t o f m a n) c o uld o v e r ,

turn o r di sturb this o rd e r o r skip o ne o fth e st ag e s T h e

,
”
.

e v o l ut io n c o uld o nly b e m ad e m o re r apid th at is to say , ,

e asi e r. T h e st at e sm an i n fatu at ed with his p o w e r will p e rh aps

, ,

find this a v e ry humbl e p art t o pl ay But e ve n withi n th e se .

,

limits hum an i nte rve nti o n c o uld s t ill b e o f c apit al imp o r t anc e
,

pr o vid e d th at it w e re dire cte d by sci e n c e .

H i st o ry c o nfirms t h e s e vi e ws I n it we ne v e r se e s o ci al
.

ph e no m e na m o difi e d by m an o th e rwis e th an in th e ir i nte nsity ,

o r in th e ir sp e e d . Wh e re we b e st k no w th e ir e vo l uti o n ,

th at is to say in th e s o ci al s e ri e s which i nclud e s th e hist o ry

, ,

o f t h e sc i e n c e s o f th e a rts
,
o f m o r a ls a nd i n stituti o n s
, th e ,

v e rifi c ati o n o f this law is c o n st ant F o r i nst anc e am o n g th e .

,

sci e ntific m e n at Al e x andri a astr o no m y s to pp e d at a c e rt ai n

po i nt b e c aus e th e furth e r d e ve l o pm e nt o f t his sci e n c e was n o t
,

c o mp atibl e with th e g e ne ral c o nditi o n s o f s o ci e ty at th at tim e .

A n d if M o nt e squi e u s at te mpt t o subj e ct s o ci al facts t o l aws

’

fail e d it is b e c aus e b e fo re s o c i o l o g y p o sitiv e bi o l o gy h ad

, , ,

first to b e fo u n d e d A n al o g o us e x ampl e s ab o u nd and a

.
,

c o ntrary c as e h as ne ve r pr e s e nte d its e l f .

Thre e s e c o n d ary fact o rs rac e clim ate and m an s p o litic al

, , ,
’

a cti o n e sp e ci a lly m o dify pro gr e ss in t h e m e asur e which h as j ust

,

b e e n i ndic ate d I n th e pre s e nt st at e o f sci e n c e it is imp o ssibl e

.

t o arr ang e t h e m in t h e o rd e r o ft h e ir imp o rt an c e M o nte squi e u .

,

m ad e to o m uch o f cl im ate s : o th e rs h av e m ad e to o mu c h o f
r ac e s ! Th o s e e l e m e nts o f s o ci al e v o l u ti o n h ave n o t ye t b e e n
studi e d by th e p o sitive m e th o d U n til t h e fo u n d ati o n o f .

s o ci al dy namics th e ir p art was o fne c e ssity wr o ngly c o n c e ive d

, ,
.

I t was no t k no w n t h at th e e ss e nti al law th e law o f t h e thre e ,

st ate s is i nd e p e nd e nt o f th e se s e c o n d ary facto rs whil st o n

, ,

P l p 1 oII 4 5 . os .
,
0 .
 P sych olog y 2 7 1

th e c o ntr ary th e sec o nd ary fac t o rs c an o nly ac t in c o nfo rmity

w ith this law with o ut e v e r suspe ndi ng it I n o rd e r th at th e
,
.

m o difi c ati o n s which th e y pr o duce sh o uld b e c o m e i nte lligibl e ,

it was ne c e ss a ry th at th e n o rm al typ e o f e v o luti o n sh o ul d first

b e k no w n . T o study t h e i n fl u e n c e o f clim at e s and o f rac e s
b e fo r e first p o ss e ssi n g th e g e ne ral l aws o f s o ci al dy namics
'

was alm o st t o pr e t e n d to e st ablish p ath o l o gy with o ut h avi ng

, ,

first c o nstitut e d physi o l o gy .

As to m an s p o litic al acti o n it to o h as b e e n w ro ngly

’
,

u nd e rsto o d I n th e ab se nc e o f a p o sitiv e c o nc e pti o n o f

.

s o ci al ph e no m e na s o m e d e n i e d th e e ffic ac y o f this acti o n

, ,

o th e rs e x agg e r at e d i t Wh e n it was us e d in th e dire cti o n o f

.

pro gre ss it al m o st ne c e ss a rily app e are d to b e th e pri nc ip al

,

c aus e o f th e r e sults which s o ci al e v o luti o n w o uld h ave

bro ught ab o ut in any c ase T h e illusi o n was all th e m o re .

i ne vit abl e fro m th e fact th at s o ci a l fo rc e s are alw ays p e rs o n i

fie d in i n dividu al s O n th e o th e r h an d h o w o ft e n h av e t h e m o st
.
,

vig o ro us p o litic al e ffo rts o n ly b e e n su c c e ssful fo r a day ,

b e c ause th e g e ne r a l e v o luti o n o f s o ci e ty was pro c e e di ng in

t h e c o n tr ary dir e cti o n

S o l o n g as th e th e o l o gic al an d m e taphysi c al p e r io d l asts ,

m an d o e s n o t h e sit at e to ascribe to himse lf an alm o st

b o u ndl e ss acti o n up o n natural ph e no m e na H avi ng r e ach e d .

t h e p o siti v e p e ri o d h e k no ws th at ph e no m e na are o nly

, ,

m o difi abl e withi n c e rt ai n limits d e t e rmi ne d by the ir l aws and

, ,

th at h e c an o n ly a spire to re l ativ e re sults O nc e p o sitive .

s o ci o l o g y is e st ablish e d it wh o lly t r an sfo rms th e famili ar id e a

o f p o litic a l a rt But b e c aus e it e nte rt ai n s l e ss gre at and l e ss
.

gr atifyi ng ambi ti o n s this art will o n ly b e all th e m o r e e ffe ctive

,
.

C o mp are wh at m e dici ne and surge ry are abl e to do to day -

fo r t h e g o o d o f th e sick with wh a t t h e y c o uld do b e fo re

ch e mistry a nd bi o l o gy be c a m e p o sitiv e sci e nc e s !
But it is s aid admitti n g t h at m an c an m o dify s o ci al
, ,

ph e no m e na wh at re as o n h as h e to i nt e rfe re with th e m S i nc e
, ,
2 7 2 T h e P h ilosophy o f A u u ste C o m te
g

pro gr e ss t ak e s pl ac e o f its e lf ? Why no t all o w th e n atur al

e v o luti o n which m o st c e rt a i nly r e alis e s it to w o rk its e lf o u t ?
This Obj e cti o n c o n fus e s pro gre ss u n d e rst o o d as a suc
c e ssi o n o f st ate s which u n fo ld a cc o rdi ng to a law with ,

pro gre ss u nd e rst o o d in th e s e ns e o f i nd e fi n ite impro ve m e nt .

O n this p o i nt a g a i n t h e c o mp aris o n o f s o ci e ty with livi n g

o rg an isms is i n str uctiv e Do n o t th e s e d e ve l o p in c o n fo rmity
.

with i nv ari abl e l aws ? Y e t C o mt e r e g ards t h e m as e x

,

tre m e ly imp e rfe ct and in wh at c o n c e r n s t h e hum an b o dy

, ,

th e i n t e rve n ti o n o f t h e d o ct o r o r t he surg e o n is Oft e n us e ful

an d e v e n i n disp e n s abl e Wh e n we r e pro ach th e s o ci o l o gic al
.

t h e o ry o f pr o gr e ss with h avi ng o ptimism as its c o n s e qu e n c e ,

we t ak e th e sc ie n tific no tio n of sp o n ta neo us o rde r fo r th e

sys tem a tic j us tif ica ti o n of a ny existi ng o rder Th e re is h o w e ve r .

1
, ,

a v e ry l o n g dist an c e fr o m o n e to t h e o th e r Sp o nt ane o us .

o rd e r m ay o ft e n b e a v e ry r o ugh fo rm o f o rd e r .

H e re as e ve r y wh e re e ls e p o sitive phil o s o phy s ubs titut e s

, ,

t h e sci e ntific pri n cipl e Of t h e c o n diti o n s o f e xist e n c e t o t h e

m e t aphysic a l pri n cipl e o f fi nal c aus e s I t a dmits th at .

spo nt ane o usl y acc o rdi ng to n atural l aws a c e rt ai n n e c e ss ary

, ,

o rd e r is e st a blish e d ; but it a ck n o wl e dge s th at this o rd e r

o ff e rs s e ri o us a nd n u m e r o us dis advant age s m o difi a bl e in , ,

c e rt ai n d e gr e e s by m an s i n te rve nti o n T h e m o re c o mpl e x

,
’
.

t h e s e ph e n o m e n a t h e m o r e are t h e imp e rfe cti o n s multipl ie d

,

an d i n t e n sifi e d T h e bi o l o gic al ph e no m e n a are i n fe ri o r in

“ ”
.

this re sp e ct to th o s e o f i no rgan ic n ature By r e as o n o f th e i r .

c o mplic ati o n w hich is m axim a s o ci al ph e no m e na m ust b e

, ,

t h e m o st dis o rd e rly o f all I n a w o rd if th e id e a o f a

“ ”
.

n atur al law impli e s th at o f a c e rt ai n o rd e r th e n o ti o n o f this ,

o rd e r must b e c o mpl e t e d by t h e simult ane o us c o nsid e rati o n

o f its i n e v it abl e imp e rfe cti o n .

T h e th e o ry o f pro gr e ss is th e n i nc o mp atibl e ne ith e r with t h e

asc e rt a i n m e n t o f s o ci a l e vil n o r with t h e e ff
,
o rt t o r e m e d y it .

C IV 73
1 o urs, , 2 .
 Psych ology 2 73

T he m o st c o mpl e x o f all o rgan isms th e s o ci al o rg anism is , ,

als o t h e o n e m o st s ubj e ct to dis e as e s an d to cris e s Thus .

,

C o mt e fo re s ee s in a ne ar future gre at i nt e rnal struggl e s in o ur

so ci e ty in c ,
o n s qu e c e
e n o f o ur m t l a d m o ral anar c hy
e n a n ?

T o day o n ly th at is syst e m atis e d whi c h is d e sti ne d to dis

-
,

appe a r and wh at is n o t ye t sy st e m atis e d

, th at is t o say all ,

th at live s will no t b e o rg anis e d with o ut vi o l e n t c o nfl ict s

, .

I t is e no ugh h e re to thi n k o fth e re l ati o n s b e twe e n m ast e rs and

w o rkm e n .

R e vo l u t i o ns o cc ur which n o thi n g c an pre ve nt I t is an

’

i ne vit abl e e vil and C o mt e give s a striki ng psy c h o l o gic al

,

re aso n fo r it O ur mi n d is to o w e ak and o ur life to o sh o rt fo r

.

u s e v e r to fo rm a p o sitiv e id e a o fa so ci a l syst e m o th e r th an th e

o ne in which we w e r e b o r n and in which we liv e I t is fr o m .

this o ne th at willi ngly o r u nwi l li ngly we draw th e e l e m e nts o f

, ,

o u r p o litic al an d s o ci al id e as Eve n m e n o f a ut o pi an tur n o f

.

mi nd do no t e s c ap e this ne c e ssity Th e ir dre ams alw ay s .

r e fl e ct at b o tt o m e ithe r th e p ast o r a c o n te mp o ra ry s o ci al
, , ,

st ate . I n o rd e r th at a n e w p o liti c al s y st e m S h o u l d app e a r ,

an d e sp e ci ally f o r it to find ac c e s s to m e n s mi n ds t h e
’

d estructi o n o f th e pro c e e ding syst e m must b e al re ady v e ry

far adv an c e d U n til th e n e v e n th e m o st o p e n mi n ds c o uld no t
“
.

p e rc e i v e th e ch ar act e risti c n atu re o f th e ne w syste m hidd e n

fr o m all e y e s by th e spe c tacl e o f th e o ld o rg an i sati o n 2 .
”

H e nc e th e l e ngthy pro c e ss e s o f d e c o mp o siti o n o f w o rn o ut

,
-

reg i m es th e no l e ss l e n gthy birth o f ne w i n stit u ti o ns and th e

, ,

c rue l p e ri o ds o f tran siti o n full o f tro ubl e s o f wars and o f , , ,

re vo l u t i o n s .

With this s am e c au se are c o nne c te d wh at we m ay c al l th e

phe no m e na o fsurvival I nstituti o n s p o w e rs as al so d o ctri ne s
.
, , ,

h ave a t e nd e ncy to subsist be yo nd th e fu n cti o n which th e

g e ne r al adv an ce o f th e hum an mi n d h ad as sig ne d to the m 2 .

C o nfl icts th e n tak e pl ac e which it is be y o nd anyb o dy s p o w e r ’

1 C VI 8 5
o u rs, C IV 3
, V 4
2 .
2
C I V 66
o urs, , 0- 1 , 2 1 -2 .
3
o urs, , 2 .

18
 e C om te
2 74 T h e P h ilosophy o f g
A u u st

to pre ve n t : h appy is h e wh o c an m ak e th e m sh o rt e r and l e ss

.

a cut e T h e s o luti o n o n ly c o m e s with tim e wh e n th e

v anquish e d id e as fall i nt o disus e T h e c o mb at ne ve r c e as e s
“
.
”

e x c e pt fr o m th e l ack o f c o mb at an ts .

All this in no way e xclud e s th e p o ssibility fo r m an to e xe r

cis e a b e n e fic e nt o r a d e trim e nt al acti o n T o u nd e r .

st and is no t alw ay s to j ustify I t is tru e th at a c o mpre he nsive .

vi e w o fhist o ry disp o s e s us to b e i n dulg e nt b e c a us e it bri ngs o ut ,

t h e cl o s e s o lid a rit y o f all t h e s o ci al e l e m e n ts o f th e s a m e

p e ri o d T h e r e sp o n sibiliti e s b e i ng S h are d and so to S p e ak
.
,

d iffus e d app e ar to b e l e ss s eri o us fo r e ach i n dividu al

,
N e ve r .

th e le ss this phil o s o phy all o ws pr ais e an d bl am e fo r th e p a st ,

a n d a ctiv e i n t e rv e n ti o n in s o ci a l ph e n o m e n a f o r th e pr e s e n t .

But this i n t e r ve n ti o n will o n l y pr o duc e th e d e sire d r e sults

if it r e sts up o n s o ci al sci e n c e T h e p o si tiv e p o lity d o e s n o t
.

p r o p o s e t o dir e ct th e hum an r ac e t o w ards an arbitr arily

s e l e ct e d e nd I t k no ws th at hum an ity is m o ve d by its o wn
.

i mpuls e acc o rdi n g t o a law n o l e ss n e c e ss ary a lth o ugh m o r e

, ,

m o difi abl e th an t h at of grav i tat i o n I t is o n ly a qu e sti o n .

”1

fo r p o litics t o facilit at e t his adv anc e b y thr o wi n g light up o n it .

I t is a v e r y di ffi cult thi n g to u n d e rgo th e ac t i o n o f a law

w ith o ut u n d e rs t an di n g it o r t o submi t to i t wi t h a full k n o w
,

l e dg e o f th e c as e I t r e m ai ns in m an s p o w e r to s o fte n and to
.
’

s h o rt e n cris e s as s o o n as h e gr asps t h e ir r e as o ns and

,

fo r e s e e s th e issu e H e will n o t pr e te n d to go ve rn th e
.

p h e n o m e n a but o n l y t o m o dify t h e ir sp o n t ane o us d e v e l o pm e n t

, .

This d e m ands t h at h e S h o uld k no w th e ir l aws .

”2

L e t us als o k no w h o w t o o wn th at in r e sp e ct to m any o f
‘

t h e s e ph e n o m e n a an d n o t t h e l e ast imp o rt an t o f th e m we are

, ,

a bs o lu te l y p o w e rl e ss Th e ir c o n di ti o n s e sc ap e o u r grasp
. .

F o r i n st an c e t h e dur ati o n o f hum an life is fa r fr o m b e i n g as

, .

fav o ur abl e to s o ci a l e v o lu t i o n as might b e c o n c e ive d O n th e 3

c o n tr ar y a ft e r t h e e x t r e m e i m p e rfe c t i o n o f o u r o rg a n i sm t h e
, ,

1
P l p
o . I V App d i p 9 5
os .
, C en IV 3 6
ce, . .C 2
IV 5
o u rs, , 2 .
8
o urs, , 1 0- 1 2 .
 Psych ology 75

bre vity o f life is o ne o f th e c aus e s o f th e sl o w ne s s o f s o c ial

de v e l o pm e n t H o w m any p o w e rful mi nds h ave di e d b e fo r e
.

th e ir ful l m aturity h ad yi e ld e d all its fruit ! Wh at w o ul d no t

h av e b e e n e xp e ct e d o f th e ir g e nius if the y h ad b e e n in fu l l
p o s se ssi o n o f th e ir fac ulti e s d uring three o r fo ur c e nturi e s !
T h e po sitive th e o ry o f pro gre ss th e re fo r e e n t ails ne ith e r
o ptimism n o r qui e tism .T h e i nt e rve nti o n o f m an b e ing
e xc l ud e d t h e s o ci al st at e
,
which e vo l ve s ac c o rdi ng to l a ws
, , ,

at e ach p e ri o d is j ust as g o o d and as b ad as it c an b e

“
ac ,

c o rd ing t o t h e wh o l e o f th e S it uati o n M o re th an o ne
” 1
.

p e ssimist w o uld b e s atisfi e d with this fo rmul a I t is le g iti .

m ate ly draw n fro m th e p rin cip l e o fth e c o nditi o n s o fe x iste nc e .

B ut truly fro m th e p o i nt o f v ie w o f this pri nc ipl e th at is to

, , ,

s ay fr o m th e p o i n t o fvi e w o fp o sit iv e and r e l ativ e phil o s o phy

,
,

th e re c an b e n o q ue sti o n e ith e r o fo ptimism o r o f p e ssimi sm .

M e taphysics al o ne c an o ffe r an abs o lu te j udgm e n t up o n th e

wh o l e o f th e s o ci al re ality T h e p o si t iv e d o c tri ne h e r e as
.
,

e ls e wh e r e
,
o n ly s e e ks th e st atic al and dy n amic al l aw s o f

ph e no m e na I t is tru e th at it fi nds th at th e s o ci al e v o luti o n

.
,

is as a m atte r o f fact acc o mp ani e d b y impro ve m e n t But

, , .

this impro ve m e n t is so sl o w so l ab o ri o us i n t e rrupt e d by so

, ,

m any cris e s disturb e d by so m any c o nflicts th at i f hum an ity

, ,

a spir e s t o a b e tt e r c o n diti o n it is m ai n ly fr o m h e r o wn e f
, fo rts
th at sh e must e xpe ct a slightly m o r e rapid pr o gre ss .

1
C o urs, IV , 3 1 0-
11 .
 C HAPTER V
TH E PHILO S O PH Y OF HI S T O R Y

IF s o ci al dy namics is a sci e n c e and if th e law o f t h e thre e ,

st ate s disc o ve re d by C o mt e is its fu nd am e nt al law this law

, , ,

( a n d t h o s e which pr o c e e d fr o m it ) must e xpl a i n th e succ e ssi v e,

ph as e s o f hum an i ty fr o m th e first d aw n o f ci vilis ati o n t o th e

, ,

pre s e nt c o nditi o n o f th e m o st ad van c e d nati o ns Th e y .

must i ntr o duc e u n ity and c o n ti nuity i nt o this imm e n s e

sp e c tacl e wh e re in g e ne r al we se e so much c o n fusi o n and
,

i nc o h e r e n c e . Thus th e c o u nte rp art Of s o ci al sci e n c e i s a

”1

phil o s o phy o f hist o ry I n it s o ci al sci e n c e fi n ds its c o n cre t e

.
,

e xpr e ssi o n an d its v e rific ati o n I n th e abs e nc e o f th e pr e visi o n

.

o f s o ci al facts f o r t h e futur e a pr e v isi o n which is r e n d e r e d

,

alm o st imp o ssibl e by th e e xtr e m e c o mplic ati o n o f th e s e facts ,

s o ci al sci e n c e at l e ast all o ws o fth e rati o nal c o o rdi n ati o n o f

“ -
”

th e wh o l e o fth e p as t .

I n o r d e r t o e st ablish this phil o s o phy o fhist o ry C o mt e g av e ,

hims e lf t wo p o stul ate s T h e first is c o mm o n t o him and to

.

all th o s e wh o e nd e av o ur e d t o se t fo rth t h e e v o luti o n o f hum an

ity fro m its b e g i nn i ngs e sp e ci ally b e fo re th e r e c e nt pro gr e s s

,

m ad e b y anthro p o l o gy C o mt e c o n structs pri miti ve m an

.
”

and t h e s o ci e ty in which h e liv e d T h e s e c o n d p o stul at e .

c o n sis t s in c o n sid e ri ng i nste ad o f th e hist o ry o fth e wh o l e o f

,

h um anit y th e m o st c o mpl e te and t h e m o st c h aract e ristic

,
“

e v o luti o n th at is to say th at o f th e white r ac e ; and in this

”
, ,

r ac e o nly t h e p o pul ati o n s o f w e st e r n E uro p e C o mt e wil l

,
?

C 1
V I 45 7
o urs, ,
C V 45.
2
o u rs, ,
-
.
 P sych ology 2 77

a l m o st c o n fi ne hi ms e lf p e ri o ds d e alt with by B o ssu e t

t o th e

i n th e Discours su r 1 h isto ire un i verselle whi c h m o r e o v e r h e

’

, , ,

g r e atly e st e e m.s H is phil o s o phy o f hist o ry o n ly e mbr ac e s

Egypti an civilis ati o n v e ry li ttl e k no w n in his t im e th e n

, ,

Gre e c e and R o m e and fi nally afte r th e fal l o f th e R o m an

,

Empir e th e d e v e l o pm e nt o f so m e L ati n and G e rm an ic

,

p e o pl e s in Eu ro p e .

We c an u nd e rst an d th at B o ssu e t sh o uld h ave so limite d

u n iv e rs al hist o ry as to i nclud e in it o nly a sm al l po r
t i o n o f hum an ity g ath e r e d o n th e S h o r e s o f th e M e di
t e rr ane an H e was o blig e d to do so by th e l e ad ing id e a in h is
.

w o rk which m ak e s th e app e ar anc e o f Christi an ity th e c ulm in

a ti ng p o i n t in th e hum an dr a m a All th at pr e c e d e s it mu st
.

t e nd to bri ng it ab o ut all th at c o m e s afte r it mu st aris e fro m

,

it But is August e C o mte lik e B o ssue t j ustifi e d in l e avi ng

.
,
'

o ut o f u n iv e rs al hist o ry t h e gre at ci vilis ati o n s o f th e f ar e ast ,

a lm o st t h e wh o l e o f Afric a an d t h e wh o l e o f th e n e w w o rld ?
,

S i n c e acc o rdi n g t o him th e r e is n o ch o s e n p e o pl e n o r

, , ,

pro vid e nti al dire c ti o n must h e no t c o n sid e r th e t o tal

,
”

e v o luti o n o f h u m anity ? H e h as no ri g ht to is o l at e a p art o f

it in an arbitrary m anne r and to ne gl e c t th e re st H e h as
, .

it all th e l e ss in th at h e c o n sid e rs th e sp e ci e s in its e ntire ty

a s a n i ndividu al a nd th at this hyp o th e sis o f C o nd o r c e t h as
,

b e c o m e a pri ncipl e o f S o ci al sci e n c e With him .

But C o mte b e li e ve s his p o stul at e to b e as w e l l justifi e d by

his d e fi niti o n o f s o c i o l o gy as B o ssu e t s pl an c o uld h ave b e e n
,
’

by his th e o l o gic al d o ctri ne R e s e mbli ng o n this p o i nt th e

.

o th e r p o sitiv e sci e n c e s s o c i o l o gy is m ad e o f l aws n o t o f fac t s

,

T h e pure an d simpl e k no wl e dg e o f fac ts is o nly an e n d fr o m

t h e p o i n t o f vi e w o f sch o l arship S ci e nc e o nly s e e ks fo r this
.

k no wl e dge in th e m e asure in which it is i n disp e n s abl e fo r th e

d e te rmi nati o n o f l aw s C o nse q ue ntly if th e e v o luti o n o f
.
,

hum an s o ci e ty pro c e e d e d simult ane o usly at diffe re nt p o ints

 2 7 8 T h e Ph ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

on th e g l o b e as this e vo l uti o n tak e s p l ac e as we supp o s e

, , , ,

e v e rywh e r e acc o rdi n g t o i nv ar i abl e l aws an d as cl im at e an d ,

?

r ac e c an o n ly m o dify it withi n v e ry narro w limits th e so c io lo g ,

ist is no t b o u n d to study all th e s o ci e ti e s o f th e p ast an d o ft h e

pre s e nt H e will o n ly do S o in o rd e r to m ak e u se o f th e
.

c o mp ar ativ e m e tho d in th e m e asure which is j udg e d us e fu l

,

an d withi n th e limit ati o n s p e rmitt e d by this m e th o d I n th e .

s e c o n d pl ac e am o ng th o s e hist oric al e vo l uti o n s up to th e

, ,

pre s e n t tim e i nd e p e nd e nt o f o ne ano th e r t o which will h e ,

give th e p re fe r e nc e to s e e k in i t th e v e rific ati o n o f abst rac t

so ci al d y namics ? Evid e n tly to th e m o st c o mpl e te and th e
m o st ch aracte ristic : fo r th e re h e will h ave l e ast di fficulty in
di se ng agi ng th e l aws fro m th e e xtrao rdi nary c o mpl e xity o f
fac ts H ave we no t s e e n th at th e id e a O f pr o gre ss with o u t
.
,

which s o ci o l o gy c anno t b e c o nstitut e d h as o nly b e e n d e fi n it e l y

,

fo rmul at e d si n c e th e Fr e n ch R e v o lu t i o n ? C o mt e th e n
th o ught hims e lf auth o ris e d to limit h is hist o ric al study to
“

t h e s o l e e x a mi n ati o n o f a h o m o g e ne o us an d c o n ti n u o us s e ri e s ,

which was ne v e rthe l e ss justly qu ali fi e d a s u n iv e rs al At .

”

e v e ry m o m e n t in hist o ry th e p e o pl e wh o s e e vo luti o n is m o st
,

adv an c e d r e pre s e n t th e wh o l e o f hum an i ty si n c e th e r e st o f .

hum ani ty is d e s ti ne d s o o ne r o r l at e r to p as s th ro ugh th e s am e

,

ph as e H e nc e th e id e a which is fo un d e qu ally in H e ge l and

.
,

in R e n an o f a missi o n o f r ac e s and o f p e o pl e s A
.

“ ”
, .

te mp o r ary missi o n which whil e it l asts c o n stitut e s th e ir

, ,

might and th e ir right b ut which to o o fte n th e y h av e th e

, , ,

misfo rtu ne to survive .

T he p o sitive phil o s o phy o f hist o ry t ak e s as its guidi ng

p r i ncipl e th e id e a o f u n ity I n vi rt u e o f a p o stul at e which is
.

an a ud aci o us an ticip ati o n c o n c e r n i n g an un c e rt ai n fu t ur e t h e ,

hum an sp e c i e s in it is re gard e d as an imm e ns e s o c i al unity

, , .
 Psychology 2 79

S imi l arly v o l uti o n o f h um an ity is r e gard e d as e nd

,
in it , th e e

ing in th e m o r al and r e l igi o us un ity o f all m e n H um an ity .

go e s fro m sp o nt ane o us re lig io n wh e r e it b e gi ns to d e m o n ,

strate d r e ligi o n wh e r e it b e c o m e s fi nally e s tablish e d B e twe e n .

th e two li e s th e d o m ai n o f hist o ry T h e succ e ss iv e st at e s

.

th ro ugh wh ich h um an ity p ass e s in e v o lvi ng are no t h o m o

g e ne o u s T h e th e o l o gic al and th e p o sitiv e spirit are mi ngl e d
.

in th e m at v ari o u s d e gre e s Th e y struggl e o ne ag ai nst th e

.

o th e r . Th e s e st at e s th e n c o n t ai n withi n th e ms e l ve s th e
pri ncipl e o f th e ir o wn d e struct io n E ach o ne n e c e ss arily .

pre p are s th e app e aran c e o f th e fo l l o wi ng o ne u ntil th e fi n al ,

st at e in which th e p o sitive spirit al o ne will pr e d o mi nat e .

T h e spri n g o f th e se c o nc r e t e vi e ws o f hi st o ry is t h e
l o gic al ne e d o f u ni ty I t is this which d e te rmi ne d th e i niti a l
.

m o v e m e nt F o r th e primitive r e ligi o n s u n ity was ne ve r

.
,

pe rfe ct Ev e n at th e p e ri o d wh e n fe tichi sm ru l e s with o ut

.

qu e sti o n s o m e rudim e n ts Of th e p o sitive spirit e xist Hum an

,
.

n at ur e b e i n g i nv ari abl e th e g e rm o f its fi n al s t at e was alr e ady

, ,

c o nt ai ne d in a primitive st at e Fr o m th at t im e it was c e rt ai n
.

th at if hum an ity e m e rg e d fro m its primitive st ate it w o uld

, ,

e v o lve u n til it fo u n d u n i ty in th e fi nal r e ligi o n .

I f this b e so h o w is it th at C o mt e d id no t re g ard th e
,

s ucc e ssi o n o f re ligi o u s fo rm s as th e supre m e dy namic law as ,

th e pri n cipl e o fth e phil o s o phy o fhist o ry ? Why did h e b e li e v e

‘

rath e r th at h e h ad fo un d this pri ncipl e in th e law o f th e

e v o luti o n o f phil o s o phi e s ? I t is b e c aus e acc o rdi ng to him , ,

th e e v o luti o n o f r e ligi o us fo rms is a fu n c ti o n o f i n t e ll e ctu al

e v o luti o n I t is e ve n su b o rd inate to i nt e l l e c tu al e v o l uti o n

.
,

in this s e n s e th at pr o gr e ss in th e k no wl e dge o f th e l aws o f

,

natu re s o o ne r o r l at e r bri n gs ab o ut a r e ligi o us re v o l uti o n .

I n th e s e c o n d pl ac e i f t h e phil o s o phy o f hi st o ry h ad ch o s e n
,

t h e succ e ssi o n o f r e ligi o us fo rms as it s chi e f axis it w o uld ,

o n ly h av e studi e d t h e pr o c e ss o f d e c o mp o siti o n o f be li e fs ,

whi c h up to th e pre se nt tim e h as le d th e m fro m th e p e ri o d

'

, ,
 2 80 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

whe n all th o ught is re ligi o us (fe tichism ) t o th at wh e n no ,

th o ught se e ms to be so any m o r e (phil o so phi c al d e ism ) I t .

w o u l d no t S h o w at th e S am e tim e th e i nv e rs e and simultane o us

pro c e ss o f th e p o sitive spirit which no t o nly d e te rmi ne s thi s
,

pro gre ssive d e c o mp o siti o n b ut als o pre p are s th e e l e m e nts o f

,

a n e w faith . I t w o uld no t S h o w h o w by d e gr e e s by m e ans ,

o f s c i e n c e this spirit e st ablish e s a c o n c e p t i o n Of n atur e whi c h

,

by be c o mi ng s o ci al will b e c o m e u n ive rs al and whi c h will b e ,

th e b asis o f th e fi nal r e ligi o n This is wh y C o mte whil e.

,

m aki ng r e ligi o n th e chi e f e l e m e n t in i ndividu al and so c i al

hum an life was ne ve rth e l e ss to t ak e th e e vo lu ti o n o f th e
,

i nte ll e c t th at is to say th e sci e n c e s and th e phil o s o phi e s as

, , ,

th e guidi n g thre ad o f his phil o s o phy o fh ist o ry

“ ”
.

I t d o e s no t c o m e w ithi n th e purp o s e o f this w o rk to give

e v e n a summ ary o utli ne o f th e phil o s o phy o f hist o ry d e v e l o p e d

by C o mte first in th e C ours de p h ilosop h ic p ositive and th e n ,

in th e third v o lum e o f th e P oli tiqu e p osi ti ve N e ith e r sh all .

we dis e ng ag e th e i ng e n i o us o r pr o fo u nd vi e ws o f d e t ai l with
whi c h it ab o unds I t will su ffic e fo r us to S h o w h o w acc o rd
.
,

ing to C o mt e t h e l aws o f s o ci al dy namics are a lw ays v e rifi e d

, ,

and h o w a pp ar e n t e xc e pti o ns e n d by b e i ng i nt e rpr e t e d i n

t h e dir e c ti o n o f th e s e l aws .

F e tichism pro p e rly so c all e d was su cc e e d e d by astr o l o gy

,
-
, ,

th e n by p o lyth e ism which was first c o nse rvati ve (th e r e gim e

,

o f c ast e s in Egypt ) th e n i nt e ll e ct u
,
al (Gre e c e ) and s o ci al (t he ,

R o m an e mpire ) With th e Christi an re ligi o n m o no the ism c o m e s

.

t o b e substi tut e d t o p o lyth e ism But d o e s n o t th e th e o ry o fpro

.

gre ss s o o n m e e t with an i nsu r m o u nt abl e o bst acl e ? H o w

d o e s it e xpl ai n th e Middl e Age s th at l o ng succ e ssi o n o f ,

c e nturi e s which Vo lt aire and th e phil o s o ph e rs h ad d e scribe d

as full o f d ark ne s s o f sup e rstiti o n an d o f ig no r an c e as t h e
, , ,
 P sych ology 2 8 I

disgr ac e ofhist o ry ? H o w to r e c o n cil e this l am e nt abl e

“
r e tr o gre ssi o n with th e c o nti n uity o f pro gre ss affirm e d
” “ ”

by s o ci al dy namics ?
August e C o mt e s an swe r is pre s e n t e d in two fo rms
’
.

I n t h e first pl ac e th e re tr o gre ssi o n was n e v e r c o mpl e t e

”
.

At th e tim e wh e n th e Middl e Age s w e r e at th e ir d ark e st in

Eu ro p e Arab civilis ati o n was g o i n g thro ugh its m o st br illi an t
,
1

p e ri o d I n it m any o f th e sci e nc e s w e re go i ng b e y o nd
.

t h e e xtr e m e p o i n t r e ach e d by th e m in an tiquity T he .

c o n ti nuity o f e v o luti o n was th e n no t i n t e rrupte d It .

su ffi c e s to u n d e rst and in c o nfo rmity with th e p o st ul at e l aid

,

d o w n by C o mt e at th e b e gi nn i ng o f s o ci al dy nam ics th at , ,

at this p e ri o d t h e Ar abs w e r e t h e p art o f hu m an ity wh o s e

,

i nte l l e ctu al e v o luti o n was m o st adv an ce d and wh o c o nse , ,

qu e n tly re pr e s e n t e d th e re st
,
.

B ut ab o v e all th e c urr e nt Opi n i o n c o n c e r ni n g th e Middl e

, ,

Age s is e rro ne o us T h e phi l o s o ph e rs o f th e X V I I I c e ntu ry

. .

did no t k no w it Th e y o nly saw this p e ri o d thro ugh th e ir

.

pre j udice s o r r ath e r th e y did no t d e ig n to l o o k at it N e v e r

,
.

th e le ss th e wh o l e spirit ual m o v e m e n t o f m o d e r n c e n t uri e s

,

g o e s b ack to th o s e m e m o rabl e tim e s u njustly qu ali fi e d as ,

d ark by m e t aphysi c al criticism o f which Pr o te st antism was ,

th e fir st o rg an
” 1
.

I n th e first pl ac e —and this is a c api t al pr o p o siti o n in

2 —
histo ric al phil o s o phy th e fe ud al reg im e as a t e mp o ral
o rg an is ati o n was t h e n atur a l r e sult o f t h e situ at i o n o f th e
,

R o m an w o rld I n a ny c as e it w o uld h ave b e e n fo rm e d

.
,

e v e n if th e i nv asi o n s h ad n o t t ak e n pl ac e I n virtu e o f th e ,

co ns e ns u s which is th e fu n d am e n t a l pri n cipl e o f s o ci a l st ati c s ,

t h e o th e r s e ri e s o f ph e no m e n a which acc o mp an i e d th e

e st ablishm e n t o f t h e fe ud a l reg i m e w e r e th e n a ls o pr o duc e d

n atur al d e v e l o pm e n t and it is a misu n d e rst an di ng t o

”
as a ,

se e in th e m an i nte rrupti o n Of pro gre ss T h e sup e ri o r ity

“ ”
.

C 1
V 36 o urs, V I 50 , 0- 1C r V 3 8
, .
2
o u s, , 1 .
 2 82 T h e P h ilosophy qf A ug uste C om te

of A ntiquity o ve r th e M idd l e Age s e s p e ci ally in th e fine art s , ,

will b e r ais e d as an o bj e cti o n But C o mt e o n l y re c o g n is e s

.

this sup e ri o ri ty in th e p l astic arts and e sp e ci ally in sc ulpture ? ,

A cc o r di ng to him it is e xpl ai ne d by c e rt ai n fe ature s in Gre e k

,

c ust o ms which w e re sure to m ak e t h e p e o pl e o f antiquity in

c o mp arab l e in t h e art o f e xpre ssi ng th e b e auty o f th e hum an
fo r m F o r th e r e st th e ae sth e tic e duc ati o n o f h um an ity pro
.
,

re sse d duri n g t h e Middl e Ag e s Archi t e ctur e pr o du c e d

g .

m arve ls o f which antiquity h ad no id e a D an t e is a u n iqu e .

p o e t M o d e r n music h as its o rigi n in th e o ld Gre go ri an

. .

Fi nally th e art o f th e Middl e Ag e s pre s e nte d two ch arac t e r

,

istic s which th e art o f th e a rist o cr atic so ci e t i e s o fan tiquity did

n o t p o ss e ss at l e ast in t h e sam e d e gr e e
,
I t was sp o n t ane o us .
,

th at is to say in full n atural h arm o ny with th e wh o l e o f th e

,

su r ro u n di n g c o nditi o n s C o n s e qu e ntly it was p o pul ar it e x

.
, ,

pre ss e d m arv e ll o usly fo r th e p e o pl e th e ve ry s o ul o fth e p e o pl e , .

I f th e n it b e tru e th at th e m ai n spri ng o fth e fine art s is to -

b e fo u n d u n d e r th e sw ay o f p o lyth e ism n o n e t h e l e ss h as
”
,

th e d e v e l o pm e n t o f o u r ae sth e tic faculti e s b e e n c o n ti n u o us

and th e law o f pr o gr e ss h as n o t b ee n r e v e rs e d I t is tru e .

th at si nc e antiquity th e s e fa culti e s h av e no t fo u nd a c o m
bi nati o n o f such favo urabl e circumstanc e s such a dir e ct and ,

e ne rg e ti c stimulus ; but th at pr o v e s n o thi n g a g ai n st th e ir

i ntri nsic activity no r ag ai nst th e re al m e rit o f th e i r pro duc

,

ti o ns .
”
T h e ae sth e tic S pirit h as b e c o m e m o re wid e spre ad ,

m o re v ari e d and e ve n m o re c o mpl e t e th an it c o uld e v e r h ave

.

be e n in ant iquity H e nc e it is th at th e R e naiss an c e did m o re

?

h arm th an go o d to th e fine arts I t i nspire d an e xclusive and .

s e rvil e admirati o n fo r th e m ast e rpi e c e s o f antiquity which are ,

re l ate d to an abs o l ute s o ci al syst e m I n this s e ns e s ay s C o m te

“
.
,
”
,

th e appr e ci ati o n o f th e pr e s e n t r o m an tic sch o o l o nly si n s in

“

the dir e c ti o n o f hist o ric a l e x agg e r ati o n b ut its r e cri mi n ati o ns

a r fr o m b e i n g gr o u n dl e ss
”
are f
2
.

C 1
V 47
o urs, , C 12 V I 48
-
.
2
Co urs, V I 56 7 ,
1 . o urs, , 1 - .
 P sych ology 2 83

S imil arly th e i n t e ll e ctu al ac tivity o f th e Middl e Age s h as

,

b ee n v e ry u nj ustly tre at e d C e rtainl y p o sitive phil o s o phy

.
,

c anno t b e susp e ct e d o f p arti ality in favo ur o f th e o l o gic al

do g m as an d m e t aphysic al subtl e ti e s But j ust as in physics
'

.
,

we disti nguish th e m at e ri al ch an ge s which are withi n r e ach ,

o f o ur s e ns e s an d th e m o l e c u l ar m o v e m e nts which e sc ap e
,

the m so at c e rt ai n p e ri o ds th e hum an i n te ll e ct pro duc e s

,

o utsid e its e lf w o rks which t e stify t o its a ctivity an d at o th e r ,

m o m e n ts with o ut b e i ng l e ss ac tive its l ab o ur r e m ai n s an

,

i nt e rnal o ne T h e re are pe ri o ds o f s e cr e t and sil e n t pre p ar a

.

ti o n Such fo r i nst an ce was th e first p o rti o n o f th e Middl e

.
, ,

Age s F ar fro m th e hum an mi n d re m ai n i n g st ati o nary and

.

i nactiv e at th at tim e it did o n th e c o ntr ary a v e ry c o nsid e r

, ,

abl e w o rk : it was cre ati n g t h e m o d e r n l an gu a g e s th at is to ,

say th e i n disp e n s abl e i n strum e n t f

,
o r subs e qu e n t pr o gr e ss o f

t h o ugh t

We must als o b e fai r to t wo imm e ns e s e ri e s o f l ab o urs ,

( a lch e my a n d a str o l o gy ) which h a v e c o,

n tribut e d so gr e at ly
an d f o r so l o n g t o th e d e ve l o pm e n t o f hu m a n r e as o n In .

c o mi ng afte r th e astro l o g e rs and t h e alch e mists m o d e rn ,

s c i e ntific m e n n o t o nly fo u nd s c i e n c e ro ughly o utli ne d by

“

t h e p e rs e v e r an c e o f th e s e b o ld pr e cur so rs th e y furth e r
l ”
,

r e c e iv e d fro m th e m th e i ndispe ns ab l e pri ncipl e o f t h e

i nv ari ability o f n atur al l aws Astro l o gy te nd e d to sugg e st a
.

high vi e w o f hu m an wisd o m Alch e my re st o r e d th e fe e li ng

.

o fm an s p o w e r which h ad b e e n l o w e r e d by th e o l o gic a l b e li e fs
’
, .

I n sp e aki n g o f R o g e r B ac o n C o mt e g o e s so far as t o s ay th at
,

th e gr e at e r n umbe r o ft h e sci e n tific m e n o f to day wh o d e spis e -

th e Middl e Ag e s so mu c h w o uld b e i n c ap abl e n o t o n ly o fwrit

,

ing but e v e n o f re adi ng th e gr e at c o mp o siti o n o f this adm ir

a bl e m o n k o h a cc o u n t o f t h e imm e ns e v a ri e ty o f vi e ws o n all
”
,

o rd e rs o f ph e n o m e n a c o n t ai ne d in it
2
.

C o mt e furth e r e nl arge s with p l e asure u po n th e mutu al

C V I 48 1
o urs, , 2 C. VI 94
2
o urs, , 1 .
2 84 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

o bligati o n s o f fe ud al t e nure an admir abl e c o mbi nati o n o f ,

t h e i n sti n c t O f i n d e p e n d e n c e an d o f th e fe e li n g o f d e v o ti o n
”
,

up o n th e app e a ran c e o f chiv alry up o n th e r aisi ng o f th e c o n ,

diti o n o f w o m e n up o n th e e n fran chis e m e nt o f th e c o mm o n s

,

up o n t h e fo rm ati o n o f th e tiers e ta t e tc Lik e th e r o m an tic ’

, .
1

s c h o o l be i ng pr e o ccupi e d with th e duty o f fighti ng th e syst e

,

m atic d e tr acto rs o f th e M iddl e Ag e s h e go e s to th e ,

Opp o site e xtr e m e H e n o l o n g e r s e e s th e fami ne s t h e

.
,

th e pl agu e s th e st ak e s t h e i n t e rmi n abl e w ars

,
H e is n o t c o n
, .

t e n t with sh o wi ng th at in spi te o f all th e M iddl e Ag e s , ,

was a p e ri o d o f pr o gr e ss H e w an ts it t o b e a m o d e l .

p e ri o d in which we S h o uld find th e i ndic ati o n i n all essenti al

, ,

a sp ects o f t h e pr o gr a mm e which we are to r e alis e t o day - 2

.
,

T h e s e c r e t o f C o mt e s p arti ality fo r t h e Middl e Ag e s is n o t

’

h ard to disc o ve r H e ne ve r tire s Of pr aisi ng th e C ath o li c

.
.

o rg an is ati o n o f this p e ri o d th e s e p ar ati o n o f t h e t e mp o r al ,

fro m th e spiritu al p o w e r l ast o fall th e mir acl e o fth e p ap al

3 “
,

h e ge m o ny N o thi n g o f th e ki nd was k no w n in an tiquity

.
”

Th at al o n e su ffi c e s to e st ablish th e sup e ri o rity o f th e Middl e

Ag e s P o si t ive phil o s o ph y w
. ill r e st o re this s e p arati o n o fth e
t wo p o w e rs t o day I t will c o mpl e t e t h e admirabl e sk e t c h ”
-
.

dr aw n o f Old by th e C ath o li c Church .

P o sit ivism s ays H uxl e y is C ath o licism mi nus Christi

,
“
,

an ity . C o mte w o uld n o t h aVe pr o t e ste d v e ry vi o l e ntly

”

ag ai n st this d e fi n iti o n I nd e e d in th e C ath o lici sm o f th e

.
,

middl e Age s h e disti nguish e s b e tw e e n th e d o c tri ne and th e

,

i nstituti o ns T h e d o ctri ne is o n th e d e cli ne and will disap

p e ar But th e i nstituti o ns w e r e m ast e r —
.

. pi e c e s o f p o litic al
wisd o m and th e y h ave o nly b e e n rui ne d by h av i ng s e e m e d to
,

b e i n s e p ar abl e fr o m this d o ctri n e Th e y o ught to b e re .

e st abli sh e d up o n i n t e ll e ctu al b as e s at o n c e br o ad e r an d m o r e

p e rm ane nt P o sitiv e phil o s o ph y fur nish e s th e s e b as e s I t

.
1
‘
.

1
C V 3 5
o u rs, P l p
, II
2 .
3 C 2
V 36 q
o . os .
, , 1 2 1 -1 1.
3
o urs, , 0 s .

C V 36 1
‘
o urs, , 2 .
 P sych o log y 2 85

will k no w h o w to r e st o re th e g o v e rn m e n t o fs o uls ac c o rdi ng ,

to t h e m o d e l l e ft by t h e C ath o l ic Church o f t h e M iddl e Age s ,

I t h as Ofte n b e e n s aid th at th e s o ci al acti o n o f C ath o licism

was e sp e ci a lly due to its m o ra l t e achi ng C o mt e r e v e rs e s this .

pr o p o siti o n T h e m o ral e ffi c acy o f C ath o licism pri n cip ally

.

d e p e nd e d up o n th e c o nstituti o n o f th e Church and o n ly in an ,

ac c e ss o ry way up o n its d o ctri ne With o ut th e c o nst an t 1

.

acti o n o f an o rg an is e d spiritu al p o w e r a r e ligi o n h o w e ve r , ,

pure it m ay b e c an no t h ave much p o w e r o ve r th e c o n du c t o f

,

m en . C ath o licism h ad u nd e rsto o d this I t h ad fo u nd e d a .

syst e m o f c o mm o n e du c ati o n which was e qu ally re c e ive d by

rich and p o o r M o rality thus acquire d th e asc e n d e ncy which
.
“

b e l o ngs t o it T h e fe e li n gs w e re subj e ct e d to an admirabl e

.

discipli ne which e x e rt e d i ts e lf to upro o t e v e n th e sm all e st

,

se e ds o f c o rrupti o n
2
.

T o c o nclud e th e e t e r n a l h o n o ur o f C ath o licism is t o

“ 3 ”
,

h av e bro ught a d e cisi ve impro v e m e nt i nt o th e th e o ry o f th e

s o ci al o rg an ism by th e s e p arati o n o fth e two p o we rs M any
, .

c aus e s h ave c o ntribut e d to its b e i n g misu nd e rst o o d t h e

e xc e ssiv e admir ati o n o f t h e m o d e r n hist o ri an s f o r th e cit y o f
’

cl assic al tim e s th e p arti ality o fPro te st ants fo r th e e arly Church

, ,

an d fi n ally th e c o n t e mpt o f phil o s o ph e rs f o r t h e supp o s e d

d ark ne ss o fth e Middl e Age s We judge o f it b e tt e r to day .

-
.

P o sitiv e phil o s o phy d o e s n o t c o n fi ne its e lf to r e h abilitati ng t h e

C ath o lic o rg an is ati o n it t ak e s it up ag ai n o n its o wn acc o u nt .

“
T h e m o re I i n ve stig at e this imm e n s e subj e ct writ e s C o mt e ,

t o J o h n S t u art Mill t h e m o r e c o n firm e d I b e c o m e in th e vi e w

“
,

which I alr e ady h e ld tw e nty y e ars ag o at th e tim e o f my w o rk ,

up o n th e spiritu al p o w e r o f r e g ardi ng o urs e lve s we syst e m , , ,

atic p o si t ivists as t h e r e al succ e ss o r s o f th e gre a t m e n o f th e

,

Middl e Age s by t aki ng up th e so ci al w o rk agai n at th e p o i nt

,

t o which c ath o licism h ad c arri e d it U nd o ubt e dly th e

4 ”
.

1 C o urs, V , 33 5 .
2
P o l po s
. .
, II .
3
C o urs, V , 54 5 .
1 -

C o rre s p d
on anc e de C mt
o e et de Jo h n S tu art M ill p , .
458 (1 4 juille t
,
2 86 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

co n diti o ns are no t th e s am e to day and we must t ak e t h e -

,

di ffe re n c e s i nt o acc o un t B ut as to th e e xt e nt and th e inte n

.

sity o f a cti o n we m ay say t h at f

,
o r e a ch o f t h e S o ci al r e l ati o ns

o n wh ich th e C at h o lic cl e rgy h ad to pr o no u n c e an an al o g o u s ,

attributi o n e xists f o r th e m o d e r n spi ri t ual p o w e r

1
I n a w o rd .
,

e xc e pti n g f o r th e d o gm a C o mt e b o rr o ws fr o m th e C ath o l i c ism

,

o f th e M iddl e Age s alm o st e v e rythi n g its o rgan is ati o n its , ,

reg im e its w o rship and i f h e c o uld its cl e rgy and its

, , , ,

c ath e drals H is re ligi o n will b e a C ath o licism rais e d up o n

.
‘

an o th e r b asis .

T hes e p ar ati o n b e tw e e n th e t e mp o ral and spiritu al p o we r

r e alis e d by C ath o licism in th e Middl e Ag e s m ark s a d e ci
sive pro gre ss in th e hist o r y o f hum an it y But it was no t .

fi n ally e st ablish e d T h e reg im e o fwhich it fo rm e d a p art was

.

b o u nd to dis app e ar b e c aus e o f th e mutu al an tip athy

,
“ ”

b e tw e e n th e e l e m e nts i n clud e d withi n it T h e C ath o lic .

o rg an is ati o n o f th e thirt e e n th c e ntury was first S h ak e n and

th e n d e stro y e d b y t h e a dvan ci ng asc e nd an cy o f th e p o sitive

S pirit an d t h e r e sist an c e o f th e o l o gic al d o gm a Fr o m this
,
.

o rg an ic p e ri o d Euro p e an s o ci e ty h as p ass e d t o a critic al

“ “ ”

p e ri o d which h as fill e d c e nt uri e s and which p o sitive phil o ,

s o phy al o ne is abl e to bri n g to a cl o s e T h e wh o l e o f m o d e rn .

hist o ry p o litic al r e ligi o us sci e n tific m sth e tic e c o n o mic e tc

, , , , , , .
,

is at b o tt o m m e r e ly t h e succ e ssi o n o fth e ne c e ss ary s tag e s in

, ,

this d o ubl e w o rk ; t h e d e c o mp o siti o n o f t h e r g im e o f th e e

Middl e Age s and t h e pre p ar ati o n fo r th e p o sitive p e ri o d I n

, .

a first ph a s e which o ccupi e s th e fo ur te e nth and fift e e nth

,

c e n turi e s th e m o v e m e n t re m ai ns a spo n t ane o us o ne I t

, .

igno re s t h e e nd to which it is te ndi n g I n t h e s e c o nd which .

,

e xt e n ds t o th e e n d o f t h e e ight e e n t h c e n tury th e diso rg an isa ,

1
P o l po s
. .
, I V App d i
, en ce , p . 1 93 .
 P sych olog y 2 87

ti o n be c o m e s d e e p e r und e r th e i nfl u e n c e o f an e nt ire l y
n e g ativ e phil o s o phy
1
.

T h e first sig n s o ft h e d e c o mp o siti o n which was b e gi nn i n g

w e re o f an e c o no mi c o rd e r T h e ph e no m e na o fthis o rd e r are
.

i n d e e d a fact o r o f th e high e st imp o rt anc e in th e wh o l e o f

s o ci al life T h e e c o no mi c e vo luti o n ac c o rdi n g t o C o mt e
.
, ,

n e c e ss arily pr e c e d e s th e aesth e tic and sci e n tific e v o lut io n It .

is th e fo rm e r far m o r e th an th e two l att e r which ch ar act e r ise s

, ,

o ur c ivili sati o n in c o tr st with h s ci ti e s o f antiq uity ?

n a t e o e

Thro ugh it th e o rg an is ati o n o f m o d e r n s o c i e ti e s was to b e gi n .

T h e fre e i n g Of th e s e rfs t h e fo u n d ati o n o f i nd e p e n d e nt u rb an

,

c o mmu ne s th e tr an sfo rm ati o n o f i ndustry whi c h aro s e fr o m

,

this are d e scrib e d by C o mte alm o st in t he s am e t e rms as

,

th o s e us e d by Augusti n Thi e rry (wh o lik e hi m h ad w o rk e d ,

by th e S id e o f S ai nt Sim o n) I t is th e e n di ng o f an e c o no mi c
-
.

o rg an is ati o n an d t h e h e r aldi n g o f a ne w reg i m e

,
.

Wh e n this sp o n t ane o u s d e c o mp o siti o n h ad r e ach e d a c e rt ai n

p o i nt th e critic al d o ctri ne s c o uld app e ar and push it furth e r
,
.

B ut to se e in th e s e d o ctri ne s th e o rigi nal c aus e o f this gr e at

,

m o ve m e nt is t o cre dit th e m with an e x agge rate d i nfl u e nc e

, ,

an d e v e n strictl y sp e aki ng an i n c o mpr e h e n sibl e o n e

, , I n o rd e r .

th at d o ctri ne s m ay aris e an d pr o sp e r th e y m ust find favo ur abl e

gro u nd T h e c o n tr ary o pi n i o n e x agge r ate s b e y o n d all po s
.
“

sib ilit y th e p o litic al i n flu e n c e o f t h e i n t e ll e ct an d cr e at e s a ,

ki n d o fvici o us circl e 3
.

T h e pri ncipl e o f free e x a mi n ati o n was at first in th e

“
,

X V I c e ntury o nl y a natural re sult o f th e n e w s o ci al situ ati o n

,

gr adu ally bro ught ab o ut b y th e two pre c e di ng c e nturi e s .

F o r this pri ncipl e c o rr e sp o n ds t o a st at e o f no n g o v e r n

“ -

m e nt o f mi nds A nd this s tat e in tur n c o m e s fro m th e

”
.
, ,

pro gre ssiv e diss o luti o n o f me nt al discipli ne I t l asts so l o ng .

a s a spiritu al p o w e r h as n o t b e e n r e c o n sti t ut e d up o n n e w
-

fo u nd ati o n s I n a so ci e ty wh e re spiritu al p o w e r is no rm ally

.

C
1
V 43
o urs, C ,
1 VI 3
. C 2
V 44
o urs, ,
2 .
3
o urs, , 1 .
 T h e P h ilosophy u uste C om te
2 88 f g
oA

e x e rcis e d that is to say wh e re it g o ve r n s th e u n ive rsality o f

, ,

mi nds un it e d by a b o dy o f c o mm o n b e li e fs th e ne e d o f in
, ,

te lle c tual l ibe r ty is n o t d e v e l o p e d in i n dividu als At anyr at e .

it d o e s no t ch all e ng e u na n im o usly acc e pt e d pri ncipl e s But .

,

wh e n t his p o w e r is w e ak e ne d th e pri n cipl e s b e gi n to b e dis

,

c uss e d E ach o ne s o o n cl aim s to b e a j udg e o f th e ir v alu e

.
~

Ev e rythi n g th e n d e p e nds o n th e c o mbi nati o n o f s o ci al c o n

ditio n s We c an n o m o re pr o duc e th an we c an stifl e thi s
.

disp o siti o n o f mi nds ,

“
o utsid e t h e c o n diti o n s which a re

fav o urabl e o r u n favo ur abl e t o it I t is o n ly d e v e l o p e d

.
”

d uri ng th e p e ri o ds which are no t o rg an ic “

I t is thro ugh .
”

h avi n g misu nd e rst o o d this law o f s o ci al st atics th at so m any

hist o ric al e rr o rs h ave b e e n c o m mitt e d in which th e sympt o m ,

is mist ak e n fo r th e c aus e an d th e re su l t fo r th e pri ncip l e

, .
1

T h e first g e ne r a l fo rm o f th e pri n cipl e o f fre e d o m o f

e x a mi n ati o n e xpr e ss e d its e lf in Pr o te st an tism I n it this .

fr e e d o m at first r e m ai ne d c o n fi ne d withi n th e m o re o r l e s s
n arr o w limits o f Christi an th e o l o gy T h e spirit o f criticism
.

at first e sp e ci a lly e n d e av o ur e d in t h e v e ry n a m e o f Chr i s

,

t ian ity to rui n t h e a dmir abl e syst e m o f th e C ath o lic hi e r

,

a rchy which was its s o ci a l r e alis ati o n

,
This is th e ch ar acte r.

istic i nc o n s e qu e nc e o f t h e m e t aphysic al spirit which alw ays ,

d e n i e s th e l o gic al d e duc ti o ns Whil e cl aimi ng t o m ai n t ai n th e

pri nc ipl e s and which in this p articul ar c ase aspire d t o re
, , ,

fo rm Christi an ity at th e s am e tim e th at it d e stro y e d th e

n e c e ss ary c o nditi o n s o f its e xist e n c e th at is to say its , ,

o rg an is ati o n .

I n th e s a m e way as in th e C ath o licism o f th e Middl e Ag e s

, ,

C o mte chi e fly admire s th e m ast e r pi e c e o fp o litic al wi sd o m

“ -
”
,

which k ne w h o w to s e p arate th e attribut e s o f t e mp o ral p o w e r

fro m th o s e o f spiritu al p o w e r ; so in Pro te st antism h e e s
'

c ially s e e s t h e d e structiv e pri n cipl o f this m ast e rpi e c e

p e e .

H e u n c e asi ngly r e pro ach e s it with h avi ng s ub o rdi na te d

C 1
V 34 6
o urs, , 1 -
1 .
 P h ilosophy 2 89

t he S pir itu al to th e t e mp o ral p o we r in th e wh o l e o f E uro p e .

Th is chi e f pe rturb ati o n was th e o r igi n o f all th e o th e rs

“
.

I n acc o rd anc e with th e l e ad e rs o f t h e trad iti o nalist s c h o o l ,

w ith de M aistr e and de B o nald in Franc e with H al l e r in ,

G e rm any C o mte i nsi sts u po n th e cl o s e re l ati o nship b e twe e n

,

t h e P ro t e st an t spir it and th e re v o l ut io na ry spi rit O nc e it .

h as b e e n d e m and e d th e r ight o fe x ami nati o n spre ads by a

,

n e c e s sity whi c h is at o n c e m e nt al and s o c i al and c ann o t b e

o v e rc o m e t o all i n dividu als and all qu e sti o ns

,
T h e nam e o f .

P ro t e st antism S h o uld no t b e re stri c t e d to r e l igi o us re fo r m .

I t is n o l e ss suit abl e fo r th e wh o l e o f th e re vo l uti o nary

phil o s o phy F o r this phil o s o phy fro m L uth e ranism to th e
.
,

D e ism o f th e X V I I I c e ntury with o ut e x cl udi ng Ath e ism

“
.
,

which c o nstitut e s its e xtre m e ph as e is a p rotesta tio n at first ”

,

ag ai nst th e pri n cip l e s o f th e o ld s o c i a l o rd e r and th e n ag ai n st ,

any o rg an is ati o n wh at e v e r ?
,

T h e abs o lut e and i n d e fi n it e d o gm a o f fre e e x ami nati o n

“

s e ts up e ac h i ndividu al j udgm e n t as an arbit e r up o n all

s o ci al qu e sti o ns Fr o m thi s d o gm a g radu ally e m e rge ab so
.

l ut e libe rty in sp e aki n g and writi ng th e p o litic al s o ve re ignty ,

o ft h e m ass e s at will cr e ati n g o r d e st ro yi n g i nstituti o ns t h e ,

e qu al ity o f all m e n th e i so l ati o n o f n ati o n s : in a w o r d as

, ,

H all e r h as s aid s o ci al and p o litic al at o mism

“
, Th e s e c o nse .

u e n c e s h ad b e c o m e i ne vit abl e fr o m t h e day wh e n Pr o t e st an t

q
ism g av e t h e supre m e d e cisi o n in re ligi o us qu e sti o ns t o e ve ry
o ne ,
with o ut t aki n g int o acc o u n t c o ndi ti o ns e ith e r o f c o m
e t e n c e o r auth o rity This first st e p was a d e cisiv e o ne I f
p ,
. .
,

supp o si ng an imp o s sibility m o d e r n s o ci e ty w e r e re pl ac e d in

,

th e st at e in which it was wh e n Pr o t e st antism succ e e d e d in

b e c o mi ng e stablish e d th e s am e ne c e ss ary succ e ssi o n o f s o ci al
,

a nd p o litic al c o nse qu e n c e s w o uld ag a i n u n fo ld th e ms e lv e s .

Afte r th at it m at te rs littl e th at Pr o t e st anti sm sh o uld h ave

,

fo ught ag ai nst th e re vo lut io nary spirit and th at it S h o uld ,

C V 4 3 1 3 3 ; 46 7 8 ; 5 3
1
o urs, ,
- -
1 1 -1 .
2 90 T h e Philosophy of g
A u u ste C om te

h ave dis av o w e d anarc hi c al phil o s o phy I t m atte rs l itt l e

“
.

t h at it sh o uld h av e m ad e r e p e at e d e ffo rts t o c o nstitut e a

spiritu al auth o rity and th at it sh o uld h ave p ro du c e d a multi
,

t ud e o f s e c ts o f whi c h e ach piti e d t h e pre c e di n g o ne a nd

“

a bh o rr e d t h e o ne which f o ll o w e d it Wh ate ve r it m ay do ”
.
1
,

Pr o te st antism re m ai ns pure ly critic al n e gative and dis ,

o rg an i si ng C o ns e qu e n tly th e p art it pl ays c an o n ly b e

.

t r an sit o ry I t c o nt ai ns n o e l e m e nt which th e p o sit ive

.

o rg a n is ati o n S h o uld pr e s e rve I t n atur ally e nds in phil o .

s o phic al D e ism .

This D e ism app e ars as e arly as th e X V I I c e ntu ry in .

E ngl an d and in H o ll and with H o bb e s Spi no z a and B ay l e

, , ,

T h e right o f e x ami nati o n is h e n c e fo rth r e c o g n is e d as in

de fi n ite in pri nc ipl e but in fact it is th o ught p o ssibl e t o, ,

m a i nt ai n t h e m e t a physic a l discussi o n withi n t h e m o r e g e ne r al

l imits o f m o no the ism At b o tt o m th e y c o nti nu e t o d e st ro y

? “

re ligi o n in t h e n am e o f t h e r e ligi o u s pri n cipl e A r ati o nal

“ ”
.

t h e o l o gy is c o n struct e d ; and th e natur al re ligi o n d e ar to

”
,

t h e X V I I I c e n tury is fi n ally r e a ch e d
.
, .

No w in C o mte s e y e s r ati o nal th e o l o gy is an i n c o h e re n t

,
’

e xpr e ssi o n an d n atur al re ligi o n a m o nstro us drawi ng

3 ” “
,

t o g e th e r o f t e rms As if e ve ry r e ligi o n (with th e e xc e pt io n

”
.

o f t h e p o sitive o ne ) was n o t n e c e ss a ril y sup e r na tur a l !

, T he
h a rm o ny b e tw e e n re as o n and b e li e f e v e n wh e n so ught fo r ,

with p e rfe ct si n c e rity is d e adly fo r faith F o r th e stre ngth,

.

o f th e o l o gic al c o n c e pti o n s li e s in th e ir sp o n t ane it y L o gic al .

pro o f e ve n admitti ng t h at it b e re all y d e m o nstr ative n e ve r

, ,

fo rt ifie s and c an o n ly w e ak e n th e m T h e i nn um e r abl e pro o fs .

o f t h e e xist e n c e o f G o d which h av e app e a r e d s i n c e t h e X I I .

c e n tury n o t o n ly st at e t h e b o ld d o ubts o f which this e x ist

,

e n c e h as b e e n th e o bj e ct : it c an als o b e ass e rt e d th at th e y

h ave l arge ly c o n tribute d to th e pro p ag ati o n o f th o s e d o ubts ,

e ith e r thr o ugh th e c o n t e mpt which t h e w e ak n e ss o f m any

C
1
V 53
o urs , C, V 435
1 . C V I 36
2
o urs, , .
3
o u rs, , 2 .
 P h ilosophy 2 91

o fth e s e argum e nt s was b o und to re fl e c t up o n anc ie nt b e l i e fs ,

o r e v e n by c o n s id e r a ti o n o ft h e str o ng e s t o f th e s e a rgum e n t s?

P o pu l ar i nsti nct was no t mist ak e n in c al li ng th e m e t a

p hysici a n s wh o w e r e w o rki n g at th e s e pr o o fs ath e ists Th e ir .

wo rk was e ss e n ti ally an ti th e o l o gi c al
- O ur c e ntu ry s e e s it in
.

a n o th e r light . As th e d e c ay o f th e o l o gy still c o nti nue s th at ,

w hich fo r m e rly was judg e d by public O pi nio n as impi o us m ay ,

t o day app e ar t o b e a pi o us o c c up ati o n

-
.

T h e c riticism o f r e ligi o us b e l i e fs h as b e e n d e v e l o p e d and

S pr e ad with o ut givi n g to o much o ff e n c e t o t e mp o ral p o w e r ,

th an ks to t h e c are t ak e n by phil o s o phe rs in g e ne ral t o re

a ssur e it up o n t h e imm e di at e c o n s e qu e n c e s o f th e i r l ab o ur s .

H o bbe s in th e X V I I c e ntury V o ltaire in th e X V I I I are as

.
,
.

c o n s e rv ative fr o m t h e p o litic al p o i n t o f vi e w as th e y are

r e v o luti o nary fro m th e re ligi o us p o i n t o f vi e w T he pre .

c auti o n was a v e ry wis e o n e o n th e i r p ar t But it did no t

.

a rr e st th e c o n s e qu e n c e s which a r o s e fr o m th e ir pri n cipl e s .

Criti c al phil o s o phy urgi ng th e d o gm a o f th e fre e d o m o f

,

e x ami nati o n t o th e a ss a ult o f all t h e pri n cipl e s o f th e e s

t ab lish e d reg im e sh o o k and rui ne d th e m o ne a ft e r t h e o th e r

, ,

un til th e fi nal e xpl o si o n o f th e Fr e n ch R e vo luti o n Th is

“ ”
.

was th e c o n clusi o n in fac t o f th e l o ng w o rk o f d e c o mp o s iti o n

which h ad b e e n g o i ng o n duri ng five c e nturi e s T h e o ld
.

régim e was r o tt e n ; th e R e v o luti o n o ve rt urne d it m e ani n g ,

t o c l e a r t h e gr o u n d .

But did it lay d o w n th e b asis o f th e régim e which was t o

s u c c e e d this o ne I t did no t re pli e s C o mt e with S ai n t Sim o n
,
-

an d de M aistr e . H e admir e s th e e ne rgy o ft h e p o litic al gifts

o f t h e C o n v e nti o n N e v e rth e l e ss it was wro n g in b e li e vi ng
.

th at critic al pri ncipl e s c o uld t ak e th e pl ac e and c arry o ut

“ ”

t h e fu n c ti o n s o f o rg an ic pri ncipl e s S o l o ng as th e strugg l e

“ ”
.

l ast e d th e critic al pri nc ipl e s h ad b e e n all th e m o re e ffe ctive in

,

th at th e y w e re cre dit e d with an abs o lut e v alu e Thus th e .

C 1
V 5 89
o u rs, , .
2 9 2 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

d o gm a o fbo u ndl e ss l ibe rty o f c o ns c i e n c e h ad s e rve d to d e stro y

t h e spir itu al p o w e r o fth e c ath o li c cl e rgy th e d o gm a o fth e so v e ,

re ig nty o fth e p e o pl e t o ups e t t h e t e mp o r al g o ve r n m e n t fi n ally ,

t h e d o gm a o f nat ur al e q uality t o d e c o mp o s e th e sy st e m o f

s o ci al cl ass e s But o n c e th e Old régim e was ab o lish e d th e

.
,

e rr o r o f t aki ng th e s e d o gm as as th e b asis o f re o rg an is ati o n

“

was c o mmitt e d .

I t was no t s e e n th at th e y w e re i n co mp atibl e no t o nly with

t h e régim e which th e y h ad j ust d e str o y e d but w i th a ny soci a l ,

sys tem wha teve r I n this way it is m o r al and p o liti c al di so rd e r

.

which was uph e ld as th e e nd o f s o ci al p e r fe cti o n F o r e ach .

,

o f th e d o gm as o fth e critic a l d o ctri ne wh e n it is t ak e n in an ,

o rg an ic s e n s e c o m e s e x actly to lay d o w n as a pri ncipl e th at

,

in this p articul ar r e sp e c t s o ci e ty m ust no t be org an i sed .

1

Wh at b e c o m e s o fg o ve r nm e nt fo r inst an c e in this syst e m ,

By a di re c t and t o t al sup e rvi si o n o f th e m o st fu nd am e nt al

p o litic al n o ti o ns go ve rn m e n t is re pr e s e nt e d th e ne c e s sary
, ,

e ne my o f s o c i e ty
2
T h e l att e r must alw ays h o l d it in a st at e
.

o fsuspici o n and o fsup e rvisi o n it must m o r e an d m o r e r e strict

,

its m o d e s o f acti v ity and fi n ally o n ly l e av e it fu n cti o ns o f

,

ge ne ral p o li c e w ith o ut its c o ntributi ng in any way to th e

,

di re c ti o n o f th e c o l l e c tive life and s o ci al d e v e l o pm e nt I n a .

w o rd with no acti o n up o n id e as up o n b e li e fs o r fe e li ngs th e

, , ,

g o ve rn m e nt w o uld o nly h av e ch arg e o f th e pro te cti o n o f

i nt e re sts But is no t this fo rm ally d e nyi ng th e ve ry id e a o f
.

go ve r nm e nt which by d e fi n iti o n S h o uld o n th e c o ntrary

, ,

r e pre s e nt th e spirit o fth e wh o l e and th e dire cti ng fu n cti o n ,

”

o f s o c i e ty ? I s it no t givi ng up at th e s am e tim e th e gre at

pro gre ss r e alis e d by th e Middl e Ag e s th at is to say a spiri tu al ,

p o w e r i nd e p e nd e n t o f th e te mp o ral p o w e r ? Eve n c o nsid e ri ng

i nt e re sts al o ne this syst e m o n l y m ai nt ai n s O rd e r with gre at
,

difficulty I t is o blige d to h ave re c o urs e to c o rrupti o n and it

.
,

l e ads to c o nti n u al i ncre as e in public e x p e ndi ture .

1
P l p o I V App d i p 8
. o s, ,
C
en ce, V I 36
. 1 0- 1 .
2
o u rs, , .
 P h ilosophy 2 93

T he princ ipl e s o f c rit ic al phi l o s o phy c anno t th e n be use d

as a fo u nd ati o n f o r a ne w s o ci a l o rg an is at io n T h e atte mpt h as .

be e n m ad e and h as be e n c o nd e m ne d by hist o ry This failure .

c o uld h ave b ee n fo re to ld F o r b e i ng e ss e nti ally m e taphy sic al

.
, ,

this phi l o s o phy impli e s a c o ntradi c ti o n which ne c e ss arily re nd e rs

it p o w e r l e ss. I t t e n ds to pre s e rve th e ge ne ral b as e s o fth e o ld
p o liti c al syst e m wh o se c hi e f c o nditi o n s o f e xiste nc e it h as
,

h o we ve r d e stro y e d Th e re is a v e ry c l o s e r e l at io nship b e twe e n

.
l

th e nat ural r e ligi o n o f phi l o so ph e rs and th e p o liti c al c o nc e p

ti o ns o f th e r e vo luti o nists T h e l atte r are still c o nne c t e d by
.

th e i r d e e p e st r o o ts with th e o ld o rd e r o f b e l i e fs whi c h th e y
h ave fo ught agai nst with all th e ir stre ngth Lib e rty e q uality .
, ,

th e s o ve re i gnty o f th e p e o p l e th e wh o l e o f th e abs o lut e

“ ”
,

rights which c o nstitut e th e b asis o fth e re vo lut io nary d o c t rine

is shi e ld e d in th e l ast pl ac e by a ki n d o f r e ligi o us alth o ugh
, ,

v agu e c o nse c rati o n T h e F re n ch R e vo l uti o n was th e w o rk

.
”

o f t h e D e ist s .C o mte h as se t ap art th e thi nk e rs o fth e X V I I I

c e ntu ry wh o m h e c o nsid e rs as h is pre c urs o rs th at is to say , ,

a s t h e an ti c ip at o ry re p re s e nt ativ e s o f th e p o sitive sp ir it :
Fo nt e ne ll e H um e M o n te sq ui e u Did e ro t an d d A le m b e rt
, , , ,
’

Turgo t C o nd o rce t and a fe w o th e rs H e j udge s th e r e st o f

,
.

t h e phil o s o phy o f t h e c e nt ury m o re s e v e r e ly H e d o e s no t .

sp are th e E ncyclop edic and in th e m aj o rity o fth e phil o s o phi c al

,

w riti ngs o fthis p e ri o d h e fi nds littl e but a frivo l o u s and fe e bl e

so phisti c a rgum e n t ati o n Circum st an c e s al m o st al o ne h ave
.

m ad e its succ e ss This phil o s o phy is i n c o mp arably i n fe ri o r

.

to th at which th e c o unt e r - re vo luti o n o pp o se d to it I n th e .

l o gic al r e s pe ct which finally p redom i nates s ays C o mt e th e , ,

re vo l uti o nar y criticism c anno t to day re sist th e sy ste m o f th e -

“r e tro gr ad e S ch o o l ” I n a r e g ul ar disc uss io n th e l att e r w o ul d

.
,

soo n h av e c o mp e ll e d it to admit th at it all o ws t h e e ss e n t ia l

pri n cipl e s o f th e o ld reg im e whil e re fu si ng to acc e pt th e ir

m o st i ndi spe ns abl e c o ns e qu e nc e s 2
.

C 1
IV 6
o urs, C , I V 59
0 2
o urs, , 1 .
2 94 Th e P hilosophy of A ug uste C om te

T he i n m o st c o n t radi c ti o n fr o m which th e re vo luti o nary

phil o s o phy su ffe rs will b e c o m e m o re and m o re app are nt A .

no t f ar dist ant m o m e n t wil l a rriv e wh e n th e e f fo rt to re st o re

th e p ast wil l i n clud e a l arg e n umbe r o f th o s e wh o h av e c o n
tribut e d t o its d e st r ucti o n T h e p artis ans o fn atural re ligi o n
.
,;

an d e v e n t h o s e o f t h e m o st advanc e d D e ism will r ally to

C ath o li c i sm as to th e r e al fo u nd ati o n o fth e so ci al o rg ani sati o n
which th e y d e fe nd T h e al te r native will th e n b e se t up
.

be twe e n th e o nly two so luti o ns which are l o gi c al and o rg an ic

e ith e r t h e o ld rég im e with th e
,
C ath o lic o rganis ati o n o r th e ,

n e w w ith th e p o sitiv e o rg an is ati o n

,
B e tw e e n th e s e t wo th e re
.

is n o r o o m fo r th e critic al l ibe ral m e t aphysic al re v o luti o nary

, , ,

syst e m whi c h by wh ate ve r nam e it m ay b e c all e d sig nifi e s

, , ,

n o o rg an i sati o n at all
”
.

T he o ld régim e was b o u nd to p e rish b e c ause in it th e so c i al ,

o rg an is ati o n wa s c o n ne c t e d with a syst e m o f be li e fs and o f

d o gm as whi c h c o uld no t withst and th e spirit o f i nve stigati o n .

I n o rd e r th at t h e n e w régim e m ay e sc ap e this c aus e o f d e ath ,

m ust it b e abl e with o ut su ffe ri ng to b e ar t h e i nd e fi n it e e x e rcis e

o fan abs o lut e fre e d o m o fe x ami nati o n ? No r e pli e s C o mt e
, ,

th e re is no sy st e m c ap abl e o fe nduri ng u nd e r th e s e c o nditi o ns .

But it su ffi c e s th at in c o n stituti ng its e l f th e ne w faith which

, ,

i s th e b asis o fso ci al o rd e r sh o uld h av e u nd e rg o ne th e t e st o f

,

fre e e x ami nati o n as we see it pr ac ti se d in th e p o sitive sci e nc e s .

I t su ffic e s th at i nst ea d o fa re ve al e d faith we sh o uld h ave 8

, ,
.

d e m o nstrate d faith whi c h will th e n b e imm o vabl e and whi c h ,

will no m o re h ave to b e c all e d in qu e sti o n .

C o mte th e n admits th e pre limi nary t e st but h e is o ppo s e d

,

t o fr e e e x ami nati o n i n d e fi n it e ly re ne w e d Thi s disti nc ti o n

.

all o w s us to r e c o n c il e so m e o fh is d e c l ar ati o ns which o th e rwis e

w o ul d appe ar c o ntrad ic t o ry H is l ang uage di ffe rs ac c o rdi ng

.
 '

P h z losophy k
2 95

as he sp e ak s o fth e p o sitiv e d o gm a in th e pro c e ss o f fo rm ati o n ,

o r o f th at d o g m a o nc e it h as b e e n fo rm e d Wh e n it is in .

p ro c e ss o f fo rm ati o n th e d o gm a is subj e ct t o criticism and if ,

it is no t vict o ri o us in resisti n g it it d o e s n o t b e c o m e an o bj e ct
o f b e li e f. No m att e r h o w much we m ay d e pl o re t h e e ve r
d iss o lvi n g e ne rgy o f th e spirit o fanalysis and o f e x ami nati o n ,

it re m ai n s be ne fici al no ne th e le ss by c o mp e lli n g fo r t h e inte lle c

, ,

tu al and m o r a l re o rgan is ati o n t h e pr o d ucti o n o fa phil o s o phy

,

c ap abl e o f sust ai n i ng th e d e cisive t e st o f a d e e p discussi o n ,

“
fre e ly pro l o n ge d u n ti l th e e ntir e c o n victi o n o f public re as o n
h as t ak e n pl ac e . This is a c o n diti o n fro m which no thi ng
.

h e nc e fo rth c a n e x e mpt u s T h e spiritu al r e o rga n is ati o n

.
1
,

says C o mt e will b e t h e r e sult o f pur e ly i n t e ll e ctu a l acti o n

, .

I t supp o s e s a v o lu nt ary and u nan im o us a ss e nt at th e e nd o f

c o mpl e te discussi o n with o u t t h e i nte rv e nti o n o f th e spiritu al
p o w e rs to h ast e n th e c o nclusi o n .

But d o e s it fo ll o w th at fre e d o m o f e x ami nati o n sh o uld

rem a i n i nd e fi n it e ly with o ut limits ? U nd o ubte dly it h as b e e n
a g o o d thi n g th a t m e n sh o uld se e in thi s lib e rty a n i n d e fe a sibl e

right which th e y w e r e all t o e nj o y T h e diss o luti o n o f o ld

.

b e li e fs in this way was e asi e r and m o re r apid T h e b e tt e r .

thi s si ngul ar ph as e in o ur s o ci al d e v e l o pm e n t is analys e d

“ ”
,

t h e m o r e will th e c o n victi o n g ai n gro u nd th at with o ut th e

c o nqu e st and use o f this u nlimit e d fre e d o m s o ci al re o rg anisa

ti o n c o uld no t h ave b e e n pre p are d But th i s sm g ular ph as e
.
,

was a tr an sit o ry o n e . Whe n it h as be e n go ne thro ugh wh e n ,

c o mm o n pri ncipl e s h ave agai n b e c o m e u n ive rs ally acce pte d ,

aft e r su f fi ci e nt v e rifi c ati o n t h e right o f e x ami nati o n wil l

“ ”
,

ag ai n r e tur n withi n its no r m al and p e rm ane n t limits which ,

c o n s ist in discussi ng th e c o nne c ti o n o f c o ns e qu e nc e s with

fu nd am e nt a l and u ni fo rmly re sp e c te d rul e s b ut with o ut agai n ,

q ue sti ni g th s e rul e s th e m se lve s

o n e
2
.

T h e q ue sti o n th e n r e du c e s its e l f to k no wing wh e n th e t e st

1
C
o urs, IV 75 q
, s . C IV 4 3
o urs, , 0
.
2 9 6 T h e P h ilosophy o f A u u ste
g C om te

m ay be l e gitim at e ly c o ns id e re d as at an e nd Wil l th e .

i ndividu al appro b ati o n o f all th e m e mbe rs o f so c i e ty be

r e quire d and a k ind o fc o ns e crati o n by u n ive rsal su ffrage ? A s
,

a m atte r o f fac t such u n an imity will p e rh aps ne v e r b e re a l is e d

,
.

I n j ustic e it is n o t ne c e ss a ry Wh e n we d e m an d it we fo rge t
.

th at P o litic sci e nc e is a p o sit iv e sc i e nce th e high e st and ,

m o st c o mplic ate d o f all No o ne po ss e ss e s any a uth o rity

.

in th e s c i e nc e s if h e is n o t c o mpe t e nt T h e p e o p l e h as no .

t h o ught o f m a ki n g its o pi n i o n pr e v ail in th e m ; and in ,

m atte rs o fsci e n c e all wh o are no t in a c o ndit io n to u n d e rst and

,

d e m o n strati o n s are th e p e o pl e T h e c o n ve rge n c e o fint e l l e c t s

.

p r e —supp o s e s t h e v o l u n t ary an d i n t e n ti o na l r e n u n ci ati o n o n

t h e p art o f th e gr e at e r n u mb e r o f th e ir s o ve re ig n right o f
“

e x a mi nati o n
1
.

I n this way th e r ight is t ak e n fr o m n o o ne T h e u se o f it .

is simply i ntru ste d by th o s e wh o are i nc o mp e te nt to th e

c o mp e te nt o ne s This i ntrusti ng fre e ly ac c e pt e d by all l asts
.
, ,

as l o n g a s th e c o n diti o n s which m ad e it n e c e ssary No m o ral .

!

o rd e r c o uld b e c o mp atibl e with th e w an d e ri ng lib e rty o fmi nds

at th e pr e s e n t tim e i f it w e re to p e rsist i nd e fi n ite l y I t is n o t
”
.
,

p o ssibl e th at any m an wh e th e r h e b e c o mp e te n t o r no t sh o uld

, ,

e v e ry day c all i nt o discussi o n th e ve ry b as e s o f s o c i e ty .

“
Syste m atic to l e ran c e c anno t e xist and h as ne ve r re ally ,

e xist e d e xc e pt o n t h e subj e ct o f o pi ni o n s which are r e g ard e d

,

as i n di f fe r e n t o r as d o ubtful 2 ”
.

S uch is th e m e an i ng o f th e c e l e br ate d p ass age s o n libe rty

o f c o n sci e n c e with whi c h C o mt e h as so o ft e n b e e n r e pr o ach e d .

H e h ad writt e n it in 1 8 2 2 and q uo t e d it hims e lf in t h e fo urth

,

v lum e
o o f h
t e C o u rs
’
a e p h ilosop h ie p osi ti ve
3
n e ve r susp e cti n g ,

th at anythi n g c o u ld be s aid agai nst it Th e re is n o libe rt y .

o f c o n sci e nc e in a str o no my in physics in ch e mist ry in

, , ,

physi o l o gy in th e s e n se th at e ve ry o ne w o uld d e e m it abs urd

,

no t to t ak e o n tr ust t h e pri n cipl e s e st ablish e d in th e s e sci e nc e s

1
C IV 1 0
o urs, , 0.C I V 46 2
C
o urs, I V 46 , .
a
o urs, , .
 Philosophy 2 97

by c o mp e te nt m e n I f it is o the rwi se m p o l iti c s it is b e c aus e

.
,

t h e o ld pri n cip l e s h av e fall e n and as th e ne w o ne s are n o t ye t

, ,

fo rm e d the re are pro p e rly sp e aki n g in this i nte rv al no

, , ,

e st ablish e d pri n cip l e s I t is th e n in no way a qu e sti o n o f

”
.

imp o si ng b e li e fs up o n m e n o fwhi c h th e y are n o t to judge by

.
,

a ki n d o f spiritu al d e sp o tism C o mte m e re l y wish e s to e xt e n d

.

t o p o litic s considere d as a p ositive science wh at i s adm itt e d in

, ,

t h e o th e r sc i e nc e s by c o mm o n c o nse nt .

With o ut m uch tro ub l e it is e asy t o se e wh e nc e o r ig inat e

,

t h e e ss e nti al fe at ur e s o f this phil o so phy o f hist o ry I n so far .

a s it r e pre se nt s th e d e v e l o pm e nt o f h u m an ity as subj e ct t o a

law o fe v o luti o n which c ause s it to g o th ro ugh a su cc e ssi o n

,

o f ph as e s wh o s e o rd e r is r ati o nally d e t e rmi ne d in a w o r d as ,

ro ress th e l e adi n g id e a is due t o C o mt e s pir tu l f th r

“ !
i
’

p g ,
-
s a a e ,

t o C o nd o rce t .

F o r t h e i n t e rp re t ati o n o f m o re re c e nt e v e n ts and fo r th e ,

j udgm e nt pass e d up o n th e Middl e Age s C o mte draws his in ,

s pir ati o n fr o m J o s e ph de M aistre fr o m th e tr aditi o nal ist ,

s ch o o l ,and fr o m S ai n t S im o n T o th e l att e r a m o n g o th e r
-
.
,

id e as C o mte o w e s th e disti ncti o n b e twe e n th e c ritic al and th e

,

o rg an ic p e ri o ds But o n C o mte s o wn c o n fe ssi o n jo s e ph de ’

.
, ,

M aistr e s i n flu e nc e o ve r his mi nd was e spe c i ally d e cisiv e

’
.

Lik e de M aistre h e thi n ks th at th e e ntire ly ne g ative phil o

,

s o phy o f t h e X V I I I c e n tu ry k ne w v e ry w e ll h o w t o d e stro y
.
,

b ut sh o w e d its e lf p o w e rl e ss t o c o n stru c t L ik e de M aistre .

a g ai n h e is pe rsu ad e d o ft h e fact th at s o ci al o rd e r r e quir e s a

,

spiritu al p o w e r b e sid e th e te mp o ral p o w e r and that th e ,

régim e o f t h e Middl e Ag e s was a m ast e rpi e c e o f p o lit ic al

“

wisd o m pre ci se ly be c au se at th at pe rio d th e C ath o li c Ch urc h

had bro ugh t ab o ut th e i nd e pe n d e n c e o f t h e spir itu al p o w e r .

F inally lik e de M aistre h e m ak e s th e sal v at io n o f h u m anity

'

, ,
2 98 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

in t h e fut ure d e pe nd u p o n th e i r re tu rn to a u nity of

b e li e fs .

C o mt e th e n e qu ally pro c e e d s fro m th e l ea r ne d id e o l o gist

with wh o m th e phil o s o phic al e ffo rt o f th e X V I I I c e ntury .

e nds and fro m th e ard e nt tr aditi o nalist f

,
o r wh o m this v e ry

c e ntury is th e abh o rre d p e ri o d o fe rro r and o fm o ral p e rve rsi o n .

H e u n d e rt ak e s n o t i nd e e d t o re c o n c il e th e m (wh o c an re
,

c o n cil e thi ngs which e xclud e e ach o th e r but to fo u nd a m o re

c o mpre he n sive d o ctri ne in which h e will c o mbi ne wh at h e h as
r e c e ive d fr o m th e o ne and th e o th e r As such his o wn t as k .

app e ars t o him and h e d o e s n o t b e li e v e i t t o b e ab o v e h is

,

p o we r ; h e fe e ls hims e lf in a p o siti o n to av o id th e mist ak e s

which his pre d e c e ss o rs w e r e b o u nd to m ak e C o nd o r c e t h ad .

a cl e ar id e a o f s o ci al s c i e nc e ; but th at did n o t pr e v e n t hi m

fro m misu n d e rst an di ng th e re al o nw ard m o ve m e n t o f t h e

hum an mi nd an d o nly to e stim at e his o wn c e ntu ry j ust l y at
,

th e e xp e n s e o f pr e c e di ng p e ri o ds De M aistr e in h is t ur n no
.
,

l e ss pr e judic e d th o ugh in ano th e r way d o e s no t u nd e rst an d

, ,

hist o ry any be tt e r T o r e st o re s o c i e ty to re e st ablish it in

.
,
-

t h e st at e in which it was in th e X I I I c e ntury h e g o e s t o .

.
,

absurd l e ng ths H e cl a ims t o t ak e no n o tic e o f th e advan c e

.

o f c ivilis ati o n and o f th e d e v e l o pm e n t o f th e sci e n c e s

, C on .

do rc e t wh o br o ught t o l ight th e id e a o f pr o gre ss u nd e rst o o d

, ,

no thi ng in t h e Middl e Age s De M aistr e wh o so c l e arly saw

.
,

t h e e x c e ll e n c e o f t h e M iddl e Ag e s d e n i e s th e gl ari n g fac t o f

,

pro gre ss .

B o t h are e xcus abl e b e c aus e th e y w e re still to o c l o s e to th e

,

Fre n ch R e vo luti o n to grasp its full m e ani ng I n th e h e art o f .

t h e fr ay th e y w e r e still p a rti ally bli nd e d C o mte wh o s e e s .

,

thi ngs fro m a gre at e r dist anc e als o s e e s th e m fro m a highe r

,

st andp o i n t H e e sp e ci ally h as at his di sp o s al an i n strum e nt

.

which ne ith e r C o nd o rc e t n o r de M aistre po ss e sse d : h e h as

c o mpl e te d th e p o siti ve m e th o d and h e appli e s it to th e sci e nc e
,

o fhist o ri c al ph e no m e na I n a wo rd h e h as fo u nd e d S o c i o l o gy
.
, .
 P hilosophy 2 99

I f h e did n o t pu sh so c i al sc i e nc e as far fo rward as h e

b e l ie ve d at any rat e h e was right in thi nki n g th at h is
,

o rigi n ality lay in this att e mpt T h e pr o b l e m was c l e ar l y s e t

.

to bl e nd i n t o a ne w an d p o sitiv e sci e n c e th e s o c i al id e as pro

c e di n g fro m th e sp e c ul ati o n o f th e X V I I I c e ntury w ith th e

.

h ist o ri c al truths bro ught to light by th e adve rs ari e s o f thi s

phi l o s o phy T h e s o l uti o n giv e n by C o mt e is th e v e ry s o u l
.

o fh is syst e m By a tw o fo ld and vigo ro us e ffo rt h e cre at e d

.
,

“
s o ci al physics O n t h e o ne h an d h e c arri e s to th e p ast
.
,

t h e id e a o f pr o gr e ss which C o nd o r c e t c o uld o n ly apply to th e

fut ure and this all o w e d him to i nstitute a p o siti ve phil o s o phy
,

o f hist o ry . At th e s am e tim e h e p ro j e cts i n t o th e future th at

,

spiritu al o rd e r which de M aistr e h ad o nly s e e n in th e p ast ,

and this fur n ish e s him with t h e fr a m e f o r his s o c i al re

“

o rg an is ati o n .

Thi s phil o s o phy o f hist o ry which no l o nge r c o nt ai ns any

,

thi ng m e t aphysi c al is s o ci al dy nami c s this r e o rg ani sati o n

,
“

o fso ci e ty by m e ans o fa spiritu al p o w e r wil l b e t h e p o sitiv e

, ,

p o l ity
.
 C H A PTE R I
TIIE P RI N CIP L ES OF ET H I CS

I N C o mte s sy st e m Ethi c s o cc upi e s an i nt e rm e di at e p l ac e

’

b e tw e e n th e o re tic al phil o s o phy and p o l itic s Ethi c s re st s .

u p o n th e phil o s o phy as P o liti c s r e sts o n t h e pri n cipl e s o f

E thi c s .

Ethics is n o t an abstract sp e c u l ativ e s c i e nc e ; it d o e s no t

t h e r e fo r e b e l o n g t o th e hi e r archy o f th e fu n d am e n t al sc i e n c e s .

I t is tru e th at at t h e e nd o f his life C o mte add e d a se ve nth

, , ,

t o th e s ix sci e n c e s o f t h e e arly list which pre ci se ly was

1
,

e thi c s th a t i s t o say t h e sci e n c e o f th e l aw s which g o v e r n th e

,

e m o ti o n s p a ssi o n s d e sire s e tc o f m an c o nsid e re d as an

, , ,
.
,

i ndividu a l But h e re i t is m o re a qu e sti o n o fe thic al p sy c h o l o gy

.

t h at o f e thics u n d e rst o o d in th e s e n s e usu al with phil o s o ph e rs .

T h e l att e r in C o mt e s e y e s n e v e r c o n stitut e d th e o bj e c t
’

, ,

o f a sp e c i a l sci e n c e As a m at te r o f fact e ith e r th e l aws o f

.
,

m o ral ph e no m e na are studi e d and this r e s e arch fo u nd e d , ,

u p o n t h e p o sitiv e k n o wl e dge o f i n dividu al an d c o ll e c tive

hum an natur e fo rm s a p art o f s o ci o l o gy O r st arti n g fro m

,
.
,

t h e k no w l e dg e o f th e s e l aw s we ask o ur se l ve s wh at w o uld b e ,

t h e b e st u se fo r th e p o w e r p o ss e s se d by m an o f m o dify ing

ph e no m e na ; in this c as e it is an art wh o s e r ul e s mu st b e
de t e rmi n e d B ut fo r t h e se rul e s to b e r ati o n ally e st ablish e d
.
,

s o ci al sci e nc e i ts e lf must b e r ati o nally fo u nd e d Thus fro m .

,

t h e p r actic al as fr o m th e sp e c ul ativ e p o i nt o f vi e w p o sitiv e ,

e thics d e p e n ds up o n s o ci o l o g y .

1
P l p o II 4 3 6 7 ; III 4 6 5 ; I V 3 3 C té h i m p ti i t 5 7 5 9
. o s. , ,
-
,
-
0 , 2 , a c s e o si v s e, -
.

I z I - I z 3 .
3 04 T h e Ph ilosophy of A ug u ste C om te

I n th e X V I I I c e nt C o mte d isti nguish e s thre e sc ho o l s o f

. .

Ethi c s : th e utilitari an s c h o o l e sp e c i ally re pre se nt e d in his

,

vi e w by H e lve ti us ; th e K anti an Sch o o l whi c h h e k no ws ,

thr o ugh C o usi n ; and fi nal l y th e phil o s o ph y o f th e m o r al

s e ntim e nt ; th at is to say th e Sc o ttish s c h o o l ; by no ne o fth e
,

thre e is h e fully s atisfi e d T h e Utilit ari an ism o fH e l ve tius r e st s

.

up o n an i nad e qu at e psych o l o gy which disto rts hum an nature

,

by d e nyi ng agai nst all e vid e nc e th e e xist e nc e o f altru isti c in

H e i nv o lu n t arily t e n d s t o r e du c e all t h e s o ci al
“
c linat io n s .

re l ati o ns to lo w c o aliti o n s o f privat e i nt e re sts T h e e thi c s

.
”

o f duty ,
a s pr e s e nt e d by C o usi n at any r ate o rg an is e s
, ,

a ki n d o f m yst ific atio n in which t h e so c all e d p e r m ane n t

“ -
,

dispo siti o n o f e ach o ne to dire ct his c o nduct ac c o rdi ng to th e

abstrac t id e a o f duty w o uld e nd in a sm all nu mb e r o f c l e v e r

s ch e m e rs t aki n g a dv ant age o f th e hum an rac e Th e s e ”

.

r e m arks in C o mt e s mi nd addre ss th e m se lv e s l e ss to th e
,
’

d o ctri ne th an to t h e p e rs o n o f C o usi n Fi nally th e Sc o ttish

.

s c h o o l was ne are r t o th e truth th an th e o th e rs si n c e it ,

admitt e d th e e xist e n c e o f th e altru istic t e nd e n ci e s b e sid e th e

se lfish o ne s But it l ack e d p re cisi o n and stre ngth

. .

Th e s e v ari o us sch o o ls o f e thics h ad a c o mm o n faili n g

by whi c h th e y sto o d c o nd e m ne d as e rro ne o us : th e y w e re
c o n stit ut e d b e fo re th e sci e nc e o f h um an nature h ad b e c o m e
p o sitive Th us utilit ari an m o rality is quit e d e d ucibl e fro m a
.

psych o l o gy such as th at o f C o n dill ac : but this m e t aphysic al

“ ”

psych o l o gy t re at e d m an chi e fly as a r e aso ni ng and c al

c u lating be i ng and misu nd e rst o o d th e pre p o nd e ran c e o f
,

t h e a ffe ctiv e fac ulti e s I n th e s am e way t h e g e rm an th at

“ ”
.
, ,

is to say C o usi n s phil o s o phy re pre s e n ts th e eg o as b e i ng fre e

’
, ,

o fan abs o lu te fr e e d o m an d as b e i ng subj e ct e d t o n o law wh at

,

e v e r : h e n c e a str an ge a nd m e t a physic a l s y st e m o fe thics o fduty .

Th e o l o gic al d o c tri ne s o f e thics hith e rt o h ave b e e n v e ry

 T h e Principles f
o E th ics 3 5
0

su e p rio r to th o s e which h ave be e n pro d uc e d by phil o s o phi c al

spe c ul at io n
. T h e r e as o n fo r this is simpl e With o u t any sc ie n .

t ific app arat u s r e l igi o n impli e s a far m o re e x ac t p sy c h o l o gy

,

than th at o fphil o s o phe rs up to th e pre s e nt t im e I t de als with .

m an
“
c o nc re te and re al I t was bo u nd no t to mi sund e rst and
.

th e r e l ative imp o rt anc e o f h is fa c ulti e s and th e re spe ctive ,

p o w e r o f his inc li nat io ns and h is p assi o ns T h e pri e st v e ry .

o fte n h as a b e tt e r k no w l e dge o f m e n th an t h e m e t aphy si c i an .

C o mte e spe ci al ly admi re s Christ ian m o ral ity o r m o re ,

p re c is e ly th e t e achi ng o f this m o ral ity as it was g iv e n by t h e

,

C atho li c c h urch in th e M idd l e Age s “

A ll th e di ffe re nt
.

b ranch e s o f this m o rality h ave re c e ive d m o st impo rt ant

i mp ro v e m e n ts fro m C ath o li c ism I n s ayi ng L o ve thy
“
.

ne ighb o ur as thy se lf , in m aki ng c h arity th e supre m e vi rt ue ,

in fight ing ag a i n st s e lfish ne ss as t h e so ur c e of all vic e s ,

c hristi an m o rality h as t aught wh at abo ve all o th e r thi ngs

m ust b e e ngrave d u p o n m e n s h e arts P o sitive phi l o s o phy
'
.

w il l use th e sam e l angu age .

“
F o r any o ne wh o h as go ne
d ee p l y i nto t he st udy o f hum anity un ive rs al l o ve as C ath o l i c ism
,

c o nc e ive d it is still m o re imp o rtant th an th e i nt e ll e c t itse lf in

th e e c o no my o f o ur ind ivid ual o r s o ci al e xist e nc e be c au s e to ,

th e g ai n o f e ac h o ne and o f all l o v e m ak e s u se e v e n o f th e
,

l e ast o f o u r m e nt al fac u l ti e s whil e s e l fish ne ss disfig ure s o r

,

p aralyse s e v e n th e b e st disp o siti o ns

'

1 ”
.

B ut th e gre at e st m e rit o f C ath o licism h as b e e n that it

c o nsid e r e d e thics as th e first o f s o c ial ne c e ssit ie s
“
Eve ry .
”

th ing is sub o rdi nate d to it : it is s ubo rdi nate d to no thi ng I t .

d o mi nate s th e e ntire life o f m an so as c e as e l e s sly to dire c t

a nd c o n tr o l all his act io n s . I n anc i e nt s o c ie ty m o ral s ,

d e p en d e d up o n p o lit ic s I n Christi an so ci e ty e ve n p o liti c s

.

b o r ro w s its pri nc ipl e s fro m m o rals That was th e fi ne st .

tri umph o f C ath o l ic w isd o m which i nstitut e d a spiritu al

“ ”
,

p o w e r i nd e p e nd e nt o fth e t e mp o ral p o w e r .

1
C V 3 45 6
o urs, ,
-
.
 T h e Ph ilosophy u uste C om te
3 0 6 o f g
A

U n fo rtu nat e ly thi s pure and l o fty m o rality h as li nk e d its

de sti n i e s with th o s e o fC ath o licism No w C ath o licism h as b e e n .
,

u n abl e to k e e p p ac e with th e pro gre ss o fth e i nte ll e ct and o fth e

p o sitive m e th o d At first it g ave pro o f o f admirabl e
.
“

l ib e rality L at e r it be c am e i ndi ffe r e n t and th e n ho stil e to

.
”

‘
, ,

s ci e n tific pr o gre ss F in ally it sh o w e d its e lf t o b e r e tr o gr ad e

”
.
,

wh e n it h ad t o struggl e fo r its o wn e xiste nc e C ath o li c .

d o gm as u nd e rwe n t a d e c o mpo siti o n th e n e c e ss ary st age s o f

which h ave b e e n alre ady d e scrib e d as it was b o u nd to h app e n
1
,

a n d as a m att e r o f fact did h app e n t h e m o r a lity it se lf c am e ,

t o b e a ffe c te d by t h e a tt acks which w e r e l o o s e n i n g t h e fo unda

t i o n s o fd o gm a T h e w o rk o fcriticism aft e r h avi n g succ e ssive ly

.
,

rui ne d all t h e fo u n d ati o n s o f t h e o ld i n t e ll e ctu al syst e m was ,

s ubs e qu e ntly t o att ack th o s e o f e thics S o we se e th e .

family m arri ag e h e re dity ass ail e d by s e n s e l e ss s e cts 2

,
“
, , .
”

T o b e sure priv at e m o r alit y d e pe nds up o n o th e r c o nditi o n s

,

th an th o s e o f u nanim o us o pi ni o n s imm o ve ably e st ablish e d .

Natural fe e li ng sp e aks in it N e ve rth e l e ss it is n o t b e y o n d .

t h e r e ach o f c o rr o si ve discussi o n wh e n Opi n i o ns o f this ki nd

“ ”
,

a re l acki n g but public m o r a lity is a ll t h e m o r e thr e at e n e d

,
.
“

H e r e with o ut n ami n g th e m but cl e arly p o i nt i ng th e m o ut

, , ,

C o mt e att acks th e sch o o ls o f S ai n t S im o n and F o uri e r -

.

Whil e dre ami ng ab o ut r e o rg an is ati o n o f s o ci e ty th e y o nly

d e ve l o p e d th e m o st d an ge ro us anarch y S ai n t Sim o ni sm -

e n d e av o ur e d to rui n th e fa mily which t h e r e v o luti o n a ry st o rm ,

with a fe w e xc e pti o ns h ad re sp e ct e d F o uri e rism d e n i e s

, .

t h e m o st g e n e r al an d th e c o mm o n e st pri n cipl e o f i n dividu al

m o rality th e sub o rdi nati o n o f th e p assi o n t o re as o n .

Must we th e n g o b ack as th e re tro grad e sch o o l w o uld h ave

,

u s do and in o rd e r to s av e m o r ality b ase it o n c e ag ai n up o n

,

r e v e al e d r e ligi o n ? But t h e r e m e dy if it b e n o t w o rs e th an ,

t h e dis e as e is at l e ast p o w e rl e ss to c ur e it
, H o w c o uld t h e .

r e ligi o us d o gm as b e us e d as a supp o rt fo r m o rality wh e n the y

1
C I V 3 8 S B k III h p t V
o urs, , I O -
.
-
ee Coo IV 4 , c a er .
3
o urs, , 10 .
 T h e Principles f
o E thics 3 07

c anno t sustai n th e ms e lve s ? Wh at in th e future c an we, ,

e xp e ct fr o m b e li e fs which h av e n o t withst o o d t h e pr o gr e ss o f

r e as o n ? F ar fr o m b e i ng abl e to fu rnish a s o lid b asi s fo r

m o rality to day
-
re ligi o us be li e fs t e n d m o re and m o re to
,

b e c o m e d o ubly d e trim e nt al to it O n th e o ne h an d the y are

.

o pp o s e d t o th e hum an mi n d p l aci n g it o n a m o re s o lid

fo u n d ati o n ; and o n th e o th e r h and th e y are n o t active
, ,

e no ugh e ve n a m o n g th o s e wh o b e li e ve in th e m
, t o e x e rt a ,

m ark e d i n flu e n c e up o n c o nduct T h e cl e are st re sult o f th e s e

.

d o gm as is to i n spire th e gre at e r numb e r o f m e n wh o are still

imbu e d with th e m with an i nsti nctive and i n su r m o u nt abl e
,

h atre d o f th o s e wh o h av e sh ak e n th e m o ff .

B e i ng fo u nd e d up o n p o sitive sci e n c e C o mt e s e thics w il l ,

’

r e pro duc e its e ss e n ti al ch arac te rist ics I n th e first pl ac e I t

.

will b e r e al th at is to say it will re st up o n o bs e rv at i o n and

“
,
”

n o t up o n im agi n ati o n I t will c o n sid e r m an as h e is and n o t

.

a s h e fan c ie s hims e lf t o b e I t will th e n r e st n o t up o n th e

.
,

abs t r act an al y sis which h e m ay m ak e o f h is o wn h e a rt but ,

up o n th e pro o fs give n by hum an ity o f its i ncli nati o n s and o f

t h e usu al m o tive s fo r its a cti o n s duri n g th e c e n t uri e s m ad e
,

k no w n to us by hist o ry I n a w o rd thro ugh th e u se o f an

.
,

o bj e ctiv e an d truly s ci e ntific m e th o d it will avo id s e ri o us

,

c aus e s fo r mist ak e s .

B e i n g p o sitive this m o r ality will b e r e l ative F o r th e im

,
.

m e di at e and n e c e ss ary c o ns e qu e n c e o f th e r e l ativity o f k no w

l e dge is th e re l ativity o f m o rality K an t wh o m C o mte him se l f
.
,

c all e d th e l ast o f his gre at pre curs o rs at te mpt e d to pre s e rve

“
,
”

an abs o lut e ch a r act e r f o r e thics : it is b e c aus e at b o tt o m h e , ,

a ls o pr e s e rv e d m e t aphysi c s T h e m o r al law s ays K an t is

.
, ,

u n ive rs ally v alid fo r e v e ry fre e and r e as o nabl e b e i ng But .

t h e o nly sp e c i e s o f b e i n gs o f this ki n d which we k n o w th e ,

 u uste C om te
3 0 8 T h e Ph ilosophy o f g
A

h um an S pe c i e s is d e ve l o pe d in t im e ac c o rdi ng to th e l aw s o f
,

a n e c e ssary p ro gr es s At e ve ry st age in this d e ve l o pm e nt it

.

was no t po s se sse d o f an e q u al aptitud e fo r und e rst an di ng

a m o r al law . T h e m o st we c an say is th at with tim e th e , ,

aptit ud e be c o m e s g re at e r and gr e a t e r Th e n t h e e xi st e nc e
.
,

o fo ur sp e c i e s d e p e nds up o n a gr e at n umbe r o f n at u ral c o n

ditio ns— astr o no mic al physi c al bi o l o gi c al so c io l o gi c al I f

, , , .

th e se c o nditi o ns w e re di ffe re nt whi c h is no t an ab su r d hyp o

,

th e sis o ur m o ral ity w o uld b e di ffe re nt al s o I t is th e n r e l ative

,
.

at o n c e to o ur sit uati o n an d t o o u r o rg an is ati o n

”
.

T h e id e a o fa r e l at iv e m o r ality is stil l a s o u rc e o f an xi e ty
to m any mi nds wh o t ak e it to be a pr e limi nary st e p t o w ard s
,

t h e ne g ati o n o f all m o rality Th e y th ink th at e ithe r go o d is

.
,

abs o lut e o r t h e dist inc ti o n b e tw e e n g o o d and e vi l v an i sh e s ;

the re is no middl e c o urs e H o w e ve r histo ry sh o ws th at t he re

.
,

is a way o ut o f such d e ad l o c ks Was no t a simil ar d il e mm a

.

put o n th e subj e c t o f k no w l e dge ? Was it no t e ve n s aid

e ith e r truth is abs o l ut e o r th e r e is n o t truth at all ?
, T he
dil e mm a was a fal se o ne T h e hum an mi nd h as be c o m e
.

acc ust o m e d to r e l ativ e t ru th s and an anal o g o u s so luti o n wi ll

e nd by b e i ng al so ac c e pt e d f o r e thi c s T h e a ck n o wl e dgm e nt
.

o f its r e l ativity w ill n o t b e any m o r e fat al f o r it th an it h as

b e e n fo r sc ie n ce .

As th e disti nc ti o n be twe e n th e tr ue and th e fals e sub sists ,

alth o ugh g o o d is n o l o ng e r c o n c e iv e d as abs o lut e and i m m ut

abl e so th e di sti ncti o n b e tw e e n g o o d and e vil subsist s alth o ugh

, ,

g o o d is no l o nge r c o nce ive d as a supre m e th e o l o gic al o r

m e t aphy sic al re ali ty but as a pro gre ss t o w ards an e nd
,
“ !

i nd e fi n it e ly appro ach e d but ne ve r r e ache d T h e e vo l u tio n o f .

m o r ality c o rre sp o nds to th at o f k no wl e dg e B o th g o thro ugh .

suc c e ssiv e ph ase s o f which e ac h o ne impli e s th e pr e c edi ng

,

o ne s and pr e s e rv e s whil e m o di f
, yi ng th e m Th e re are th e n .

“
go o ds as th e r e are tr uths pro visi o nal and t e mp o rary
” “
,
”
.

P o sitive phil o so phy c an th us give a r e as o n fo r m o ral id e as ,

 T he Pri nciples f
o E th ics 3 09

so m e tim e s so p o o r and e ve n so h o rrib l e upo n whi c h h um an ity ,

fo rm e rly l ive d I t d o e s no t j udge th e e thi c s o fth e p ast as

.

c o mpar e d w ith th e id e al s o f to day I t giv e s ful l j u sti c e to

-
.

t h e th e o l o gi c al and phil o s o ph ic al e th ic s whi c h it r e pl ac e s ,

and o f wh ic h it pro cl a im s its e lf th e l e gitim at e h e i r .

Fi nal l y it c l aim s ne ith e r to be m o ral no r o rig inal in m o ral ity .

Alre ady p o sit ive sc i e n c e is a p ro l o ng at io n o f pub l i c re aso n .

”

I n its nat ure it d o e s n o t di f fe r fro m simp l e c o mm o ns e nse to ,

wh ic h it o we s its e sse nt ial id e as o nl y in sc i e nce th e se id e as

assum e a m o re syst e m ati c d e fi nit io n and an abstr ac t c h ar ac te r ,

whi c h all o w s us to m ak e th em o st th o ro ugh u se o fth e m In .

th e sam e way sy st e m ati c m o r ality is a p ro l o n g at io n o f

sp o nt ane o u s m o rality I t simp l y dis e ng age s th e p ri nc ip l e s
l
.

which as a m atte r o f fact h ave di re c ted th e m o r al d e ve l o p

, ,

m e nt o fhum anity D o e s it fo ll o w fro m this th at it o nl y h as

.
,

so t o sp e ak an i nt e re st f
,
o r c u r io sity and th at m o ra l p ro g re ss
,

t ak e s pl ace o fits e l f as r apidly and as c o mpl e te ly as p o ssibl e ,

e ve n if phi l o so phi c al r e fl e c ti o n is no t a ppli e d to it ? B ut

C o mt e h as al re ady re pli e d to thi s fo rm o f ine pt so phism '

Wh at is tru e o f th e e vo l uti o n o f h u m an ity in ge ne ral is tru e

o f t h e m or al e v o l uti o n i n c lud e d in it Thi s e v o l uti o n all o w s
.

o f cris e s o fdis e ase s o f st o pp ag e s I n d e v e l o pm e nt e tc

, ,
I t is , .

th e n no t at all a m atte r o f indi ffe re nc e th at syst e m ati c

m o rality sh o uld b ri ng o ut stro ngly th e e nd t o w ards whi c h
m an s e ffo rt s must t e nd acc o rdi ng to h is nat ure and to th e
’
,

wh o l e o fth e c o nditi o n s in whi c h h e is p l ac e d By th ro wing .

l ight upo n its adv anc e it h e lp s p ro gre s s as e ffe c t ual l y as it is

in m an s p o we r to h e lp it
’
.

I n its p o sitive fo rm th e e nu nc i ati o n o f th e m o r al p ro b l e m

is as m uc h as po ssibl e to m ak e th e sympath e ti c inst inc ts
P l p I 91
o . o s. , , .
3 10 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug u ste C om te

pre d o mi nate o ve r th e s e lfish impuls e s s o ci ability o ve r ,

pe rs o nality .
” 1

Th at hum an n ature admi t s o f symp ath e tic i n sti n c ts o r

.

, ,

a cc o rdi n g to t h e n am e giv e n th e m by C o mt e altru istic ,

i n sti n c ts is n o t a p o s tul at e but a fact P o sitive psych o l o gy

,
.

pr o v e s it I t is o ne o f th e s o lid p o rti o n s o f G all s d o ctri ne

.
'
.

T o b e c o n vi n c e d o f this it is e n o ugh t o obs e rv e m e n childre n , ,

an d e v e n an im a l s With o ut the s e i nsti n c ts m o r e o v e r s o ci e ty

.
, ,

w o uld n o t subsist M e taphysici an s wh o c o nsid e re d m an as

.

a b e i n g acti n g chi e fly thr o ugh r e as o n i n g m ay h av e im agi ne d ,

a s o ci e ty fo u n d e d up o n t h e e xpr e ss e d o r t a cit c o n s e n t o f th e

c o ntr acti n g p arti e s I n re ality b e fo re all t hi ngs m e n o b e y

.
,

t h e ir i n cli n ati o n s I f th e y liv e in s o ci e ty it is assure dly

.
,

b e c aus e th e ir affe ctive faculti e s l e ad th e m to it With o ut .

i nb o r n a ltruistic te nd e n ci e s th e re c an b e no s o ci e ty and no
m o r ality .

B ut bi o l o gy h as pr o v e d th at si nc e o rg an ic life pre p o nd e r at e s
,

o v e r an im al li f e t h e s e lfish i n sti n cts are n atur a lly str o n g e r

,

th an th e symp ath e tic o n es H o w c o uld th e l att e r succ e e d

.

first in c o u nte r b al an ci n g and th e n in d o mi nati ng th e fo rm e r ?

-

This pr o bl e m w o uld h ave n o s o luti o n if th e p ro gre ssive

a sc e n d e n cy o f t h e a ltruistic i n sti n cts v e ry w e a k o rigi na lly , ,

w e re n o t favo ure d by t wo o rd e rs o f c o nditi o ns th e o ne ,

subj e ctiv e th e o th e r o bj e ctive wh o s e acti o n is u nc e asi ngly

, ,

fe lt .

T h e fo ll o wi ng d e v e l o pm e nt o f d o m e stic an d s o ci al af fe cti o n
is in t h e first pl ac e th e r e sult o f th e fa ct th at m an liv e s
, ,

in s o ci e ty a nd c o n s e qu e ntly in c o n ti n u al r e l ati o n with h is

, , ,

n e ighb o urs a nd his fe ll o ws F o r as we k no w habitu al e x e rcis e

.
, ,

fav o urs th e d e ve l o pm e n t o fo rgan s and o f fu ncti o n s F urth e r .

,

th e n atur al i n fe ri o rity o f t h e altruistic i n cli n ati o n s is c o m

pe n s ate d fo r by th e ir a ptitud e fo r “
i nd e fi n ite e x te n si o n ”
.

Th e y c an gro w in all t h e m e mbe rs o f a gro up at th e s am e

P l p I 9 1
o . os .
, , 2 .
 T he P r i nc
ifi/es of E th ics 3 1 I

tim e F ar fro m th e ir b e i ng o bst acl e s in e ach o th e r s way th e

.
’

stro nge r altruism in o ne aw ak e n s and e nc o urage s nasc e n t

a l truism in o th e rs O n th e c o n tr a ry fo rms o f s e lfish n e ss t e n d
.
,

t o e xcl ud e e ach o th e r S ave in th e c as e o f a m o re o r l e ss

.

d urabl e c o aliti o n th e ir riv al cl aims cl ash with e ach o th e r to

, ,

th e p e ril o f s o ci al p e ac e Th e y are b o u nd to m ak e mutu al

.

c o n c e ssi o ns Th e y are ne ve r alt o ge th e r r e pre ss e d h o we ve r

.
,

s o ci al li f e o blig e s th e m t o dissimul at e an d to r e str ai n th e i r

m o st vi o l e n t o utbursts .

Add to this th at th e b e ne v o l e nt a ffe cti o ns find in th e ms e lve s

t h e ir o wn s at isfacti o n and th a t this s atisfacti o n is ine xh aus
,

tibl e We tire o facti ng s aid C o mt e we e ve n tire o f thi n ki ng

.
, ,

we n e v e r tir e o f l o vi n g T h e a ffe cti o n s which it is swe e t e st

.

t o e xp e ri e n c e h av e als o a te n d e ncy t o o ccupy a l arg e r and

l arge r pl ac e in th e h e art o f m an M o r e o ve r th e qu e sti o n fo r
.

th e m is no t to t ak e th e pl ac e o f e go ism but to h o ld it m o re
a nd m o r e in ch e ck I f hum an n ature e v o lve s it is as we
.
,

k no w with o ut any e ss e n ti al tran sfo rm ati o n T h e pre p o nd e r

, .

anc e o f s e lfish ne ss in us is c o nne ct e d with o rg an ic r e as o n s

which are b ey o n d o ur p o w e r and which will n e ve r ch ang e .

T o wish to upr o o t e g o ism is fo l ly g u i ve u t fa z re l a ng e fa it la

’

bi te. Wh at e ve r e ffo rts we m ak e we c an no t p e rm ane ntly ,

ch ange th e r e l ati o n s b e twe e n o u r altruistic and e g o isti c

i nsti n cts T h e l atte r will alw ays b e th e stro nge st But we
. .

c an r e g ard this ch an g e as an id e a l which we sh all appr o ach

alw ay s with o ut e v e r a ctu ally r e achi n g it

1
.

Fi n ally it is r are that o u r s e lfish insti ncts do no t aw ak e n

,

so m e altruistic fe e li n g as a c o u n t e r r e sult F o r e x ampl e th e -

.
,

se xu al i n sti n ct d e t e rmi ne s th e d e v e l o pm e nt o f m at e r nal l o v e .

T h e d e sire to imp o s e o ne s will g e ne rat e s d e v o ti o n t o t h e

’

c o mm o n w e al O nc e th e b e ne vo l e nt affe c ti o n h as aris e n it
.

p e rsists and gro ws and afte r th e s e lfi sh insti nct h as c e as e d to

, ,

O pe rate it is s o m e tim e s so ught aft e r fo r its o wn s ak e This

, .

C té hi m p iti i t p 1
’

1
a c s e os v s e, . 0.
3 12 T h e Ph ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

fac t, s ay s C o m te gre at l y fac i l it at e s th e so l uti o n o f th e gre at

,

h um an pro bl e m 1 .
”

This so luti o n w o uld h o we ve r re m ai n e x c ee di ngly u nc e rtain

and v e ry pr e c ar i o u s if its o n ly guar an t e e w e re th e wh o l e o f

t h e s ubj e ctiv e c o nditi o n s which h av e j ust b e e n analy se d .

F o r in o rd e r th at it m ay be c o m e e st ablish e d an d l ast thi s

, ,

gro up o f c o nditi o n s its e lf r e qu ire s wh at C o mte c all s an

o bj e ctive b asi s T h e m o r al o rd e r with in us m ust b e unite d
”
.

to th e o rd e r o ft h e w o rld o utsid e o urs e l v e s .

I t is tru e th at i n cl udi ng th e altrui sti c o ne s o ur i n cli nati o n s

, ,

t e n d t o b e c o m e sp o n t ane o usly d e v e l o p e d But it is als o true .

th at th e e xt e r nal w o rld t e nds c o nst antly t o m o dify th e m ,

t hr o ugh th e m e d iu m o fth e impr e ssi o n s which it m ak e s up o n

us .F o r th e d e ve l o pm e n t o f th e s e inc l inati o n s is n e c e ss arily

af fe ct e d by th e dire cti o n o f o ur c o nc e pti o n s and by th e
su c c e ss o fo u r u nd e rt aki ngs No w b o th are e ve r b e co mi ng
.

m o re sub o rdi nate d to e xt e rnal o rd e r s inc e th e e nd o f sci e nc e ,

is to k no w this o rd e r and th at o f t h e us e fu l art s is to m o dify

,

it I n this way i nd e pe nd e ntly o f o urs e lve s o rd e r t e nd s in

.
, ,

a tw o fo ld m anne r t o r e gul at e o u r i nsti n cts e ith e r by th e

“
,

e xcit e m e n t r e sulti n g fr o m th e no ti o n s which it pr o cur e s o r ,

by e x e rcis e c o rre sp o ndi ng to th e e ffo rts which it d e m and s 2

.

I n a w o rd t h e l aws o f t h e m ili eu
, in which we liv e ac t lik e
a r e gul ati o n up o n o ur i n c l i n ati o n s Alth o ugh an i ndir e c t .

o ne t h e i n flu e n c e o f th e s e l aws up o n th e m b e c o m e s in th e
,

l o ng run irre si stibl e .

A nd furth e r in o rd e r to be fe lt this acti o n d o e s n o t re q uir e

, ,

th at we sh o uld h ave a m o re o r l e ss c l e ar k no w l e dge o f it .

Ev e n at the tim e wh e n m an k ne w alm o st no thi ng o f t he l aws

o f natur e h is activity was m o re o r l e ss c o n tro ll e d by th e m
, .

T h e e nds s o ught aft e r by m an h av e alw ays d e p e n d e d up o n

h is m o r al and phys ic al nat ure : th e re aso n o f th e failur e o r
th e su cc es s o f h is e f fo rts h av e alw ays be e n fo u n d in th e
C té h i m p iti i t p x3 8
1
a c s e os P l p
v s e, . II 6 2
.
1
o . os. , . 2 - 0.
 T h e Principles f
o E th ics 3 I3

na tural l aw s Gr ad u al ly p o sitiv e k no wl e dge was d e ve l o pe d

. .

M an be c am e c o n s c io us o f t h e o rd e r b y which h e is him se l f
s urr o u n d e d o f which h e f
,
e e ls hims e lf t o b e a p o rti o n an d in ,

which his i nte l l e c t c o ll ab o r at e s in a m e asure di ffi c ult t o de

t e r mi ne b ut ye t c e rt ai n T h e e xt e rnal r e gul at o r whi c h wh at
.
,

e v e r o ur w il l m ay be impo se s it se lf up o n o u r ac tivity is th u s
,

re v e a l e d to o ur mi nd T h e l ast d egre e to b e re ac h e d is th at
.

it sh o uld fi n ally b e acc e pt e d by o ur fe e l in g Thi s is p re ci se ly .

t h e r e s u l t o bt ai ne d by p o sit iv e phi l o so phy F o r it m ak e s u s .

k no w o u r indiv idu al and s o c i al n ature I t h as sh o w n us th at .

hum anity m ust no t b e e xpl aine d by m an b ut m an by h u ,

m an i ty . I t h as e xpl ai ne d th e gro wi ng d e ve l o pm e nt o fso c i al

li fe and th at o fal truism which is at o n c e its c o nd iti o n an d its
,

c o n s e qu e nc e We no w un d e rst an d th at o ur b e n e vo l e n t
.

af fe c ti o n s find th e m se l ve s sp o n t ane o us l y in c o n fo rmity with

t h e n a t u ral l aws which g o v e r n th e d e ve l o pm e nt o f s o ci e ty
” 1
.

Th us it is th e c o n ti n u al pre ss ure o f e xt e rn al o rd e r wh ic h
m ak e s o u r e g o tisti c i n sti n c ts c ap abl e o f b e i n g tr ai n e d The y .

w o uld u nd o ubt e dly g e t th e m ast e ry if o ur sympath e tic in ,

c linat io ns did n o t find with o ut in t h e l aws o f nat ure a c o n, ,

s t an t supp o rt which r e as o n e n ds by u n d e rst andi n g .

M o r al p e rfe c t io n w o ul d be h arm o ny re ali se d am o ng all m e n ,

by th e ir m utu al go o dwill ac c o rdi ng t o th e pri n cipl e L i ve for

,

o th e rs and at t h e
, , s am e tim e h arm o ny re alis e d in e ac h i ndi
,

v idu a l s o ul by th e subj e cti o n o f e go ism to th e altru istic

,

s e n tim e n ts But this h arm o ny is no t wh at is p ro d uc e d in th e

.

first pl ac e O n th e c o ntrary war r age s b e tw e e n th e s o c ial

.
,

g ro up s d is c o rd be tw e e n t h e m e mb e rs o fth e s am e gr o ups th e
, ,

p a s si o n s i n e a c h i n dividu a l so ul S o m e tim e s o n
. e s o m e tim es ,

a n o th e r o fo ur t e nd e nc i e s infl u e nc e s u s ac c o rdi ng t o c i rc u m ,

s t an c e s wh o se d e t ai l s v a ry to i n fi nity No st ab l e o rd e r o f .

s ubo rdi n ati o n is e st ab l ish e d a m o n g o u r t e n d e nc i e s : h u m an

n at u re c o n sid e r e d by its e lf d o e s no t c o n t a i n any pri nc ip l e

, ,
l
P o l po s, I
.
, 2 3 .
3 4
1 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

which c o uld m ai nt ai n su c h an o rd e r L e ft to its e lf th e .

,

h um an s o ul w o uld re m ai n in th e st at e c all e d by S pi no z a
flu c tu ati o n T h e m o ral pro bl e m w o uld h av e n o durabl e
.
”

s o l uti o n H e n c e th e ne c e ssi ty o fa u n ive rs al brak e to m ak e

.
,
”

s ur e o f th e d e ve l o pm e n t o f t h e a ltruistic t e nd e n ci e s Thi s .

brak e is no o th e r th an th e i ne vit abl e and c o n ti nu al pre ssure

o f th e o rd e r o f t h e w o rld up o n o u r c o n duct a n d in t h e l o n
g ,

run , u o n o u r m o ti ves
p .

Wh e n th e hum an mi n d wish e s to dire ct its o wn ph e no m e na ,

it i ns ti n ctiv e ly s e e ks in th e g e ne ral syste m o f i nte lligibl e fac ts

,

which c o n stitut e s th e w o rld a gro up o fw e ll c ombi ne d d at a in

, ,

o rd e r t o r e fe r its o wn l e ss st a bl e ph e n o m e na t o it We h ave .

a lr e ady s e e n an e x am pl e o f this ki n d in t h e fo rm ati o n o f

l angu age M an c o ns o lid at e s his th o ught by c o o rdi nati ng

.
“

i t with a c o mbi nati o n o f signs which th e ms e lve s are m o ve

m e n ts and as such are subj e ct t o th e ge n e ral l aws o f t h e
, , ,

u ni ve rs e I n e thics we find s o m e thi ng an al o g o us T h e m ai n

. .

a r t ific e in m o r al p e rfe cti o n writ e s C o mt e li e s in dimi n ishi ng

, ,

t h e i n c o n sist e n c y i n d e cisi o n an d div e rg e n c y in o u r purp o s e s

, ,

b y c o nn e cti n g o u r m o r al and practic al i nt e ll e ctu al h abits with

e xt e r n al m o t i v e s T h e mutu al li n ks b e tw e e n o u r v ari o us
.

t e nd e n ci e s are i n c ap abl e o f s e curi ng th e ir s tability u n til t h e y ,

h av e fo u nd an imm o vabl e fulcrum o utsid e th e ms e lv e s T o .

e n dur e t h e h arm o ny o f th e s o ul must b e r e alis e d by its e lf as

,

fo u nd e d o n r e as o n th at is to say up o n th e o rd e r o f th e w o rl d
, ,
.

Wh at pl ac e must we a ssign to this p o sitive e thics in th e ,

usu al cl assific ati o n o fe thic a l d o ctri n e s ? I t is o ft e n c o n sid e re d

as a th e o ry o f th e m o r a l s e ntim e n t A n d as a m att e r o f fact
.
, ,

C o mt e hims e lf ch aracte ris e s his e thics by th e dire ct pre

“

p o nd e ranc e o fth e s o ci al fe e li ng I n its o rigi n a ls o it b e l o ng s

.
”

t o t his gr o up C o mt e m ak e s use o f Ad am S mith and o f

.
 T h e Principles f
o E th ics 3 5 1

H um e wh e n , fir m s th e e x iste nc e o f inb o r n alt r uist ic

he af

te nd e nc i e s withi n th e s o ul H e i nd ic ate s th e se t e nd e nc i e s in
.
,

his C erehral T able u nd e r th e ge ne ral nam e o f symp athy

,
“ ”
,

whi c h c o m e s fr o m th e S c o ttish sc h o o l Establish th e se .

alt r ui sti c fe e l in gs h e says and m o ral ity is g iv e n t ak e th e m

'

, , ,

aw ay and m o r ality di sapp e ars

,
.

B ut th e se phil o so ph e r s did n o t pu sh anal ys is any furth e r .

Th e y ne gl e c t e d to inq uire h o w m o ral ity is d e ve l o p e d in

fac t alth o ugh th e alt ruist ic t e n d e nc i e s are l e ss p o we r ful th an
,

t h e o th e rs C o mte r e pro ac h e s th e e th ic s o f th e S c o ttish

'

s c h o o l w ith its sup e rfi c i al ch arac te r and its l ac k o f syste m at ic

st ric t ne ss H e prai se s th e i r p sy c h o l o gy whi c h is l e ss inc o m
.

p le te th an th at o f t h e ir c o nt e mp o r a r ie s ; h e is no t satisfi e d

with th e ir th e o ry o f hum an ac tivity I f th e e x ist e nc e o f .

symp ath e ti c i n c li nat io ns is a fac t t h e i r e vo l u t io n m ust n o ne

,

th e l e s s b e e xpl ai ne d T h e l att e r o nly b e c o m e s i nt e lligibl e

.

th ro ugh th e c o nti nue d ac ti o n o f th e o bj e c tiv e o rd e r up o n th e

so u l o f m an an a cti o n wh ic h b e c o m e s all th e m o r e d e c isive as
,

m an b e c o m e s m o re c o n sc i o us o f it by t h e di sc o v ery o f th e ,

l aws o f nat ure .

Thus in o rd e r to g ive an acc o u nt o fh um an m o r al ity C o mt e

, ,

add s a rat io n al e l e m e n t t o th e fe e l in g e l e m e n ts U nd o ubt -

.

e dly it is n o t an a p ri o ri e l e m e n t But it is th at which fo r .

C o mte is th e substitute o fth e a p ri on I n m e taphysic al d o c tri ne s:

th at is th e inv ari ab l e ne s s o f th e l aws o f ph e no m e na whi c h ,

m ak e s th e w o rl d i nte llig ibl e F ro m th e sp e c ul ative p o int o f

.

vie wthi s i nt e l l igibility un d e r th e nam e o f th e p rinc ipl e o f

,
“

la ws is th e b asis o fo ur sc i e nc e F ro m th e p rac t ic al p o int

,
”
.

o f vi e w th e o rde r o fth e wo r l d al o ne c ang uar an t e e t h e l ast ing

'

har m o ny o f o ur incl inat io ns I n th is way it b e c o m e s th e

.

found at io n o fm o ral ity .

I n sp ite o f th e m o re t han e vid e nt d iffe re nc e s o f all k in d s

wh ich se p arate C o mte fro m M al e branc h e and fro m Le ib nit z ,it
t he n app e ars th at in h is ph il o so phy a s in th e irs th e id e a o f ,
3 16 T h e Ph ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

o rder is m ad e p ass fro m the d o m ain o f k no w l e dge t o

use o fto

th at o fac t io n U nd o ubte d l y w ith C o mte fro m th e o l o gi c al o r

.
, ,

m e t aphys ic al this id e a h as b e c o m e p o s it ive H e d oe s no t .

int e nd t o g o be y o nd e xp e rie nc e and afli rm s no thi n g wh ic h ,

c anno t b e v e r ifi e d as a fac t But l ik e th e ph il o so ph e rs h is

.
,

pr e d e c e s so rs h e is no ne th e l e ss an x io us to find th e unity o f
,

t h e so ul be ne ath t h e d iv e rsity o fits m o d e s o fac t iv ity and t o ,

sh o w th at th e o re ti c al re aso n and pr ac ti c al re aso n are o ne and

t h e s am e M al e br an c h e so l ve d th e pr o b l e m by app e al i ng to
.

t h e id e a o f divi n e p e rfe c ti o n e xpr e ss e d e v e rywh e r e by o rd e r

, .

C o mt e e xpl ains th at th e pre ssu re e x e rc ise d by e xt e rnal o rd e r

g e n e r at e s o rd e r in o u r m ind (wh i c h m o r e o v e r c o l l ab o r at e s in
it) th e n as a c o ns e qu e nc e in o ur fee li ngs and fi nally in o ur
, , ,

a c ti o n s . T h e st o ics h ad alr e ady s aid s o m e thi ng simi l ar o n

this s ubj e ct Bri e fl y C o mt e s e thi c s m ay be pre se nt e d as th e
’
.
,

p o sitive fo rm o fth e e thi c s o funive rsal o rd e r .

Sh all we th e n say th at b e i ng s e ntim e nt al and r at io nal at

,

o n c e this m o r ality is n o t d e fi n i te in c h a r ac te r ? I s it m e re l y
an e cl e cti c a tt e mp t at c o n c ili ati o n —
,

Ecl e c ti c i sm in a c e rt ai n
s e ns e w o u l d n o t frigh te n C o mt e P o sitive phil o s o phy fl atte rs
.

its e lf o n b e i ng ju st in r e gard to its pre d e ce ss o rs I t t ak e s .

pl e as ure in praisi ng e ach o f th e m fo r th e p o rt io n o f truth

which it c o nt ai n s But i n th e pre s e nt c as e th e re is no o cc as io n
.
,

fo r it to b e e cl e c tic I t su ffi c e s fo r it to b e re l ative and si nc e

.
, ,

it is a qu e sti o n o fm o r al and so ci al thi ngs to app e al to hi st o ry , .

Thu s we se e th at th e s e n tim e nt al and th e rati o nal pri nc ipl e s

in n o way e x c lud e e ac h o th e r F ro m th e hist o r ic al p o int o f
.

vi e w th at is to say if we c o nsid e r th e ge ne sis o f m oral ity th e

, , ,

l atte r fi nd s bi rth in th e symp ath e ti c feeli ng s wh ic h m an l ik e ,

m any o th e r an im als e xpe ri e nc e s and whi c h are sp o nt aneo usl y

, ,

d e ve l o pe d in d o m e sti c affe cti o n and in so c i al li fe H o w is it .

th at subs e qu e ntly this m o rality e vo lve s th at frie ndly re l at io ns ,

g ro w i nd e fi n it e ly in r e l at ive imp o rt anc e in spit e o fth e i nbo rn ,

s t re ngth o f se l fi sh ne s s th at h um anity in a w o rd sh o uld

, , ,
 T h e Pri nciples o f E thics 3 17

gr ad ually ris e abo ve anim al ity With o ut any d o ubt th at is ,

due to t h e d e v e l o pm e n t o fi ntelligence its e l f bo u nd up w it h ,

t h e e ffo rts whi c h m an is o bl ig e d to m ak e to ad apt h ims e l f to

th e m i lieu in whi c h h e l iv e s .

I nsti nc tive in its anim al o r igi n m o ral ity b e c o m e s rati o nal ,

in its h u m an e v o luti o n We c an say as m uch o fl ang uage o f

.
,

art o f sc i e nc e and e v e n o f r e ligi o n

, ,
Al l th is was in e mbry o .

in th e pr imitive nat ure o f m an si nc e no th ing abs o l ut e ly ne w

,

e v e r a pp e ar s in it All thi s o nly m an i fe ste d itse lf und e r

.

p re ssu re fr o m e xte rnal o rd e r whi c h c o nsc io us l y o r u nc o n

, ,

s c io usly is al ways b e i ng e x e rc i se d
,
O nly wh e n we k no w th is .

o r d e r we c an m ak e use o f o ur s c ie n c e to tur n th e nat u r al

,

fo r c e s to o ur o wn e nds wh ic h in th e m se l ve s are r ati o nal I t is

, .

in this way th at sy st e m at ic m o r al ity is s ubstitut e d to sp o n

t ane o u s m o r al ity ,

I f we w e re m o re int e ll ige nt say s C o mte it w o uld be e qui

, ,

val e nt to o ur be i ng m o re m o ral U nd e rst andi ng be tte r th e .

i nt im at e c o nne c ti o n whi c h in a th o us and way s at e ve ry -

,

m o m e nt bi nd s e ac h o ne o fus t o th e wh o l e o f o u r fe l l o ws we
, ,

s h o uld m o re sur e ly o bs e rv e th e p re c e pt : L ive fo r o th e rs ”

.

A nd if we w e re m o re m o ral it wo ul d be e q uiv al e n t to o ur
, ,

b e i ng m o re i nte ll ige nt We w o uld th e n ac t p re c ise ly as a

.

m o re o p e n and a d e e pe r i nte l lige nc e th an o u r o wn wo uld

l ead us to ac t No w we c an no t b e c o m e m o re m o ral by an
.
,

i mm e di at e m o difi c ati o n o f o ur i n c li nati o ns P o sitive psy .

cho lo gy h as e st ablish e d th at we e x e r c is e no di re c t acti o n up o n

th e affe ctive p art o f o ur nat u re But we c an e nd e avo u r to
.

b e c o m e m o re i nt e llige n t e ve ry s ucc e ssfu l e ffo rt th at we m ak e

to u nd e r st an d th e o rd e r o f n at u re af fo rd s us t h e m e an s o f
m aki ng fr e sh att e mpts I n thi s i nd ire c t m anne r m o ral ity
.
1

c an gr o w Fi nally it gro ws still m o re sure ly wh e n th e i nte l

.
, ,

l e ct h as u nd e rsto o d th at it d o e s n o t c o nt ai n its e nd withi n

i tse l f th at it must be s ubo rdi nate d to th e h e art an d th at th e
, ,

1
P 1 P I V p p d ix p 8
0 . o s. , , a en , . 1 .
3 I 8 T h e Ph ilosophy f
o

on ly h app ine s s c o mp at ib l e with t ure o fm

th e na an is fo und in
de v o ti o n and in l o v e
.
 C H APTE R I I

S O CI A L ETH IC S

L I V E fo r o th e rs suc h is th e supre m e fo rmul a o f p o s it ive

e thics . F e e li n g b e ars wit ne ss to its j ustic e sci e n c e dis c l o s e s
its far re achi n g imp o rt an c e an d its d e e p c o ns e qu e nc e s B ut
- .

this fo rmu l a is n o t o n ly appli e d in a ge ne ral way to th e

n at u r a l s o ci e ty fo rm e d by m e n a m o ng t h e ms e lv e s a s o ci e ty
,

i n which C o mt e e ve n i n clud e s an im als c ap abl e o f a ffe cti o n

a nd o f d e v o ti o n wh o s e s e rvic e s d e s e rv e o u r gr atitud e
, T he .

m o r al law fi n ds a pr e cis e applic ati o n in t h e d e fi n it e r e l ati o n s

e st ablish e d a m o n g m e n by civic s o ci e ty th at is t o say in t h e

,

rights a nd in t h e mutu al duti e s o f i n dividu als . I f it b e t rue

th at e thics and p o litics are disti n ct fro m e a ch o th e r p o liti c s ,

is no ne th e l e ss cl o s e ly sub o rdi n at e d to e thics T h e spiritu al

.

o w e r d o e s n o t g o v e rn h o w e v e r it dir e cts th o s e wh o g o v e r n
p
as w e ll as th o s e wh o are g o v e r ne d . I t is this p o we r wh ic h
gi ve s to all th e su m o f c o mm o n b e li e fs an d fe e li ngs wh ich
e n abl e S o ci e ty t o liv e . Thus to e thics b e l o n gs t h e task o f
.

d e te rmi n i ng th e pri n cipl e s acc o rdi ng to which p o sitive p o liti c s

will re gul at e th e r e l at i o n s b e tw e e n m e n .

No w as a m at te r o f fact t h e s e re l ati o n s are in a v e ry nu

, ,

s e ttl e d c o nditi o n t o day Public o rd e r is u n st abl e r e v o l uti o n s

-
.
,

a re fr e qu e nt suffe ri ng is e xc e ssiv e A re we to lay t h e bl am e

, .

u p o n public i n stituti o n s ? Th e y are r at h e r an e ffe ct th an a

c aus e . I n o rd e r t o u n d e rst an d t h e pre s e n t c o n diti o n it is
n e c e ss ary to gr asp th e law o f t h e g e n e r a l e vo luti o n o f hum an

i ty an d in p articul ar th at o f Euro p e an S o ci e ty I t th e n
,
.
3 2 0 T h e Ph ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

b e c o m e s app are n t th at th e act ual d isturb anc e s p ro c e e d

fro m th e gre at c o nfl ict i naug urat e d by th e F re nc h re vo lu
ti o n This c o nfl ic t is sti l l g o ing o n T h e o ld re gim e h as
. .

n o t ye t q uit e dis appe are d and t h e r e gim e whi c h is t o t ak e

,

its pl ac e is no t ye t o rganis e d T h e struggl e is pro l o nge d

.

b e tw e e n th e th e o lo g ic o m e t aphysi c al spi rit and t h e p o s itiv e

-

spirit b e twee n re ve al e d be li e f which is b e c o mi ng We ak e r and

,

d e m o nstrate d b e li e f whi c h is b e i ng fo rm e d and fi nally be ,

tw e e n th e o ld e c o no m ic l an dm arks and an i nd ustri al ac tivity

wh o s e l aws h av e no t ye t be e n di sc o ve re d .

T h e r e l ati o ns b e twe e n m as t e r s and w o r km e n are at th e

pre se nt tim e anar c hi c al
“
T h e adv an c e o f i nd ustry as it
.
”
,

g ro ws o ppre ss e s th e m aj o rity o f th o se wh o s e c o o pe r ati o n

,
-

in it is i ndi spe nsab l e . A nd th e e ve r m o re str o ngly m ark e d

d ivisi o n be t we e n b rains and h and s is far m o re due to th e
“ ”

p o lit ic al i nc ap ac ity th e s o c i al th o ught l e ssne ss and e s pe c i al l y

, ,

t o th e bli n d s e lfish ne ss o f th e m aste rs th an to th e i no rd inat e

d e m and s o f th e w o rkm e n T h e c apit al i sts h ave no t dr e am t

!

o f o rg an isi ng a l ib e ral e d u c a ti o n f o r t h e p e o p l e to d e f
e nd

i t agai nst th e se ducti o ns o f th e lre vo l uti o nary pr o p ag and a .

Th e y se e m to fear th at th e pe o pl e sho ul d re c e ive i nst r u c tio n .

A s far as th e y c an th e y t ak e th e pl ac e o f th e anc i e n t c hi e fs
'

wh o se so c ial ran k th e y c o v e t B ut th ey do no t inh e r it th ei r

.

ge ne ro sity Th e y do no t u n d e rst an d th at no b l e s se o blig e

. .
”

I n this way th e gr e at m ast e r s o f i n dust ry to o o ft e n t e nd

to utilis e th e i r p o litic al infl u e n c e to th e d e t r im e n t o f th e
publi c to app ro pri ate impo rtant m o no p o li e s and to t ak e
,

t h e adv an t ag e o f th e p o w e r o f c apit al to m ak e th e c l aim s o f

th e m ast e r s pr e d o mi nat e o ve r th o s e o f th e w o r k e r s with o ut ,

any r e g ard f o r e quity si nc e

, th e right o f c o al iti o n which is
all o w e d to th e fo rm e r is r e fus e d t o th e l att e r .

C o mt e saw th e bo urg eoisie at wo rk duri ng Lo u i s Philippe s -

’

re ig n and h e p ass e s s e ve re judgm e n t up o n it I ts po liti c al

,
.

C 1
V I 376o urs, , .
 S ocial E th ics 32 I

c o n c e pti o ns h e says re fe r no t to th e aim and e x e rc i se o f

, ,

p o we r b ut e sp e c ial ly to its p o ss e ss io n I t re gards th e re vo lu

,
.

ti o n as t e rmi nat e d by th e e st ablishm e nt o f th e p arl i am e ntary

reg i m e wh e re as this is o nly an e quiv o c a l h alti n g pl ac e A ”
.
,

c o mpl e t e s o ci al re o rgan is ati o n is no t l e s s fe ar e d by thi s

middl e cl ass th an by th e o ld upp e r cl ass e s Alth o ugh fi l l e d .

with th e critic al spirit o f th e X V I I I c e n t ury e ve n und e r a .

,

Re p ubli c an fo r m it w o u l d pro l o n g a syste m o f th e ol o g ic a l

hyp o crisy by m e an s o f whi c h th e re spe ctfu l submi ss io n o f
,

th e m ass e s is i nsur e d whil e no strict duty is imp o se d u p o n ,

th e l e ad e rs This is h ard up o n th e pro l e t ari at wh o se c o ndit io n

1
.
,

is far fr o m impro vi n g I t e st ablish e s d unge o n s fo r tho se

“
. .

wh o ask fo r bre ad I t be li e ve s that th e s e milli o ns o fm e n

2 ”
.

will b e abl e to re m ai n i nd e fi nit e ly e nc amp e d in m o d e r n

“ ”

so ci e ty with o ut b e i n g pr o p e r l y s e tt l e d in it w ith d e fi n it e and

re sp e c te d rights T h e c apit al whi c h it h o l d s in its h ands

3
.
,

aft e r h avi ng be e n an instrum e n t o f e m an cip a ti o n h as b e c o m e ,

o ne o fo ppr e ssi o n I t is thus th at by a p ar ad o x d ifficu l t to

.
,

u ph o ld t h e I n v e n ti o n o f m ac hi ne ry whi c h a p rio ri o ne w o uld

, , ,

b e le d t o be li e ve w o uld s o ft e n th e c o n diti o n o f th e pro l e t ar

, i at ,

h as o n th e c o ntr ary b e e n a ne w c aus e o f s uffe ri ng t o th e m

, , ,

and h as m ad e th e ir lo t a d o ubly h ard o ne

4
.

H e r e in bri e f we h av e a fo rmid abl e i ndi c tm e n t agai nst th e

, ,

middl e cl ass e s and in p articul ar agai nst t h e p o litic al e c o no my

,

which h as no urish e d t h e m C o mt e h as in vi e w so m e tim e s th e .

cl assi c al e c o no mists o f th e e nd o fth e X V I I I c e ntury s o m e .

,

tim e s th e ir o rth o d o x succ e ss o rs in th e X I X Th o s e o f th e .

X V I I I h e re gards as h avi ng c o ll ab o r at e d in th e gre at re vo lu

.

t io nary w o rk Th e y t o o k p art in t h e di ffusi o n o f c riti c al

.

d o c tri ne s and o fn e g ative phi l o s o phy I n thi s c ap acity th e y .

h av e no d o ubt re nd e re d c e rt ai n s e rvi c e s Th e y c o ntribut e d

, , .

to th e d e c o mp o siti o n o f th e o ld régim e P o litic al e c o no m y .

1
P l po I 89
. o s. C V 357
, 12 -
P l p. II 4 2
o urs, , .
3
o . os .
, , 1 0- 1 2 .

‘C V I 68 9 o urs, , 2 -
.
3 2 2 T h e P hilosophy f A ug u ste C o m
o te

h ad s uc c ee d e d in c o nvi nc i ng th e go v e rn m e nts t h e ms e lve s o f

h ir unfitne ss to
t e dire ct th e c o mm e rci al and i n dustri al m o v e
m e nt .
1

T h e afli nit ie s be tw e e n th e phil o s o ph e rs an d th e e c o no mists

o f th e X V I I I c e n tu ry are e vid e n t e no ugh : is it n e c e s sary t o
.

r e c all th e spirit o f i ndividu alism o fth e e c o no mists and th e ir

“
,

ch aract e ristic t e n d e nc y to re stri c t th e fu ncti o ns o fg o v e r nm e n t

a s mu c h as p o ssibl e ? D e spit e th e e ffo rts o f a gre at n umbe r
a m o ng th e m c o n s e rv ative s by t e mp e ram e n t o r by p o litic al
,

t e nd e n ci e s t h e l o gic al c o n s e qu e n c e s o f th e ir pri n cipl e s w e re

,

b o u nd to c o m e to light Thus th e su pe rfl u ity o fall r e gul ar

.

m o ral t e achi n g th e suppre ssi o n o f all o ffici al e n c o urage m e n t o f

,

sci e nc e and th e fine arts e ve n th e r e c e n t att acks agai n st th e

fu nd am e nt al i nstituti o n o f pro p e rty find th e ir o rigi n in e c o
n o m ic al m e t aphysics I t was with this d o ctri ne as with th e
”
.

o th e r p arts o f n e g ativ e phil o s o phy ; a ft e r h avi n g a cc o mplish e d

its w o rk o f d e structi o n it s o ught to tr a n sfo rm its c ri t ic al

,

pri ncipl e s i nto o rgan ic o ne s with o ut re alisi ng th at this ,

a m o u n t e d to r e pudi ati n g b e fo r e h an d any p o siti v e o rg an is ati o n .

T h e fa m o us fo rmul a Laisse z faire l aiss e z p ass e r is n o

“ ”
, , ,

m o re a re al pri ncipl e in p o litic al e c o no my th an lib e rty its e l f

i s o ne in p o litics pro p e rly so c all e d C o mte vig o r o usly -
.

o pp o s e s th e d o gm a o f n o n i nt e rve n ti o n B e c aus e in s o m e
-
.

p artic ul ar and s e c o n d a ry c as e s p o li t ic al e c o no my h as asc e r

t aine d th e n atur a l t e n d e n ci e s o f s o ci e ti e s in t h e dir e cti o n o f

a c e r t ai n ne c e ss a r y o rd e r it c o n clud e d fr o m this t h at an
, y
s p e ci a l i nstituti o n is us e l e ss But this o rd e r is e x tre m e ly ”
.

i mp e rfe ct T h e k n o wl e dge o f s o ci o l o gic al l aw s will give us

.

t h e p o w e r o f impr o vi n g it as we alre ad y do in t h e c as e o f ,

m e dici ne a nd surg e ry M e r e ly to admit th e d e gre e o f o rd e r

.

which is sp o n t ane o usly e st ablish e d in pra ctic e is e qui val e nt to

a s o l e m n dismiss al in th e c as e o f e v e ry di fficulty which
“

a ris e s L o o k at th e s o ci al crisis bro ught ab o ut by t h e

” “

C V 6 8 ; P ] p III 5 8 5
1
o urs, , 0 O . o s. , .
 S ocia l E th it s 3 3 2

d e v e l o pm e n t m achi ne ry I n re ply to th e j ust and urg e nt

of .

c l aims o f t h e w o rkm e n sudd e n ly d e priv e d o f th e ir m e a n s o f

live lih o o d and u n abl e in a day to find an o th e r o ur e c o no mists

, ,

c an o n ly re pe at with m e rcil e ss p e d an try th e ir b arre n ”

, ,

a ph o rism ab o ut abs o lut e i n dustri al lib e rty T o all c o mpl ai nt s .

t h e y d ar e t o answ e r t h at it is a q ue sti o n o f tim e ! A n d th is

t o m e n wh o r e quir e fo o d t o day ! Such a t h e o ry pro cl aims

“ -

i ts o wn s o ci al I mp o t e n c e
”
.

A nd so n e ith e r is p o litic al e c o no my a sci e n c e y e t n o r so , ,

far a re e c o no mists m e n o f sci e n c e

,
O rigi nally b e i n g ne arly
.

a ll b arrist e rs o r m e n o f l e tt e rs th e y w e r e str an g e rs t o t h e id e a o f
,
'

s ci e n ti fic o bs e rv ati o n t o t h e pr e cis e n o tio n o f a n at ur al law

, ,

a n d fi nally t o t h e s e ns e o f wh a t c o n stitut e s a d e m o n str ati o n .

I f we m ak e an e xc e pti o n o f Ad am Smith and o fa fe w o the rs ,

h o w c o uld t h e y apply t h e p o sitive m e th o d which th e y did n o t

k n o w to th e m o st di fficult c as e s o f analysis ? De stutt de Tr ac y
pl a c e d p o litic al e c o no my b e tw e e n l o gic and e thics A nd .

t his was n o t with o u t r e as o n : fo r it is ne are r t o m e t aph y sics

t h an t o p o sitive sci e n c e I n it w o rk pre s e rv e s its p e rs o nal

.
,

c h ar a ct e r sch o o ls C o n t e n d with ea ch o th e r t h e dlS C U S S lO fl S as

, ,

t o th e e l e m e nt ary n o ti o n s of v alu e o f utility e t c s av o ur o f , , .

,

s ch o l asticism T h e v e ry id e a o f studyi n g e c o n o mic al ph e no

.

m e na s e p ar at e ly is n o t sci e n tific si nc e th e v ari o us s o ci al ,

s e ri e s are i n te r d e p e nd e n t and si n c e in s o ci o l o gy m o r e
! -
,

articul a r l aws d e p e n d up o n m o r e g e ne r a l l aws Th e re I s n o

2
p .

sci e n tific stud y o f e c o no mic al facts u nl e ss we first l o o k at

t h e m fr o m th e s o ci o l o gic al p o i nt o f vi e w We c an n o m o re .

is o l at e th e l aws which re gul ate t h e m ate ri al e x I S te nc e o f

s o ci e ti e s t h an we c an d e scrib e m an as an e ss e n ti ally c alcul at i ng

b e i ng o n l y actu ate d b y th e m o t iv e o f p e rs o nal i nt e re s t

, .

T h e s am e o bj e cti o n s n atur ally h o ld go o d ag ai nst th e

a d v e rs ari e s o f t h e e c o n o mis t s si n c e in ge ne ral s o ci alists
, , ,

a n d c o mmu n ists h a v e c o n fi n e d t h e ms e l v e s t o an an a l o g o u s

C 1
IV 8
o u rs, ,
2 1 C IV 5
2
o urs, , 2 I 2 -
1 .
3 4
2 T h e P h ilosophy o
f A ug uste C om te

c o nce pti o n o f th e ir sci e nc e H o w e ve r whil e criticisi ng the m.

, ,

C o mt e re c o gn is e s th e fa ct th at th e y h av e e st ablishe d s o m e
t ruths . Eve rythi ng th e y say is no t fals e Thus th e y .
,

j ustly c l aim th e right fo r th e go ve rn m e n t to i nte rve ne in

e c o no m ic al re l ati o ns A nd if it b e absurd to wish to ab o lish
.
,

privat e pro p e rty as c e rt ai n s e cts d e m and e d it is v e ry tru e

, ,

th at pro p e rty is o f a s o ci al nature and th at it is ne c e ss ary to ,

re gul ate it T o e nd o w it with an abs o lute ch aract e r is s ays

1
,

C o mte an anti s o ci al the o ry NO pr o pe rty c an b e c re at e d

,
-
.
,

n o r e v e n tr an sm itt e d by its m e re p o ss e ss o r with o ut th e

,

c o nc urre nc e o f so ci e ty Thus alw ays and e ve rywh e re th e .

c o mm u nity h as i nte rve ne d in th e e x e rc is e o f th e right o f

pro p e rty T h e tax m ak e s th e p ublic a p art ne r in e ve ry
.

privat e fo rtu ne .

I n disc ussi ng th e e ss e nti al pro bl e ms o f pr o p e rty th e ,

c o mmu nists (wh o m C o mt e c o n fus e s with th e s o c i alists ) to day ,

-

re nd e r an i mp o rtan t s e rvic e T h e ve ry d ange rs c all e d fo rth .

by th e s o luti o n th e y pro p o s e c o ncur in fixi ng th e ge ne ra l

att e n ti o n up o n this gre at subj e ct with o ut which th e
“
,

m e taphysic al e m piricism and th e aristo c ratic se lfish ne ss o f

th e l e adi n g cl ass e s w o uld c aus e it t o b e se t asid e o r dis
d ai ne d M e re ly to st ate th e pro bl e m with o ut t h e so lu ti o n
.

with which th e c o mmu n ists ass o ci at e it w o uld n o t suffic e , .

O ur w e ak i nt e ll e ct d o e s no t faste n up o n a qu e sti o n fo r l o ng ,

u nl e ss a r e ply t o it b e it tr ue o r fals e which we must

, .

, .

ac c e pt o r r e j e c t is fo rthc o mi n g at th e s am e t im e M o r e o ve r .
,

are t h e c o mmu n ist a b e rr ati o n s m o re us e l e ss and at b o tto m

“ ”
, ,

m o re d ange ro u s th an the c urre nt illusi o n acc o rdi ng to

which t h e Re vo luti o n is e n d e d by th e e st ablishm e nt o f
th e p arli a m e n t ary r g im e P
é 2

But this be i ng admitte d th e i nno vati ng sch o o ls h av e all

,

fall e n i nto grave m ist ak e s I n ge ne ral be i ng d e vo id o f

!

.
,

t h e hist o ric se nse a nd o n , th e o th e r h an d igno ri ng th e ,

P l p 1
I 54
o . os . P l p
, I 6 3
1 .
2
o . os
.
, 1 0- .
 S ocial E thics 32 5

p ri nc ipl e s f so ci al
st atics th e y do no t se e th at m an s a c ti o n ’
o ,

u p o n so ci al ph e no m e na is o n ly us e fully e x e r c is e d withi n
c e rt ai n l i mits T h e id e a th at a r e vo luti o n c an in a m o m e nt
.
, ,

t r an sfo rm t h e reg im e o f pr o p e rty and all th e s o c i al c o n diti o n s

w hi c h d e p e n d up o n it is d e sti ne d to dis app e ar wh e n th e ,

p o sitive m o d e o f th o ught sh all h ave e xt e nd e d to th e s o c i al

p h e n o m e n a in t h e s a m e w ay as it h a s t o a ll o th e rs Th en .

e xtr av ag an t pr o p o sal s o f th e s o c i alist s wil l find n o

“ ”
t he

a dh e r e n ts an d
, th e d e m an d fo r wh at is re c o g n is e d as
i mp o ssibl e w il l n o l o nge r b e m ad e by any o n e .
1

Fi nally C o mt e r e pro ac h e s c o mm un ism with its t e nd e nc y

,

t o r e str ai n i ndividu ality This o bj e c ti o n c o mi ng fro m him

.
, ,

i s re m ark abl e fo r it h as v e ry o ft e n b e e n m ad e in his o wn

,

c as e. A s an o rg an is e r o f d e sp o ti sm J o h n Stu art Mill h as ,

c o mp ar e d him t o Ig natius o f L o y o l a Bu t C o mt e r e mi nds .

u s th at a cc o rdi n g t o him t h e c o ll e c tiv e o rg an ism o r s o ci e ty

, , , ,

d iffe rs fr o m th e i ndividu al o rg anisms o r livi ng b e i ng s by th e , ,

fa ct th at in it th e e l e m e nts liv e an i nd e p e nd e n t life T he .

pr o bl e m c o nsists in c o nc ili ati ng as much as p o s sib l e this fre e , ,

d ivisi o n with th e c o nv e rg e n c e o f th e ac tiviti e s Ne ith e r o f .

t h e two must b e s acrific e d to th e o th e r T o r e str ai n .

i n divid ualiti e s wo uld t e nd to d e stro y th e dign ity o f m an by

d o i ng aw ay with his r e sp o n sibility whil e t h e w an t o f i nd e ,

p e n d e n c e an d t h e subj e cti o n to a c o mmu n ity i n diff

, e r e n t t o him

w o uld m ak e li fe i nt o l e r abl e “
S uch is th e imm e nse d ange r
.

o f all ut o pi as which s ac rifi c e r e a l lib e rty to an ana rchic al

‘

e qu ality o r e v e n t o an e x agg e r at e d fr at e r n ity O n this

2 ”
, .

p o i n t p o sitive phil o so phy o n its o wn ac c o u nt t ak e s u p agai n

,

th e
“
d e cisive criticism o f c o mm unism m ad e by o ur
e c o n o mi sts .

1 C o urs, IV , 97 9
-
.
2
P o l po s
. . I ,
1 59 .
3 6
2 T h e P h ilosophy o f g
A u u ste C om te

P o sitiv e phil o s o phy d o e s n o t c o n fi ne its e lf to re futi ng th e

o rth o d o x e c o n o mists an d th e s o ci alists by t h e h e lp o f th e ir

o wn argum e n ts I n its tur n i t t ak e s up all th e qu e sti o n s

.

rais e d by the m and fo r th e ir s o lu ti o n t ak e s its st an d up o n

, , ,

t h e r e sults o bt ai ne d by s o ci o l o g y
‘

I n th e first pl ac e it st at e s th e pr o bl e m o f s o ci al re o rg an is
“

at i o n in its m o st g e ne r a l fo rm S o ci alists in th e s a m e way

.
,

a s th e ir adv e rs a ri e s are o n ly c o nc e r ne d with rich e s as if th e y

,

w e re th e o nl y ill divid e d and ill admi n ist e r e d s o ci al fo rc e s

- -
.

But th e re are o th e rs T h e re fo rm o f e c o no mic a l c o n diti o n s

.

d e p e nds in c o n clusi o n up o n th at o f m o r als B e fo r e all thi ngs

, , .

th e n we must re o rgan is e m o r als We must d e t e rmi ne th e .

rights and mutu al duti e s o f citi z e ns and i n spi re e ve ry o ne ,

with t h e fe e li n g o f his duty and with r e sp e ct fo r th e rights o f

o th e rs .

T h e t wo id e as o f right and o f dut y a re n o t d e alt wi t h by

C o m te I n th e s am e m anne r H e a c ce pts t h e id e a o f dut y
.

with o ut subje cti ng it t o a sp e ci al criticism Duty is t h e rul e .

o f acti o n pr e scrib e d t o e a ch o ne b o th by fe e li ng an d b y

r e as o n I t is o ur duty to do wh at we r e c o g n is e as m o st
.

suit abl e to o ur i ndi v idu al and s o ci al n atu r e O n th e c o ntr ary

“

.
,

th e id e a o f right dis app e ars in th e p o sitiv e st at e T h e .

w o rd right must b e re m o v e d fro m p o litic a l l angu age in

“ ”
,

t h e s a m e way as t h e w o rd c a us e is fro m phil o s o phic al

“ ”

l an gu ag e Th e y are t wo m e taph y sic al n o ti o n s E ve ry o ne

.
.

h as du t i e s an d to w ards all
,
NO o ne h as any right pro p e rl y
.

so c a ll e d T h e id e a o f right is as fa ls e as it is imm o r al
-
“
.
,

b e c aus e it pre supp o s e s an abs o lut e i ndividu a li ty .

Th e s e fo rmul ae c all e d fo rth str o ng pr o te sts p ar ticul arly ,

fro m M Re no uvie r and his discipl e s I nd e e d in th e

.
.
,

c o ns ti t uti o n o f ci v il s o ci e ty th e y app e ar to n e gl e ct j ustic e

,

C V I 48 ; P 1 p I 3 6 3 ; II 8 7
1 o u rs, , 0 0 . os .
, 1- , .
 S ocial E thics 3 7 2

en tire ly to e stablish th e re l ati o n s be tw ee n m e n m e re ly up o n

,

c h arity and fe e li ng H o w e ve r if we l o o k i n t o it cl o s e ly C o mt e s
.
, ,
’

th o ught as is o ft e n th e c as e h as b e e n fo rc e d and w arp e d

, ,

by its e xpre ssi o n But th e c o mp aris o n b e tw e e n th e id e as o f

.

right and o f c aus e sugg e st e d by him s atisfact o rily thro ws ,

a light up o n his m e an i n g .

P o sitive sci e nc e h as giv e n up th e s e arch aft e r c aus e s in ,

o rd e r t o c o n fi n e its e l f t o e st ablishi n g t h e i n v ari abl e r e l at i on s

b e tw e e n ph e n o m e na But th e s e re l ati o n s c o rre sp o n d to wh at

.

was fo rm e rl y c all e d c a us al a cti o n Th e y r e pre s e nt wh at was

.

re al in this supp o s e d acti o n T h e o nly diffe re n c e —but it i s

.

i m p o rt an t—c o n sists in th e fact th at th e hum an mi nd h as

fo rs ak e n th e abs o lut e p o i nt o f vi e w fo r th e re l at i v e o ne and ,

i s h e n c e fo rth c o n t e n t to e st ablish th e c o nne cti o n b e twe e n

ph e no m e na wi th o ut im agi ni n g c o nne ct ing e n titi e s ac c o rd
,

ing to M ale b ran c h e s stro ng e xpre ssi o n

’
.

T h e id e a o f right h as g o ne thr o ugh an an al o g o u s tr an s

fo rm ati o n I n th e s am e way as th e id e a o f c aus e it was
.
,

th e o l o gic al fo r a l o ng ti m e and the n m e taphysic al I n

, .

an tiquity it was cl o s e ly alli e d to r e ligi o n I n m o d e r n tim e s .

th e rights o f p e o pl e s an d e ve n t h e rights o f i n dividu als a re

, ,

c o n c e ive d acc o rdi n g to th e anci e n t st and ard o f th e rights o f

”

pri n c e s and m ast e rs But h avi ng b e c o m e e stablishe d by

.
,

triumphi n g o ve r th e rights o f pri n c e s th e rights o fp e o pl e s and

,

i ndividu als ultim ate ly re st as th e y did up o n a sup e r natur al and

, ,

mystic al b asis T h e rights which e ve ry citi z e n cl aims are th e

.

ch ange in sm all c o i n o f th e abs o lut e right fo rm e rly p o ss e ss e d

by th e s o v e re ig n wh o re pre s e nte d th e wh o l e nati o n H avi ng .

be c o m e m e t aphysic al in th e X V I I I c e n tury th e id e a o f .
,

abs o l u te i n t an gibl e
,
i nd e fe asibl e right which att ach e s to th e
, ,

hum an p e rs o n h as b e e n m o st us e ful fo r th e d e c o mp o siti o n o f

,

th e o ld reg i m e .But o n c e t his w o rk h as be e n acc o mplish e d it

, ,

c an no t b e m ad e use o fin th e w o rk o fre o rganis ati o n any m o re

th an th e o the r m e t aphysic al pri n cipl e s P o sitive phil o so ph y .
3 8 2 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug u ste C om te

a dmits no thi ng abs o lute Eve ryth ing in so ci e ty i s at o nc e

.

s ubj e ct to c o nditi o n s and p l ac e s c o nditi o ns up o n all thi ng s

,
.

N o thi ng is unc o nditi o nal and s o c i o l o gy te ache s th at we must

g o n o t fr o m t h e i n dividu a l t o so c ie ty but,
fr o m s o ci e ty t o th e

i ndividu al .

I n c o n s e qu e n c e h e re ag ai n we m ust give up e nd e av o uri ng

,

t o tran sfo rm a critic al pri nc ipl e i n t o an o rg anic o ne Un .

d o ubte dly rights will r e m ai n as th e c o n stant c o nne cti o n s

,

be tw e e n ph e no m e na subsist But we sh all c e as e to b ase

.

th e s e rights upo n a m e t aphysi c al c o n c e pti o n o f hum an nature ,

in t h e s am e way as we h ave c e as e d t o r e fe r th e c o nn e cti o ns

be twe e n ph e no m e na to m e t aphysi c al e ntiti e s c all e d c au se s .

I nst e ad o f m aki n g i ndividu al du t i e s c o nsi st in th e re sp e ct o f

u nive rs al rights we sh all c o nc e iv e i nve rs e ly th e rights o fe ac h
,

o ne as th e re sult o f th e duti e s o f o th e rs t o w ards him In a .

w o rd du ty is e st ablish e d b e fo r e right This pri ncipl e is o f

, .

t h e high e st imp o rt anc e in C o mt e s e y e s I n it h e s e e s an

’
.

e xpr e ssi o n an d a pr o o f o f th e pr e d o mi nan c e o f th e p o sitiv e

o ve r th e m e t aphysic al spirit and o f th e sub o rdi nati o n o f

,

p o liti c s to e thics H e lik e s to say th at th e c o n sid e rati o n

.
“

o f duty is b o u n d up with th e spirit o f t h e wh o l e

”
. O n th e
c o n trary , th e c o n sid e r ati o n o f right , if it b e c o n c e iv e d as

a bs o lut e l e ads t o a d e n i al o f all g o v e r n m e nt an d o f all s o ci al

,

o rg an is ati o n .

T h e n e w phil o s o phy will te n d m o re and m o r e to re pl ac e

th e v agu e an d st o rmy discussi o n o f rights b y t h e c a lm and ,

s tri c t d e t e rmi nati o n o f r e sp e ctiv e duti e s H e n c e fo rth th e

.
,

pro bl e m r ais e d by th e c o mmu n ists a ssum e s a ne w a sp e c t .

Th at th e re sh o uld b e p o we rful i n dustri al m ast e rs is o nly an

e vil i f th e y u se th e ir p o w e r to o ppr e ss t h e m e n wh o d e pe n d

u p o n th e m . I t is a g o o d thi ng o n th e c o n trary if th e s e
, ,

m ast e rs k n o w and fulfil th e ir duti e s I t is o f littl e c o nse

.

q ue nc e t o p o pul ar i nt e r e sts in wh o s e h an ds c apit al is ac c um u

lat e d so l o ng as t h e u se m ad e o f it is b e ne fici al to th e s o ci al
,
 S ocial E thics 32 9

m asse s . No w this e ss e nti al c o nditi o n d e pe n ds far m o re

l “

up o n m o ral th an up o n po litic al m e asur e s T h e l att e r c an

.

u nd o ubt e dly pre v e nt th e ac cumul ati o n o f rich e s in a sm all

n umb e r o f h ands at th e risk o f p a r alysi ng i n dustri al activity
, .

B ut th e s e tyr annic al proc e e di ngs w o uld b e far l e ss e ffic a

“ ”

c io us th an t h e un ive rsal r e pr o o f i n fl ict e d by p o sitive e thics

upo n a s e l fish use o f th e ri c h e s p o ss e ss e d T h e re pro o f .

w o uld b e all th e m o re irre sistibl e be c aus e O f th e fa ct th at

,

t h e v e ry p eo pl e wh o w o u ld h av e t o submit to it c o uld n o t

ch all e nge its pr1 nc 1ple i n culc at e d in all by th e c o mm o n

,

m o r al e duc ati o n . I t is thus th at in th e M iddl e Age s e x

”
,

c o mmu n ic ati o n was no t l e ss fe are d by th e pri n c e s wh o i nc u r

re d it th an it was by t h e pe o pl e s wh o wit ne ss e d it .

O nc e c o mm o n e duc ati o n was e st ablish e d u nd e r th e dire cti o n ,

o fth e spiritu al p o w e r t h e tyr anny Of t h e c apit alist c l ass w o uld

,

b e no m o r e to b e fe ar e d Rich m e n w o uld c o nsid e r th e ms e lve s

.

a s t h e m o r al g ua rdi an s o f public c apit al I t is n o t h e re a

.

qu e sti o n o f ch arity Th o s e wh o p o ss e ss wi l l h ave th e duty

.
“ ”

o f s e curi n g first e duc ati o n and th e n w o rk f

, ,
o r all .

Th e s e id e as s e e m p e rh aps p arad o xic al and chim e ric al .

B ut s ays C o mt e this is b e c aus e m o d e r n s o ci e ty h as no t

, ,

ye t g o t its syst e m o f m o r ality I ndustri al re l ati o n s which

.

h ave be c o m e imm e n s e ly d e ve l o pe d in it are ab and o ne d t o a

d ang e ro us e mpiricism i n ste ad o f be i n g syst e m atis e d a cc o rd
,

ing t o m ora l l aws War m o re o r l e ss Op e nly d e cl are d

.
, ,

al o n e r e gul at e s th e r e l a ti o n s b e tw e e n c a pit a l an d l ab o u r In .

a n o rm al st at e o f hum an ity th e s e r e l ati o n s o n t h e c o n tr a ry , ,

o rg an is e d Stre ngth d o e s n o t g e ne rat e o ppre ssi o n

“ ”
a re .

Ev e ry citi z e n is a public fu n cti o nary wh o s e w e ll de fin e d

“
,
-

fu ncti o n s d e te rmi ne at o n c e his o blig ati o n s and his cl a ims

(th at is t o say h I s rights ) Pro p e rty is a fu ncti o n lik e any
.

o th e r an d n o t a privil e g e
, I t s e r ve s fo r th e fo rm ati o n and
.

a dmi n istr ati o n Of c apit al by m e an s Of which e a ch g e ne r a ti o n

C V I 5 43 6
l
o urs, ,
-
.
3 30 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C o m te
.

pre p are s th e w o rk o f th e ne xt Th o s e wh o h o ld it .

must n o t turn it fr o m its publi c u se to the ir o wn i ndividu al

adv a n t ag e
1
.

I n th e s am e way as t h e c apit alists th e w o rk e rs are public ,

fu n cti o nari e s and th e y p e rfo rm a no l e ss imp o rt an t s e rvic e

,
.

I nd e p e n d e ntly o f th e ir s al a ry th e y are d e s e rvi n g s o ci al ,

gratitud e O ur custo ms alre ady admit o f this fe e li ng in

.

t h e c as e o f t h e lib e r a l pr o fe ssi o n s in which t h e s al ary d o e s

n o t disp e n s e with gr atitud e This fe e li ng will h ave to b e.

e xt e n d e d t o a ll w o rk which c o ntribut e s t o t h e c o mm o n w e al .

T h e s e rvic e o f hum an ity s ays C o mt e is a gratuit o us o ne , ,

.

T h e s al ary wh at e v e r it m ay b e o n ly p ays fo r th e m ate ri al

, ,

p art in e ve ry o fli c e I t s e rve s t o re p air th e c o n sumpti o n

.

d e m an d e d by th e o rgan an d th e fu ncti o n As to th e e ss e n c e .

o f s e rvic e its e lf it all o ws o f n o o th e r r e w a rd th an t h e v e ry

s atisfacti o n o f p e rfo rmi ng it and th e gr atitud e which it ,

a r o us e s
2
.

C o n s e qu e n tly in a truly o rg an is e d s o ci e ty (no t e this e x

pre ssi o n which M de B o nald Oft e n us e s ) th e v ulg a r distinc
.
,

ti o n b e tw e e n public and priv at e fu n cti o nari e s is d e sti ne d to

dis app e ar As in an army e ve n t h e priv ate s o ldi e r h as his
.
, ,

o wn dig n i ty which c o m e s fr o m t h e cl o s e s o lid arit y o f t h e

milit ary o rgan is ati o n and fro m this fa ct th at all sh are t h e

, ,

s am e h o no ur in it ; so wh e n p o si t iv e e duc ati o n h as m ad e
,

e vid e n t t o all t h e p art pl ay e d by e a ch o ne in t h e s o ci al w o rk ,

pr f ssi s which e hu mbl e st to day will b e c o m e e nno bl e d

o e o n a r
3 -
.

T h e i ndus t ri al reg i m e o f t o day wh ich sh o ws us littl e e ls e -

,

th an th e c o n flict o f riv al e go isms is an anarchic al reg im e , ,

o r t o put it b e tt e r an abs e n c e o f re i m e
”
, , g .

M o d e r n s o ci e t y h as n o t ye t g o t its m o r als I t will fo rm .

th e m gradu all y in th e s am e way as mili tary s o ci e ty did

, .

Milit ary life m o re th an any o th e r is rul e d b y th e pre do m in

, ,

at i n g s e lfish i n cli nati o n s N e ve rthe l e ss as it c o uld o n ly b e

.
,

1
P l p
o .
5 6 64
os . 1 P l p-
. II 4 9 2
C o VI 5 5
. o s. , 0 .
1
o urs, , 1 1 -1 .
 S ocial E th ics 33 I
d e ve l o p e d by t h e spirit o f u n i o n this c o n diti o n al o ne su ffic e d ,

fo r it to d e t e rmi ne admir abl e d e vo t i o n

. Why sh o uld it no t .
1

b e t h e s am e in i ndustri al life which r e sts u p o n t h e p e ac e

ful and c o nstructi ng i nsti n ct ? O th e rwis e i f th e pre s e n t ,

ana rchy o f m o r als w e re t o l ast m o d e rn s o ci e ty w o uld

”
,

r e m ai n b e l o w th e l e v e l o f th e Middl e Age s whi c h re ally was ,

o rg an is e d by its spiritu a l p o w e r I t w o uld e ve n b e be l o w .

t h e l e v e l o f milit ary s o ci e ti e s Wh at w o uld b e th e use o f .

substituti n g m o no p o ly to c o nqu e st and a d e sp o tism b as e d ,

up o n t h e right o f th e rich e st to th e d e sp o tism r e sti ng up o n

t h e right o f t h e s t r o ng e st ? 2

Eve rythi ng th e n d e pe nds up o n t h e c o mm o n m o r al e duc a

ti o n which its e lf d e p e nds up o n th e e st ablishm e nt o f a spiritu al
,

p o we r T h e sup e ri o rity o f th e p o siti v e d o c t ri ne li e s in t h e

.

fact th at it h as re sto r e d this p o w e r T h e i nn o v ati n g sch o o ls .

all wish t o s e cur e n o rm a l e du c a ti o n a n d r e gul a r w o rk f o r th e

pro l e t ari at But th e y w ant b o th at o nc e o r w o rk b e fo re e du

.
,

c ti
a o n . P sitivism wish e s to o rg an is e e duc ati o n first
o
3
.

N atur ally in p o sitive e duc ati o n d uti e s will b e pre s e nte d in

,

th e ir s o ci al a sp e ct Thus th e e l e m e ntary vir t u e s o f t e mp e ranc e

.
,

o f ch astit y e tc are r e c o mm e n d e d by p o sitiv e m o r ality

,
.
,

but no t fro m th e p o i n t o f vi e w o f th e ir us e ful ne ss to th e in

dividu al E ve n if an e xc e p ti o n ally c o n stitut e d nature sh o uld
.

shi e ld th e i n dividu al fro m t h e c o n s e qu e n c e s o f i nt e mp e r an c e r o

d e b auch e ry s o b e r ne ss a nd c o n ti ne n c e w o uld b e no l e ss s t ric tly

,

r e quire d o fhim as b e i n g i n disp e n s abl e fo r th e fulfilm e n t o f his

s o ci al duti e s I n th e s am e way th e o bj e ct o fd o m e s tic m o rali ty
.
4
,

i s n o t t o fo rm a s e lfish ne ss sh ar e d by s e ve r al but to d e v e l o p ,
”

t h e s y mp at h e tic a ff e cti o n s which fr o m t h e fa mily will gr ad u ,

all y e x t e n d t o t h e s o ci a l gr o up a n d t h e n to hum an ity T he , .

pri n cipl e is to g e t m an i nto th e h abit o f subj e cti ng hims e lf to

hum ani ty e ve n in his sm all e st ac t i o ns and in all his th o ugh t s
, ,
.

1
P l p
o . II 6
os . P l p, I V App d i p
1 .
1
oP 1 p
. os I 69
.
, en ce , . 2 11 .
3
0 . o s. , 1 .

P l p I 97 8 1
‘
o . o s. ,
-
.
33 2 T h e P h ilosophy of A ug uste C om te

O nc e this p o i n t isre ach e d m o d e r n s o c ie ty will sp o nt ane o usly

,

b e c o m e o rgan is e d and th e po sitive will o f its e lf b e

e st ablish e d
.
 C H APTE R I I I
TH E IDE A OF H U M A N IT Y
I N this wo rld th e re is no thi ng abs o l ut e e ve rythi ng is re l ativ e ; ,

C o mt e wro t e this to h is fri e n d V al at as e arly as But

as a m att e r o f fa c t th e re e xists a supre m e re ality to
,

whi c h all o th e rs are sub o rdi n at e d th e id e a o f which is th e

“

pri n cipl e o f a r at io nal c o n ce pti o n o f th e w o rld C o mte c all s .

this re ali ty h u m anity I n ste ad o f b e i ng th e ultim ate e nd o f

. .

all th o ught an d all ac ti o n in its e lf it is th e ultim ate e nd

“ ”
,

“
fo r us . But this diffe re nc e simply sign ifi e s th at th e ne w
”

phi l o s o phy l e av e s th e m e t aphysic al fo r th e p o sitive p o i nt o f

v ie w With th e s e limitati o n s th e id e a o f hum anity c o rre s
.

p o nds to th e o ld id e a o fth e abs o lut e I t t ak e s its pl ac e and .

fulfils its re ligi o us p art I t is truly if o ne d are s to say so a

.
, ,

“
re l ative ab so l ut e .

I n C o mt e s d o c tri ne th e id e a o f hum an ity is pr e s e n t e d u n d e r

’

s e ve r al succ e ssiv e asp e c ts o r to put it be tte r th e d e v e l o pm e n t

, , ,

o fhis sy s t e m h as br o ught to light in tur n s t h e v ari o us attrib ut e s

, ,

o f this G re at B e i ng I n his first c ar e e r C o mt e pre fe rs to

“ ”
.
,

c o n sid e r hum an ity as an o bj e ct o fsci e n c e I n his se c o n d c are e r .

,

it rath e r app e ars to him as an o bj e c t o fad o rati o n and o f l o ve .

H e re we c an fo ll o w th e pro gre s s o fth e my sti c al and re l ig io u s

fe e li n g which e sp e ci ally fro m 1 8 4 6 fill e d his th o ught s and
, ,

m o difi e d his l angu ag e his phil o s o phic al d o c tri ne ne ve rth e l e ss

, , ,

re m ai n i ng e ss e n ti a lly th e s a m e .

1 L
e ttres é
. V alat, p .
5 4 , (1 5 m ai
334 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug u ste C o m te

We must no t s ays C o mte d e fi ne H um an ity by m an but o n

, , ,

t h e c o n tr a ry m an by H um a nity I n ge ne r al this fo rmul a is .

u n d e rst o o d in a m o r al and s o ci a l s e n s e I t is u nd e rst o o d as .

a c o n d e m n ati o n Of i ndividu al ism and o ne o f th e dir e cti n g

“ ”
,

pri ncipl e s o f th e p o sitivist reg i m e This i nte rpre t ati o n is no t

’

a fa ls e o ne an d c o n s e qu e n c e s o fthis ki n d c an i n d e e d b e dr aw n
,

fro m C o mt e s fo rmul a B ut th e y are o nly c o ns e qu e nc e s T h e

’
. .

imm e di at e o bj e ct o f th e fo rmul a is no t to sub o rdi nat e th e

i ndi v idu al t o th e multitud e I n th e first pl ac e it e xpre ss e s a
.

fact I f we c o n sid e r a m an by hims e lf p o sitive sci e n c e o nly

.
,

a ll o ws us t o d e fi ne him as an an im al in wh o m as i n all o th e rs , ,

t h e e nd o fan im al life is t o i n sur e o rg an ic li fe Do we wish t o .

d e fi ne hi m by wh at is e ss e nti ally hum an in him th at is to say , ,

by i nte ll e ct and s o ci ability ? O ne must th e n p ass fro m th e

c o n sid e rati o n o ft h e i ndividu al t o th at o fth e s pe ci e s Fr o m th e .

s t rictly bi o l o gic al p o i nt o fvi e w M B o nald s s ay i ng must b e re .

’

v rs e d ; we must say th at m an is a n o rg an ism s e r v e d b y an i n te l

e

l e ct I t is o n l y if we l e ave th e bi o l o gic al fo r th e s o ci al p o i n t
.

o f v i e w if we l o o k up o n th e hum an spe ci e s as a si n gl e
“
, im
e n s e and e t e r nal i n dividu al (a c o nc e pti o n which is j ustifi e d
”
m

b y th e c o nti n u e d d e ve l o pm e nt o f i n te llige n c e and s o ci ability ) ,

1

t h a t we c an c o nsid e r t h e v o lu n t ary an d syst e m atic sub o rdi n a

t i o n o fve g at ive t a n im a l life as t h e id e al ty p e t o wards which

o

ci v ilis e d hum anity is t e ndi ng We c an th e n m ak e use o f this .

sub o rdi nati o n t o r e fi ne it I n a w o rd we are r e ally m e n o nly

.
,

by ou r p a rticipa tion of h u m a n ity .

T he ss e nti al attribute s o f this imm e ns e and e te rnal s o ci al

e
“

u n ity are s o lid arity and c o nti n uity Th e s e attribut e s are at

2
.

o n c e s o ci a l an d m o r a l a n d it c o uld h av e n o o th e rs T h e at tri .

bute s o f th e th e o l o gic al and m e t aphysic al abs o l ut e h ad re fe r

e n c e to th e c at e g o ri e s o fsubst an c e o fc au se o ft im e o fsp ac e e tc , , , , .

C 1
III 3 q
o u rs, , 2 2 sC IV 8
. P l p I 3 63 5
2
o ur, , 1 0- 1 1 o . os .
,
-
.
 T h e I de a f
o H u m an ity 335

I t was o ne simpl e i n fi nite e tc all Ofte n i nc o mpre h e n sibl e and

, , , .
,

c o n tradict o ry e xpre ssi o n s o f this id e a th at th e supre m e pri n

c iple is abs o lut e O n t h e c o n tr a ry p o sitiv e phil o s o phy admits
“
.
,

th at in t h e sc al e o f b e i ngs d e p e nd e n c e gr o ws with dig nity

, .

H um an ity which is th e m o st c o mpl e x and t h e no bl e st

,
“ “ ”

o fall b e i n gs k no w n t o u s is th e r e fo r e als o t h e m o st d e p e n d e nt
, .

I ts e xiste n c e will n e c e ss arily e nd with th at o fth e pl ane t whi c h

it i nh abi ts I ts u nity is o ne o f c o ll e c ti o n
.
“
I t is imp e rfe c t .
”

and subj e ct t o cris e s o f all ki n ds S uch as it is h o w e ve r

.
, ,

sci e n c e and m o rality sh o w us in it th e high e st te rm which o ur

mi n d c an r e ach th e l o fti e st id e al whi c h o u r h e art c an l o ve and
, ,

fi nally th e Obj e ct m o st w o rthy o fo ur d e vo ti o n .

H um an s o lid a rity h as b e e n studi e d by st atic al so c i o l o gy .

We h ave s e e n with wh at admirati o n th e s o ci al consensus in

spire d C o mte a c o ns e nsus a cc o rdi ng t o him e ve n cl o s e r
, , ,

a nd m o r e i n tim at e th an t h e vit a l co nse ns us P o sitive e duc a .

ti o n will d e ve l o p th e fe e li ng o f s o lid a rity and m ak e it th e

pri ncipl e o f m o ral i nstructi o n E ve ry i n di v idu al in all his
.

w ays o ft hi nki n g and acti ng will b e imbu e d with t wo c o n vi e

,

t i o n s which imply o ne a no th e r I n t h e first pl ac e h e will k n o w

.

th at h e is o n ly r e a lly a m an by his p articip ati o n in hum an ity ,

si n ce his i n te llig e n c e an d his m o rality are e ss e n ti ally s o c i al

thi ngs H e will a lso k no w th a t th e life o f h um anity is
.

in p art m ad e up o f wh a t h e bri n gs to it and th at e ach o f ,

his acti o n s i nd e p e nd e n tly o f his will h as a s o ci al i nte re st

,

a n d a s o ci a l c o u n t e r p art O n c e we are th o ro ughly p e rsu ad e d

-
.

t h at we li ve in hum an it y a nd by h um ani ty we sh all a ls o b e ,

c o m e c o nvi n c e d th at we must live fo r hum an ity M al e bran ch e .

s a id th at G o d is th e locus o fi nte ll e c ts C o mt e w o uld re adil y

say th at hum an it y is th e locus o f g o o d wills .

As in s o ci o l o gy dy namics is m o re imp o rt ant th an st atics so

, , ,

a m o n g t h e a ttribut e s o f hum an i ty c o n ti n uity is pl ac e d a b o v e

,

s o lid arity No t o n ly are th e i n di v idu als and th e p e o pl e s o fth e

.

s am e e p o ch b o u nd b y a c o mm o n s o lid arity but th e succ e ssive ,

33 6 T he P h ilosophy f g
oA u uste C om te

ge ne rati o ns c o o p e rate in th e s am e w o rk E ach o ne h as its

-
.

d e te rmi ne d p art i c ip ati o n in it : and th e ir c o mbi nati o n in

tim e p roduc e s a stil l no bl e r and m o re pe rfe c t c o nc e pt io n o f
hum an unity This is th e c o nce pti o n which C o mt e admire d so
.
”

much in C o n d o rc e t which h e b o rr o we d fro m him and which

, ,

h e d e ve l o p e d in th e p o sitiv e id e a o fpro gr e s s .

H um an ity so u n d e rst o o d will i n spire us with th e stro nge st

fe e li ngs o fgratitud e Do we no t o we to h e r all th at is g o o d pre
.
,

c io us and hum an in us ? M an will se e c o Op e r at o rs

“ ”
in th e -

m e n o f all tim e E ach o f us h as to re fl e c t o nly up o n his

1
.

physi c al i nte ll e ctual and m o ral b e i ng to re ali se wh at h e o w e s to

,

t h e wh o l e o fh is pr e d e c e s so rs T h e m an wh o w o uld thi n k him

.

se lf i nd e p e nd e n t o f o t he rs c o uld no t e v e n fo rmul at e thi s e r r o r

( whi c h in C o mt e s e y e s b e c o m e s bl asph e my ) with o ut c o n tra

’

di c ti ng hims e lf ; fo r is no t l angu age i tse lf a c o ll e c t ive and

s o c i al w o rk 2

H ist o ry will b e c o m e th e s acre d s c i e nc e o fhum an ity T o

“
.

put it m o re simply it wil l be th e e ve r cl e are r c o nsci o us ne ss

,

which hum an ity will h ave o f its e lf thro ugh th e study o fits ,

i nt e ll e ctu al and m o r al activity in th e p ast Gradu ally with .

,

th e pr o gr e ss o fth e hist o r ic al spirit th e id e a o f an e vo l uti o n

,

subj e ct to l aws th e id e a o f o rd e r c o nc e ive d as c apabl e o f

,
“

d e ve l o pm e nt will be c o m e substitut e d to th e p re judice which

,
”

attribut e s to m an b o u n dl e s s p o w e r o f acti o n up o n s o ci a l facts .

I t wil l b e c o m e app are nt th at th e p art pl ay e d by e ach ge ne ra

ti o n in th e c o mm o n w o rk o f h um an ity is ne c e ss arily a ve ry
sm all o ne as c o mp are d with wh at is transmitt e d to it by
,

pre vi o us ge ne rati o ns T o re fus e this i nh e rit anc e w o uld b e to

.

r e fus e to b e wh at we are : it w o uld be an ab surd and imm o ral

pre te n ti o n and m o re o ve r e ntire ly fr uit l e ss I t is imp o ssibl e
, , , .

fo r m an to dis o w n h um anity with o ut c e asi ng t o e xi st H e .

ne c e ss arily r e pre s e n ts whil e h e live s a l o n g p ast o fi n t e ll e ctu al

, ,

a nd m o r al e f fo rt s A nd thi s is th e m o st e ss e nti al attrib ut e o f

.

1
C IV 365
o urs, , P l p .I 2
o . os .
, 2 2 1.
 T h e I dea f
o H u m an ity
337

h um an life alth o ugh we m e e t with m o r e o r l e ss d e ve l o p e d s o lid

,

arity als o am o n g o th e r an im al sp e ci e s But c o n ti n uity be l o ngs .

to hum an ity a l o ne I n a w o rd a cc o rdi n g to C o mt e s fine

’
.
,

fo rmul a : H um an ity is m ad e up m o re o f th e d e ad th an o f -

th e livi n g .

H o w e ve r ne ith e r th e y o k e whi c h pre ss e s up o n th e livi ng

,
“

with all th e w e ight o f histo ry and o f pre hist o ric tim e s ; n o r th e

conse ns us which m ak e s o f hu m an ity a gr e at c o ll e ctiv e o rgan
“

ism
”
t ak e fro m m an his lib e rty o facti o n T h e c o n s e qu e n c e .

o f hum an s o lid arity an d c o n ti n uity is n o t a ki n d o f fat a lism .

I ndividu als r e m ai n r e sp o nsibl e We must re gard th e m ne ith e r .

as t h e wh e e ls in a m achi ne n o r as th e c e lls in an o rg an ism , ,

n o r as th e m e mb e rs o f an an im al c o l o ny H um an ity is no t a .

p o l yp This c o mp aris o n s ays C o mt e sh o ws a v e ry impe rfe ct

.
“
, ,

phil o s o phic al appre ci ati o n o fo u r s o c i al s o lid arity and a gre at ,

bi o l o gic al ig no r anc e o f th e ki n d o f e xist e nc e p e culi ar t o

p o l ypi . I
” 1
t lik e n s a v o lu n t a ry an d d e lib e r at e a ss o ci ati o n

to an i n v o lu n t ary a nd i ndiss o l ubl e p articip ati o n H um an ity .

,

as a c o ll e ctiv e o rg an ism st an ds o ut o n t h e c o n tr a ry as disti n ct

, , ,

by its o wn ch ar acte ristics fro m an im al c o l o n i e s I n th e s e .

c o l o n i e s th e i ndividu als are physic ally b o u n d t o ge th e r an d

,

physi o l o gic a lly i n d e pe n d e nt I n hum anity t h e i ndivid ual s .

,

are i n d e p e nd e n t physic ally an d are o n ly b o u n d t o g e th e r i n,

sp ac e an d in tim e by the ir high e st fu ncti o n s .

Thus this imm e n s e o rg an ism is e sp e ci ally disti nguish e d

“

fro m o th e r b e i ngs in th at it is m ad e up o f s e p arabl e e l e m e nts ,

o f which e a ch o ne c an fe e l its o wn c o o p e r at i o n c an will it -

, ,

o r e ve n withh o ld it so l o n g as it r e m ai n s a dir e ct o ne
2
, T he .

i n dividu al u n d o ubte dly c anno t u nhum an is e hims e lf : th at ”

is to o e vid e n t B ut h e re t ai n s a p arti al i n d e p e nd e n c e A s
. .

h e ca n c o ll ab o rat e in t h e c o ll e ctiv e w o rk by fr e e c o n s e nt h e ,

is als o fre e to imp e d e it in th e m e asure o f his str e n gth .

Bri e fly alth o ugh th e e vo luti o n o f th e Gre at B e i ng is subj e ct

,

1
C IV 35
o urs, ,P l p 1 .II 5 9 1
P l p o I 34
. o s. , , .
3
o . o s. , , 1 .

2 2
338 T h e P hilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

to l aw s e ve ry i ndividu ality far fr o m b e i ng ann ul l e d pl ay s

, ,
3
,

its p art and c an h ave its m e rit in it T h e v e ry k no w l e dge o f .

s o ci o l o gic al l aws is a r ule fo r hum an activity and no t a

tyranny .

I n th e l att e r p art o fh is life C o mt e dr e w o ut pre ci se l y th e ,

fe at ur e s o fwh at h e h e nc e fo rth c all e d th e ne w Gr e at B e i ng .

Alth o ugh we we re n o t h e r e to u nd e rt ak e to writ e an ac c o u n t

o f p o sitiv e r e ligi o n we m u st n e v e rth e l e ss ,
in a fe w w o rds , ,

i ndic at e th e fo rm which this supre m e id e a e nd e d by assumi ng

in C o mt e s mi nd
’
.

Firstly hum an i ty is no t c o n c e ive d simply as th e sum o fall

,

t h e i n dividu als o r hum an gr o ups pr e s e nt p ast and futur e ,

.

F o r all m e n are n e c e ss arily b o r n childr e n o f hum an ity ; but

all do n o t b e c o m e h e r s e rv an ts M any r e m ai n in th e c o n .

diti o n o f p arasite s All th o s e wh o are no t o r w e re no t

.

su ffici e n tly assimil abl e all th o s e wh o w e r e o n ly a b urd e n to

,
” 1

o u r sp e ci e s do n o t fo rm a p art o f t h e Gr e at B e i ng
,
A .

s e l e cti o n t ak e s pl ac e am o n g m e n S o m e fi n ally e n t e r i nt o .

hum an ity ne ve r to l e av e it ; o th e rs l e ave it ne v e r t o re tur n .

T h e s e l e c ti o n t ak e s pl ac e acc o rdi ng t o th e life th e y h av e p re

:

fe rre d Tho s e wh o h ave l iv e d in th e pure ly bi o l o gi c al s e n s e

.

o f th e w o rd th at is t o say th o s e in wh o m t h e high e r fac ulti e s

, ,

h av e b e e n m ad e to s e rv e th e o rg anic fu n cti o n t h o s e wh o m ,

with br ut l a e n e rgy C mt e c lls pro duct e urs de fumi e r will

o a
2
,
”

o n ly h av e b e e n p art o f hum an ity in a t r an sit o ry m ann e r .

D e ath fo r th e m as fo r th e ir anat o mic al syst e m will b e a n e nd

, ,

with o ut furt h e r app e al Th o s e in wh o m th e sublim e in “

.

v e rsi o n h as b e e n acc o mplish e d o r at l e ast th o s e wh o h av e ,

m ad e an e ffo rt t o sub o rdi nate th e o rg anic t o th e high e r

fu nc ti o n s t h o s e fi nally wh o h ave w o rk e d fo r a pre e mi ne ntly
,
-

hum an e nd : to m ak e th e i nte ll e ct pre d omi nat e o ve r t h e in

1P l p o I 4
. o s. , C t hi , p iti i t p 3 3
11 .
2
a ec sm e os v s e, . 0- 1 .
 T h e I de a of H u m a n ity 3 39

c linat io n s, ltruism o v e r e go ism ; th o s e h avi n g live d fo r

an d a

h um an ity will alw ays liv e in h e r .

As th e c o nduct o f e ach o ne c an o n ly b e fi nally judge d afte r

his d e ath hum an ity is e ss e nti ally m ad e up o f th e d e ad and
,

th e a dmissi o n o f t h e livi n g withi n h e r wil l h ardly e v e r b e

m o r e th an pr o visi o n al E ach g e ne r ati o n whil e it live s

” 1
.
, ,

furn ish e s th e i ndisp e n s abl e physi o l o gic al substr atum fo r th e

e x e rcis e o f t h e sup e ri o r hum an fu n cti o n s But this privi .

l e ge which m o m e nt arily disti nguish e s it fr o m th e o th e rs ,

s o o n slip s aw ay fro m it as it slipp e d aw ay fro m th e pre c e di ng

,

o ne s ,
an d fr o m t h e m e n o fwhi c h th e y w e re c o mp o s e d ; th e y

a l o ne wh o are w o rthy o f it are i n c o rp o r at e d i n t o hum an ity .

M o re o ve r th e y are o n ly i n c o rp o r ate d in it by th e ir n o bl e st
,

e l e m e n ts D e ath c aus e s th e m to p ass thro ugh a purific ati o n

“ ”
. .

This th e o ry all o ws C o mte to att ai n at t h e s am e tim e two

r e sults which h e c o n sid e rs e qu ally d e sir abl e I n th e first
, .

pl ac e t h e re ligi o us id e a o f hum an ity re m ai n s in p e rfe ct

,

a cc o rd an c e with t h e id e a giv e n o f it by bi o l o gy a nd s o ci o l o gy .

Hu m an ity c o n c e ive d as th e Gre at B e i ng is a ki nd o f ,

hyp o st asis o f t h e fu n cti o n s by which m an t e nds to be c o m e

dist inguish e d fr o m th e an im al I t is th e pro gr e ssive re alisa
.

ti o n thr o ugh tim e o fth e i nt e ll e ctu al and m o ral p o te nti aliti e s

,

c o n t a i ne d in hum an n atur e : i t is als o its id e al i mp e rs o n ati o n .

I n this l ast s e n s e it b e c o m e s an o bj e ct o f l o ve an d ad o r at i o n
, .

T hus th e p o sitivist r e ligi o n na tur ally l e ads t o a c o mm e m o r a

,

t i o n o fgr e at m e rI t h e b e ne fa ct o rs o fhum an it y H e re we h ave

” ' ‘

.
,

o n e o f t h e id e a s which w e r e d e fi n e d v e ry e arly in C o m t e s
’

m i nd .

O n th e o th e r h an d t h e d e sir e fo r imm o rt ality is v e ry str o n g

,

i n th e h e art o f m an O n pri n cipl e C o m te r e c o g nis e d at any

.

r at e a pro visi o nal v alu e in all th at a ris e s sp o nt ane o usl y fro m

h um an nature I n sci e n c e h e saw a pr o l o n g at i o n o f publi c
.
“

re as o n in syst e m atic m o r ality a d e v e l o pm e n t o f sp o nt ane o us

”
,

P l p I 4 1
o . o s. , , 1 1 .
3 40 T h e P h ilosoph y o f A ug uste C om te

m o rality H e was thus le d t o t ak e i nt o a cc o u n t th e alm o s t

.

irre sistibl e te nd e n cy which imp e ls m an t o d e sire to tri ump h

o v e r d e ath This t e n d e ncy up to th e pr e s e n t tim e h as
1
, ,
.

s atisfi e d its e lf by m e an s o f illusi o ns But b e li e fs o f this ki nd .

h ave b e c o m e i nc o mp atibl e with t h e pro gre ss o f o u r m e ntal

e v o luti o n . M o r e o v e r th e s o ci al e ffic acy o f h o p e s and fe ars
,

c o nc e rn i ng th e future life h as be e n much e x agge r at e d As a .

m atte r o f fact s ays C o mte (and th e sci e n c e o f re ligi o n s b e ars

,

him o ut o n this p o i n t ) t h e t e nd e nc y to d e sire an d c o n

, ,

s e qu e ntly to acc e pt th e id e a o f an ultim at e survi v al e xis te d ,

fo r a l o n g tim e b e fo r e it was m ad e use o f to supp o rt r e ligi o u s

be li e fs o r to pre s e rve public o rd e r H e re agai n p o sitive .
, ,

phil o s o phy d o e s no t d e ny d o e s no t d e stro y : it tran sfo rms

, .

T o t h e chim e ric al an d vulg a r n o ti o n o fobjective imm o rt ali ty ,

it substitute s th e no t i o n which is al o ne acc e pt abl e o fsubjec tive

, ,

imm o rt a lity T h e s am e d o ctri ne which t ak e s fro m us t h e

.

c o ns o l ati o ns so d e ar to p ast ge ne rati o ns gi v e s us an a d e qu at e ,

c o mp e n s ati o n by all o wi ng e ach o ne to h o p e th a t h e m ay b e

,

u n ite d to t h e Gre at B e i ng .

“
T o c o n ti n u e to live in o th e rs is a v e ry r e al m o d e o f ,

e xist e nc e I t is th e o nl y o ne which we c an h o p e fo r a fte r

2
.

d e ath ; but it is als o th e o nly o ne which we o ught to d e sire ,

if it b e tru e th at wh at m o st c o n stitut e s o urs e lve s in us

d o e s no t c o nsist in t h e i ndividu al in t h e bi o l o gic al s e n s e o f
t h e wo rd but truly in i n t e llig e n c e a nd g o o d will th at is t o
, ,

s ay in t h e s o ci a l a nd hum an e l e m e n t
, H e wh o h as o n ly liv e d .

fo r hims e lf wh o h as s e lfishly s o ught fo r life h as l o st it : fo r

, ,

d e ath t ak e s him aw ay alt o ge th e r H e wh o h as live d fo r o th e rs .

,

h e wh o h as no t s o ught life fo r hims e lf h as fo u n d it fo r h e , :

sur v i ve s in o th e rs I n th e re ligi o ns o f th e p ast s alvati o n was

.
,

fo u nd in u ni o n with G o d : in th e po sitive re ligi o n s alv ati o n ,

i s fo u nd in u n i o n with hum anity .

O nc e i nc o rp o r at e d in th e Gre at B e i ng th e i ndividu al
.

1
Di l p it p itif 7 5 6 I 3 46 7
’
2
sc o urs sur eS r os P l p
,
-
. o . o s. , ,
-
.
 H u m a n it
T h e I dea f
o y 34 1

b e co m e s i n s e p arabl e fro m it B e i n g fro m th at tim e with .

1

d raw n fro m th e i n flu e n c e o f all t h e physic al l aws h e o n ly ,

re m ai n s subj e ct e d to th e high e r l aws which re gul at e dire ctly

t h e e v o luti o n o f hum an ity B e i ng e v e n withdraw n fr o m th e
.

i nflu e n c e o f th e l aws o f tim e and sp ac e h e c an liv e ag a i n at ,

t h e s am e tim e in s e v e r al o rg an isms Do we n o t se e t h at th e .

t h o ught o f a p o e t o f an artist o f a m an o f sci e n c e r e vi v e s in a

, ,

g r e a t n umb e r o f livi n g m e n at t h e s a m e tim e o n t h e m o st

d is t an t p o i n ts o f th e gl o be ? S ubj e ctiv e imm o rt alit y r e ne we d ,

b y an u ni n te rrupt e d s e qu e n c e o f succ e ssive re surre cti o n s will ,

l ast as l o n g as hum an ity its e l f T o liv e with th e d e ad s ays .

,
”

C o mt e c o ns t i tut e s o ne Of o ur m o st pre ci o us privil e ge s

‘ 2
But .
”
,

in t h e s am e way th e d e ad liv e with us ,

Th e y liv e in us and .
,

t h o s e wh o h av e b e e n m o st truly m e n th o s e wh o h av e m ad e ,

hum an ity by th e e ffo rt o f th e ir i nt e ll e c t and th ei r will th e y ,

a re withi n u s th e b e st an d m o st la sti n g p a rt o f o urs e lv e s .

F o r wh e n o u r g e ne r at i o n dis app e ars it is this p art o f us

, ,

w hich will surviv e We sh all als o survive in th e m e asure in

.

w hich we h av e c o ntri but e d to th e i n cr e as e o f this i n h e rit an c e ,

i n t h e m e asur e in which we sh a ll h av e d e s e rv e d w e ll o f o ur
c o n te mp o r ari e s an d o u r succ e ss o rs T h e pr e s e n t life i s a tri al . .

T he “
subj e ctive life th at is to say i nc o rp o rati o n i nt o
”
, ,

h um an it y is at o n c e a lib e r ati o n and a r e w ard fo r th o s e wh o

,

h av e p ass e d V ict o ri o usl y thro ugh this tri al We se e to wh at

3
.

e xt e n t t h e o ld m o r a l an d r e ligi o us id e al subsists in th e
p o sitive c o nc e p ti o n We are littl e surpris e d at this wh e n
.
,

we k n o w th a t t o w ards t h e e nd o f his life C o m te m ad e t h e

, ,

I m ita tio n h is d aily r e a di ng .

It is th e n t o wards th e id e a o f h um anity as th e ir c e ntre th at

t h e sci e ntific s o ci al and r e ligi o us id e as o f August e C o mt e
,

c o n v e rg e I f this c o nv e rge nc e be p e rfe ct his w o rk is ac c o m

.
,

p li sh ed H e nc e fo rth m e nt al and m o ral an archy is cure d ;

.

p o litic al an d r e ligi o us an a rchy is ab o ut to dis app e ar U n ity .

1
P l p
o . II 6 6o s. , P l p
0- 62 . P l p 2
I V 36
o . os .
, 2 2 .
3
o . os
.
, ,
.
3 42 T h e P h ilosophy f
o A ug uste C om te

will be e ve rywh e re re e st ablish e d This is alre ady d o ne in th e

-
.

u nd e rstandi ng si nc e h e nc e fo rth all o ur c o n c e pti o ns are h o m o

,

ge no us th at is to say p o sitive si nc e th e s am e m e th od is
, ,

m ad e u se o f in all o ur re s e arch e s si nc e fi n ally t h e wh o l e su m

,

o f t h e sci e nc e s is r e gul at e d fr o m t h e so c i a l p o i n t o f vi e w .

U nity is als o acco mplish e d in th e wh o l e s o ul si nc e th e in ,

te lle c t h e n c e fo rt h c o n sci o us o f its l aws an d o f its e ss e n ti al

,

fu nfitio ns subj e cts its e lf to th e h e art t o b e dir e ct e d by l o ve

, , .

Fi nally u n ity will b e bro ught ab o ut in s o ci e ty si n c e a n e w

, ,

spirit ual p o w e r p o ss e ss e d o f u nive rs ally admitte d pri n c ipl e s

, ,

will give to all m e n a nd w o m e n a c o mm o n e duc ati o n will ,

t e ach th e m all th e s am e m o r ality and will r ally th e m all ,

wi thi n a s am e r e ligi o n o f l o ve and go o d ne ss T h e h arm o ny .

which is re alis e d in th e i ndividu al s o ul is th e symb o l and as ,

it w e re th e gu aran te e o f th e h arm o ny which will b e e s

,

t ab lish e d in th e s o ci al b o dy U nd o ubt e dly o bst acl e s r e m ai n

.
,

t o b e o ve rc o m e T h e p o sitiv e spirit must still struggl e to

.

b e c o m e alto ge the r u n i ve rs al T h e o ld m e n t al reg im e will n o t

.

dis app e ar with o ut struggl e s which C o m te fo re s e e s will be b o th

, ,

fo rmid abl e and bl o o dy But t he s e cris e s h o w e ve r acute th e y

.
,

m ay b e c anno t pre ve nt th e hum an e vo l uti o n fr o m t aki n g

,

pl ac e in acc o rd anc e with its law .

 C O N C L US I O N

A T t h e e nd o f th e C o mte h as
C ou rs de ph ilosop h ic p os itive
hims e lf su mm e d up th e re sults which h e b e l i e ve d
hims e lf to
h ave e st ablish e d I n th e first pl ac e it is fro m th e i nt e ll e ctu al
.
,

p o i nt o f vi e w (which at first t ak e s pre c e d e nc e o f all o th e rs ,

alth o ugh in t h e p o si t iv e st at e th e mi n d must b e subj e c t to

, ,

t h e h e art ) a p e rfe ct m e nt al c o h e re n c e which as ye t h as

, , ,

ne v e r be e n a bl e t o e xist in a lik e d e gre e n o t e v e n in th e

”
,

primitiv e p e ri o d wh e n m an e xpl ai ne d th e ph e n o m e na o f
n atur e by th e acti o n o f wills F o r alre ady in this p e ri o d
.
, ,

alth o ugh i mp e r c e ptibly th e p o sitiv e spirit was m aki n g its e lf

,

fe lt whil e in th e p o sitive p e ri o d no thi ng will subsist o f th e

, , ,

th e o l o gic al and m e t aphysic al m o d e o f th o ught Fro m th e .

m o ral p o i nt o f V i e w which c o m e s ne xt th e agre e m e nt o f

, ,

mi nds upo n sp e cul ative pro bl e ms and in p articul ar up o n th e

,

re l ati o n s b e tw e e n m an an d hu m an ity will all o w o fa c o mm o n

,

e du c ati o n which will bri n g ab o u t a rd e n t m o r a l c o nvicti o n in

,

all. P o w e rful public pre judic e s will d e ve l o p and with th e m

“
, ,

such irre sistibl e ful ne ss o f c o nvicti o n acc o rdi ng to C o mt e , ,

th at H um an ity will b e abl e to re alis e wh at o u r p e nal syste m

is i nc ap abl e o f achi e vi ng : to p re ve nt i nste ad o f p un ishi ng at ,

l e ast in th e m aj o rity o f c as e s Fr o m th e p o litic al p o i nt o f

.
”

vi e w th e two spiritual and t e mp o ral p o w e rs will be du l y

,
‘

s e p arat e d and a l asti ng o rg an i sati o n will at o n c e i n sure o rd e r

,

and pro gr e ss Fi nally fro m th e ae sth e ti c p o i n t o fvi e w a ne w

.
, ,

art will appe a r No l o nge r an aristo cr atic and l e ar ne d art

.

lik e th e o ne which h as b e e n with us si nce th e Re naiss anc e ,

3 44 T h e P h ilosrp hy o f g
A u u ste C om te

b ut an art cl o s e ly c o nne ct e d with th e c o n v icti o ns and th e life

o fall which will b e ac c e ssibl e and fa mili a r t o all as was th e
, ,

c as e with th e art o f t h e Middl e Ag e s T h e p o sitiv e c o nc e p .

t i o n o f m an a n d o f th e w o rld will b e c o m e an i ne xh austibl e

“
,

s pri n g o f p o e tic al b e a uty

”
.

All th e s e re sults will b e o rd e re d pro t e c te d and s an cti fie d ,

by th e p o sitive r e ligi o n o r re ligi o n o f H um an ity o f which

, ,

Auguste C o mt e in his s e c o n d c are e r e stablish e d t h e

,
”

do gm a th e w o rship and th e reg im e

,
.

With o ut e nt e ri ng i nt o th e d e t ails o f this r e ligi o us c o nstruc

t i o n we se e th at lik e th e e thics an d th e p o litics it d e p e n ds
, ,

u p o n th e p e rfe ct m e n t al c o h e r e n c e fo u nd e d in th e first
“
,

pl ac e by p o sitive phil o s o phy I n its t ur n this p e rfe ct m e nt al

, .
,

c o h e re n c e re duc e s its e lf to th e u n ity o f th e u n d e rst andi ng ‘

, ,

wh o s e n e c e ss ary and su ffici e nt c o n diti o n s are h o m o ge ne ity

“

o f d o ctri n e an d u n ity o f m e th o d No w wh e n C o mt e b e g an .
”
,

t o writ e this h o m o g e n e ity and this u n ity alr e ad y e xist e d fo r

,

a ll t h e c at e g o ri e s o f n atur a l ph e no m e na T h e m o r al and .

s o ci al ph e no m e na al o ne w e re still an e xc e p t i o n I n c o n .

e l usi o n e v e rythi n g was r e duc e d t o t his qu e s t i o n c an m o r al

“

a n d s o ci al fa cts b e studi e d in t h e s a m e way a s t h e o th e r

n atur al ph e no m e n a ? I f n o t we must b e re sig n e d to th e

”
,

i n d e fi n ite du r ati o n o f th e dis o rd e r o f mi n ds an d c o n s e qu e ntly ,

o fth e dis o rd e r o fcust o ms and i n stituti o n s But if th e c o ntrary .

,

is tru e th e n t h e hum an u n d e rstandi n g r e ach e s th e u ni ty to

,

which it a spir e s I s s o ci o l o gy imp o ssibl e ? th e n we h a ve n o

.

p o litics and n o r e ligi o n I s s o ci o l o gy fo u n d e d ? t h e n all th e

.

re st is b as e d up o n it .

Thus th e cre ati o n o f s o ci al sci e nc e is th e d e cisiv e m o m e nt

,

i n C o mt e s phil o s o ph y Ev e rythi n g st ar t s fro m it and c o m e s

’
.

b ack to it As in Pl at o n ism all p aths l e ad to t h e th e o ry o f

.
,

id e as so fr o m all th e ave n u e s o f p o siti v ism we se e s o ci o l o gy

, , .

H e re as in a c o mm o n c e ntre are j o i ne d th e phil o s o phy o f th e

, ,

sci e n c e s th e th e o ry o f k no wl e dge th e phil o s o phy o f hist o ry

, , ,
 C onc lusio n 3 45

psy c h o l o gy e thics p o litics and r e ligi o n H e re in a w o rd is

, , .
, ,

r e alis e d th e unity o f syste m a u n ity which in C o m te s e y e s

, ,
’

is th e b e st pro o f o f its truth .

I f in s o ci o l o g y we c hi e fly c o n sid e r th e e nd which C o mt e
, ,

pr o p o s e s to att ai n by its m e an s it is tru e th at t his d o ctri ne ,

is pri n cip ally a p o litic a l o ne and th e v e ry titl e o f C o mt e s

’

s e c o n d gre at w o rk b e ars this o ut But c o n sid e re d in its e lf it .

, ,

is e ss e nti ally a sp e cul ative e ffo rt an d th e pri n cipl e o f a phil o ,

s o phy in th e pro p e r s e n s e o fth e te rm Wh at K an t c all e d a .

t o tality o f e xp e ri e n c e is m ad e p o ssibl e by th e cre ati o n o f

s o ci al sci e n c e .

B e fo re C o m te this t o t ality h ad b e e n at te mpt e d m any

,

tim e s B ut th o s e wh o atte mpte d it st art e d fr o m t his p o stul at e

.

th at phi l o s o phy is sp e cific ally disti n ct fro m sci e ntific k no w

l e dg e pro p e r Wh e th e r phil o s o ph y w e re d o gm atic o r critic al
.
,

wh e th e r it h ad b e ari n gs up o n th e e ss e nc e o f t hi n gs o r r ath e r
up o n th e l aws o f th e mi n d it n o ne t h e l e ss pre s e n te d ch ar
,

ac te rist ic s o f its o wn which s e e m e d t o se a rat e it fr o m p o sitiv e

, p .

sci e nc e and e ve n all o w e d it to d o mi nate o ve r t his sci e n c e

, ,

e xpl ai n its pri ncipl e s C o mt e r e j e cts this p o stul at e

“
an d t o . .

H e is g o i n g t o e nd e av o u r to se e if by t aki ng t h e c o n tr ary ,

p o stul at e as his fo u nd at i o n h e will no t su c c e e d b e tt e r th an

,

his pr e d e c e ss o rs .

I n o rd e r to r e j e ct t h e p o stul at e admitt e d by phil o s o ph e rs

be fo re him h e appe als at th e s am e tim e to argum e n ts fo u nd e d
,

o n fa cts an d d e m o n str at i o n ; but we must n o tic e t h at in h is ,

d o ctri ne the s e two o rd e rs o f argu m e n ts l o gic ally r e duc e

,

th e ms e lve s to o n e ano th e r I n d e e d h e s ays up to t h e pre

.
,

s e nt tim e n o phil o s o phy which c o mm an ds a cc e p t an c e by all

mi nds h as b e e n e s tablish e d Id e alisms m at e ri alisms p anth e
.
, ,

isms fro m a ll s o urc e s an d in e v e ry sh ap e h ave n e ve r d o ne

m o r e th an rui n th e d o ctri n e s Opp o s e d to t h e m with o ut b e ,

c o mi ng fi n all y e st ablish e d th e ms e lve s Th o s e s y ste ms .

cl aim e d to giv e a rati o na l k no wl e dge o f th at which by nat ure

3 4 6 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

is b e y o nd th e re ach o f sci e n ce Th e y prid e d th e ms e lve s up

.

o n e xpl ai n i n g t h e e ss e n c e t h e c aus e t h e e nd an d th e o rd e r o f
, ,

t h e ph e no m e n a o f th e u n iv e rs e Thus th e y c o uld o nly build

.

up t e mp o r ary c o n c e pti o ns which we re u nd o ubt e dly indispe ns

abl e at t h e tim e but which w e r e d o o m e d t o die M e t aphysic s
.

is ne ve r anythi ng but a r ati o nalis e d th e o l o gy which is

w e ak e ne d by this ve r y fact a nd d e pri ve d o f wh at c o nstitute d
,

its stre ngth duri ng th e p e ri o d whe n it was an o bj e ct o f

be li e f .

But in t h e n a m e o f wh at pri ncipl e c an C o mte dis c e r n wh at

is and wh at is no t b e y o n d th e r e ach o f sc ie n c e ?
“
I n o rd e r
”

t o j us t ify a dis ti n cti o n o fthis ki n d sh o uld h e n o t b e fo r e e v e r y

thi ng b e gi n by a criticism o f t h e hum an mi n d th at is to say ,

by a th e o ry o f k no wl e dge simil a r to th at pro p o s e d by K ant in

his C rit ic I s m o f Pure R e aso n
“
M Re no uv ie r e nd e av o urs to
.

sh o w th at thro ugh th e abs e n c e o f this pre limi n ary criticism

,
‘

with which C o m te disp e n s e d his phil o s o phy r e m ai ns sup e r

,

fic ial . Mr M ax Mull e r e xpre ssly s ays th at th e re is no ne e d

.

t o t ak e i n t o acc o u n t a phil o s o phic a l d o ctrin e which pr o c e e ds

as if t h e Criticism o f Pur e R e a s o n h ad no t b e e n writt e n

“
.

O n t h e wh o l e th e o bj e cti o n r e duc e s i t s e lf t o r e pr o achi ng

C o mte with no t h avi n g att e mpt e d t o do wh at h e c o nsid e r e d
t o b e impr actic abl e : n a m e l y n o t t o h av e d e t e rmi ne d t h e
,

i nt e ll e ctu al l aws by t h e an al y sis o fth e mi nd r e fl e cti n g up o n

its e l f B ut it is s aid b y wh at right d o e s h e affirm th at this is
.
, ,

imp o ssibl e ? B e c aus e lik e all th e o th e rs t h e s e l aws c an o n l y

, ,

b e disc o v e r e d by m e a n s o f t h e o bs e r v a ti o n o f facts an d ,

be c aus e t h e o nly m e th o d which is suit abl e fo r th e disc o ve ry o f

i nt e ll e ctu al facts is t h e s o ci o l o gic al m e th o d : th e n ature o f
th e s e fa c ts be i ng such th at e sp e ci all y fro m th e dy namic
,

p o i nt o f vi e w th e y c an o n ly b e gr aspe d in th e e v o luti o n o f
,
“

hum an ity . T h e th e o ry o f k no wl e dge d e m an d e d b y M .

Re no uv ie r an d Mr M ax Mull e r is n o t wan te d in p o siti v e

.

phil o s o ph y I t is n o t s e e n in this phil o s o phy b e c aus e it is

.
,
 C onclusion 3 47

no t pre s e nte d in its tr aditi o nal fo rm I t is th e re no ne th e .

l e ss ; but i nst e ad o f c o nsisti ng in an analysis a p ri ori o f

,

th o ught as a pre limi nary to phil o s o phy it is no t s e p arate d

, ,

fro m th e phil o s o phy its e l f I t is o ne o f th e m any asp e c ts o f

.

so c i o l o gy .

I n t h e p o sitiv e d o ctri ne as in all th e o th e rs th e re are

di al e ctics —di al e cti c s which are n o l o ng e r abstract and l o gic al
, ,

but re al and histo ric al Th e y do no t s e e k to se e th e l aws o f

.

t h e hum an mi n d thr o ugh an e ffo rt at r e fl e c ti o n in which t h e

mi nd b e ne ath th e ph e no m e na appr e h e nds its v e ry e ss e nc e
, , .

Th e y e nd e avo ur to disc o v e r th e s e l aws in th e ne c e ss ary

s e qu e nc e o f p e ri o ds which c o n stitut e th e pro gre ss o f th e
hum an mi nd Th e y in th e ir tur n study th e u nive rs al
.
,
“
,

subj e ct wh o s e fo rms c at e g o ri e s and pri ncipl e s h ave b e e n de

”
,

d e te rmi ne d by K ant a p riori But this u n ive rs al subj e ct is no.

l o ng e r r e as o n gr aspi ng its e lf so to spe ak o utsid e and ab o v e th e

, ,
“

c o nditi o n s o f tim e and o f e xp e ri e n c e : it is t h e hum an mi nd

b e c o mi ng c o nsci o us o f th e l aws o f its activity thro ugh th e
study o f its o wn p ast I nst e ad o f th e ab so l ut e e g o o f
.
“

“
imp e rs o nal re as o n o r o f th e c o nsc i e nc e o f th e u nd e rst an d
,
”

in g,
”
p o sitive phil o s o phy analys e s th e i n t e l l e c tu al hi sto ry o f
h um anity I t h as th e n ne ith e r ig no re d n o r n e gl e ct e d th e
.

pro bl e m I t h as put it in ne w t e rms and h as b e e n o blig e d

.
,

to d e al with it by a n e w m e th o d .

T h e critic is fr e e to p o i nt out th e d e fe cts o f this m e th o d

an d t h e insufli c ie nc y o f th e s e t e rms But t o r e pr o ach .
,

p o sitive phil o s o ph y w ith n o t h avi n g d e alt with th e pro bl e m

i n th e usu al fo rm in which it is t a k e n by m e taph ysi c I ans an d , ,

fo r this r e as o n to put it asid e u ne x ami ne d is to c o mmit a

, ,
—

ki nd o f p e titi o pr n cipii i I f C o mt e abstai ns fr o m att e mpt

.

ing an abstract th e o ry o f k no wl e dge h e g iv e s phil o s o phic a l ,

r e as o n s fo r h is r e fus al to do so B e fo r e c o nd e m n i ng him it .
,

is but right to e x a mi ne th e m H ad h e d o ne wh at M Re n o u
. .

vi e r and Mr M ax Mull e r re pro ach him with h avi ng o mitt e d

.
,
3 4 8 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

he w o uld h ave c o n t radic te d hims e l f The re w o uld h ave b e e n

.

no re as o n fo r th e e xist e n c e o f his s y st e m H e cl aim e d t o

'

h ave r e fo rm e d th e ve ry c o n c e p ti o n o f phil o s o phy c an we

re pr o ach him with th e fact th at his c o n c e pti o n d o e s n o t c o i n
cid e wi th th e v i e w pre fe rre d by his adve rs ari e s ? Bri e fly th at
which acc o rd i n g to C o mt e ch ar act e ris e s p o siti ve phil o s o phy
, , ,

is th at it n o l o n ge r re quire s fo r its c o n s titu t i o n wh at in th e

judgm e n t o f M Re no uvie r and Mr M ax Mull e r o n th e c o n
. .

t rary is i n disp e n s abl e

,
. A re th e y o r is h e in t h e right ? T h e
qu e sti o n c anno t e vid e n tly b e s o l ve d by t h e m e re affi rm ati o n
o f th o s e i n t e r e s t e d T h e e x ami n ati o n o f th e d o ctri ne s th e m
'

s e lv e s is ne c e ss ary .

T he p o siti o n t ak e n by C o m te m ay b e bri e fly d e fi ne d in a
fe w w o rds . S e e i n g th at phil o s o phy such at l e ast as it h ad
,

b e e n c o nc e iv e d u n til th e X I X c e n t ury c o uld no t assu m e

.
,

t h e ch ar act e ristics o f sci e n c e h e a sks hims e lf wh e th e r o n e

,

w o uld n o t succ e e d b e tte r b y e n d e avo uri n g t o giv e th e

c h ar act e ristics C f sci e n c e t o phil o s o phy Lik e K an t h e might
.
,

h ave c o mp are d th e re v o luti o n h e was at te mp ti n g to th at

a cc o mplish e d by C o p e r n icus in as t ro no my h ad h e n o t ,

pre fe rr e d to pre s e n t it as pre p ar e d and gradu ally bro ught

ab o ut b y th e v e ry pro gr e ss o f sci e n c e an d phil o s o phy .

Acc o rdi n g to his o wn e xpr e ssi o n th e n h e e nd e avo urs to

tran sfo rm s ci e nc e i n t o phil o s o phy . But o n wh at c o ndi ti o ns
”

will th e tr an sfo rm ati o n b e e ffe cte d ? I f sci e n c e w e re t o l o s e

i n it its ch ar act e ristics o f p o sitiv e n e ss o f r e ality and o f r e l a
, ,

t ivity t o a ssum e th o s e o f a m e t aphysic a l d o c t ri n e this ch an g e

, ,

w o uld b e n e i th e r d e sir abl e n o r p o ssibl e T h e t r an sfo rm ati o n

.

will simpl y c o n sist in givi ng to sci e n c e th e phil o s o phic al

ch aracte r which it d o e s no t ye t p o ss e ss nam e ly u n i v e rs ality , ,

Whil e thus acquiri ng a ne w pr o p e rty p o sitiv e sci e n c e sh o uld

,
 C o n clu sion 3 49

l o s e no n e o f th o s e which it alre ady p o ss e ss e s and whi c h ,

c o n stitute its v alu e .

Thus in th e t r ansfo rm ati o n o f sci e n c e i nt o phil o s o phy

,
“
,

wh at is tra n sfo rm e d at b o tt o m is n o t sci e n c e which r e m ai n s

its e lf whil e b e c o mi n g ge ne ral fr o m b e i n g sp e ci al : it is phil o
s o phy r a th e r which is tran sfo rm e d T h e l at te r will h e n ce
.

fo rth u n d o ubt e dly b e c o n c e ive d as th e high e st an d m o st c o m

pre h e nsive fo rm o f p o sitive k no wl e dg e but as c o n s tituti ng a
,

p art o f th at k no wl e dg e I t h as b e e n s a id th at C o mte d o e s
.

aw ay with phil o s o phy by r e duci n g it t o b e i n g m e r e ly t h e

,

ge ne r alis ati o n o f t h e high e st r e sults o f t h e sci e n c e s This .

”

is n o t a pr o p e r i nt e rpre t ati o n o f his t h o ught Up to th e .

pre s e nt tim e th e duti e s p e rfo rm e d b y th e phil o s o phic al

d o c t ri ne s h ave b e e n i ndisp e ns abl e C o mt e i nte nds th at h is
.

syste m sh all fulfil th e m in future B e sid e sci e n c e pro p e rly

.
-

s o c a ll e d
-
,
which is a lw ay s sp e ci al phil o s o phy which re pre
,

s e nts th e p o i n t o f v i e w o f th e wh o l e m u st aris e O n this .

c o nditi o n al o ne c an t h e g o ve r n m e n t o fmi nds and th e p e rfe ct

l o gic al c o h e re n c e b e c o m e p o ssibl e
”
.

Phil o s o ph y will th e n no t m e rely b e a g e ne r alis at i o n o ft h e

high e st r e sults o fth e sci e nc e s .T h e s y nt h e sis o f t h e sci e n c e s
must b e bro ught ab o ut acc o rdi n g t o a pri n cipl e to which th e y
will b e all r e l at e d . I t must re ally b e a summi n g up o f
“

e xp e ri e n c e . But i f this phil o s o phy thus c o al e sc e s wi th

sci e nc e it must als o b e rea l lik e it and all re al k no wl e dge
,

is ne c e ss arily p o siti ve and re l ati v e I n sh o r t t h e distin c

.
,

ti o n be twe e n sci e n c e and phil o s o phy impli e s no sp e cific

di ffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e s e two ki n ds o f sp e cul ati o n O n th e .

c o ntrary th e r e e xists b e tw e e n th e m h o m o ge ne ity o f d o ctri ne

,

an d u n ity o f m e t h o d .

Th e re i n li e s th e no v e lty o f C o m te s syste m T h e q u e sti o n

’
.

was with o ut l e avi ng th e sci e n tific p o i n t o fV i e w to disc o v e r a

, ,

si ngl e u n iv e rs al c o nc e pti o n o f th e wh o l e o f Re ali ty as we find

it in e xpe ri e nc e T h e s o luti o n o f this pro bl e m was fo u nd o n
.
3 50 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

t h e day wh e n C o mt e cr e ate d s o ci al s c i e nc e F o r i nd e e d in .
,

t h e first pl a c e s o c i o l o gy m ak e s th e p o sitive m e th o d u niv e rs al

,

by e xte ndm g I t to th e high e st o rd e r o f nat ural ph e no m e na

acc e ssibl e t o us M o re o ve r o nc e it is e st ablish e d as a sp e c i al
.
,

sci e nc e ipso fac to it assum e s th e c h aract e r o f a u nive rs al

,

sci e nc e an d c o ns e qu e ntly o f a phil o s o phy U nd e r a c e rt ai n

,
.

a sp e ct s o ci o l o gy is th e sixth and l ast o f th e fu n d am e ntal

,

sci e nc e s U nd e r ano th e r asp e c t it is th e o nly s c i e n c e si nc e

.
,

t h e o th e r s c i e n c e s m ay b e r e g ard e d as gre at s o ci o l o gic al fact s

an d si nc e th e w
,

h o l e o f wh at is give n to us is sub o rdi nat e d to

t h e supr e m e id e a o f hum an ity .

S uch is th e way in which th e tr ansfo r m ati o n o f s c i e nc e i nto

phil o s o phy t ak e s pl ac e I f it d at e s fro m th e fo u nd ati o n o f
.

s o ci o l o gy it is b e c aus e o n c e this l ast p o sitive sci e nc e h as

,
.

b e e n cre at e d n o thi n g r e m ai n s in nature o fwhich we c o nc e ive

,

t h e p o ssibility o f o bt ai n i n g a n abs o l u t e k no wl e dg e
“
T he .

re l ativ e ch ara cte r o f sci e ntific c o n c e pti o n is ne c e ss arily in

s e p arabl e fro m t h e tru e n o ti o n o f natural l aws in t h e s am e ,

way as th e chim e ric al t e nd e n cy t o abs o l ut e k n o wl e dg e sp o n

tane o u sly acc o mp an i e s wh at e v e r u se we m ak e o f th e l o gi c a l

ficti o ns o r o f m e t aphysic al e ntiti e s 1

.
”

C o nsid e r e d as a wh o l e th e o bj e ct o f p o sitive sci e nc e

, ,

a cc o rdi ng to C o mt e n e c e ss a rily c o i n cid e s with th a t o f phil o

,

s o phy F o r b o th o fth e m it is th e wh o l e o f th e re ality give n

.

t o us . T h e hum an mi n d c an n o t e x e rt it se lf in a v a c uum .

Wh at it might draw fro m its e l f with o ut th e h e lp o f e x ,

p e rie n c e
( if such
,
a c o n c e pti o n b e n o t absurd ) is pur e ly ,

fictiti o us and h as no o bj e ctive v alu e

, I f th e n th e hum an .

mi n d r e m ai ns attach e d to a m e taphysic al phil o s o phy this c an ,

o nly b e in so f ar as t h e mi n d still c o n c e iv e s th e wh o l e o r a p art

o f r e ality fr o m t h e abs o lut e p o i nt o f vi e w th at is t o sa

y in so ,

far as it still fa ils to u nd e rst an d th a t t h e l aws o f ph e no m e na

al o n e a re withi n its r e ach and p e rsists in s e e ki ng th e e ss e n c e
,

C IV 371
o urs, , 2 .
 C on clu s io n 5I

a nd th e first o r fi nal c au s e fo r s o m e a m o n g th e m Th e re was

.

a tim e wh e n t h e wh o l e o f r e ality was so u n d e rst o o d T he

.

c o nc e p ti o n o f t h e w o rld was th e n e ntir e l y m e t aphysi c al o r

p artly th e o l o gic al But th e hum an mi nd h as gradu ally c o n
.

stitu te d th e p o sitiv e s c i e n c e first o f th e m o re simpl e and m o re

,

g e n e r al ph e n o m e na and th e n o f th e m o r e c o mplic a t e d o ne s
, .

F i nally th e m o st c o mpl e x o f all th at is to say th e m o r al and

, ,

s o ci al ph e no m e n a al o ne re m ai ne d unt o uc he d by th e sci e n tific

fo rm L e t u s supp o s e th at this l ast o rd e r o ffac ts is c o n qu e re d
.

by th e p o sitiv e m e th o d : th e m e t aphysi c al m o d e o f th o ught

b e i n g no l o nge r p o ss e ss e d o f r e al o bj e c ts ip so fa cto disap
,

p e ars At th e s am e tim e th e p o sitive m o d e o f th o ught

.

b e c o m e s u niv e rs al and p o si tiv e phil o s o phy is fo u n d e d

, .

I n this way t wo gre at c o nne ct e d fa cts which o ccupy a c o n

s ide rable pl ac e i n th e phil o s o phic al hist o ry o f o u r c e n tu ry are

e xpl ai ne d . We u n d e rst an d : I t h at th e fate o f m e t aphysics

.

app e ars to b e cl o s e ly b o u n d up with th at o f psych o l o gy o f ,

e thics o f t h e phil o s o phy o f hist o ry a nd o f t h e m o r al sci e nc e s

in ge ne r al whil e th e c o nne cti o n b e tw e e n physics fo r i nst an c e

, ,

a n d m e t aphysics s e e ms t o b e v e r y w e a k ; 2 .th a t th e fo u nd
a ti o n o f s o ci o l o gy d e t e rmi ne s th a t o f p o sitive phil o s o phy So
.

l o ng as psych o l o g y sp e cul ate s up o n th e nature o f th e s o ul and

up o n th e l aws o f t h o ught e thics up o n th e fi nal c aus e o fm an
, ,

t h e phil o s o ph y o f hist o ry up o n t h e fi n al c aus e o f hum an ity ;

,

m e taphysics re m ai n s st an di ng I nd e e d it s e e ms b e tte r abl e th an

.

p o sitiv e k no wl e dg e t o l e ad th e hum an mi nd to a c o n c e pti o n

o f t h e wh o l e o f t h e r e al
. I t app e ars to b e all th e m o re appro
riate f o r d o i n g this in t h at t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e Abs o lut e
p
c an b e e a sily m ad e t o h a rm o n is e with t h e p o i n t o fv i e w o f t h e

U nive rs al in th e s am e way as th e c o nc e pti o n o f subst anc e

, ,

wh ate ve r it m ay b e l e ads with o ut any di ffi culty t o th e c o n

,

c e pt io n o f t h e u n ity o f subs tan c e But fro m t h e day wh e n

.
,

we n o l o ng e r sh o uld s e e k a nythi n g but t h e l aws o f ps y chic al ,

m o ral an d s o ci al facts re frai n i ng fro m any hyp o th e sis as to

,
35 2 T h e P h ilosophy of A ug uste C om te

c aus e s and e ss e n c e s (a m e th o d alre ady m ad e use o f fo r all th e

,

o th e r c at e go ri e s o f ph e no m e na) thr e e r e s ults w o uld b e

,

o bt ai ne d at a si n gl e bl o w : m e t aphysic a l phil o s o phy w o uld

dis appe ar s o ci al sci e n c e w o uld b e cre ate d and p o siti ve

, ,

phil o s o phy wo uld b e fo u nd e d .

Acc o rdi n g to th e e ss e n ti al law Of s o ci al dy nam ics th e ,

m e t aphysic al st age is ne ve r anythi ng but a transit o ry o ne

be tw e e n th e the o l o gic al a nd th e p o sitive st age s T h e hum an .

i nte ll e ct c o uld n o t p ass imm e di at e l y fro m th e fo rm e r to th e

l atte r T h e m e t aphysic al st ag e which c an assum e an e ndl e ss
.

n u mb e r o f fo rms an d o f d e gr e e s i n s e nsibly l e ads it fr o m o n e

,

to th e o th e r M e t aphysic al phil o s o phy p a rt ak e s o f th e th e o

.

l o gic al in so far as it cl aims to e xpl ai n th e to t ality o fth e

“ ”

R e al by m e an s o fa first pri ncipl e and o fth e p o sitive in so fa r

, ,

as it e n d e av o urs t o d e m o n str at e its e xpl an ati o n s

“ ”
and t o ,

bri ng th e m I nto ac c o rd an c e with t h e r e al k no wl e dge alre ady

acquir e d I t o rigi nat e s in th e o l o gy and it e nds in sci e n c e
. .

But h o w e ve r ne ar i t m ay c o m e to p o sitive k no wl e dge its

, ,

o rigi na l th e o l o gic al br and is n e v e r e ffac e d W e re th e y .

c o mpe ll e d t o ch o o s e b e tw e e n th e th e o l o gic al and t h e

p o sitive d o ctri ne s m e t aph y sici an s w o uld c e rt ai n l y ad o pt th e
,

fo rm e r T h e e ss e n c e o f m e t aphysic al phil o s o phy is t o

.

t e n d t o w ards th e ab so lut e whilst p o sitive phil o s o phy o nly

,

s ee ks th e re l ative I n fav o uri ng th e pro gre ss o f p o siti v e

.

sci e nc e m e t aphysic al phil o s o phy was w o rki ng to m ak e its e lf

,

us e l e ss .

T o th o s e th e n wh o r e pr o ach hi m with n o t l e avi ng any

fu ncti o n pro p e r to phil o s o phy C o mt e w o uld answ e r th at in
, ,

his d o ctri ne phil o s o phy is o n t h e c o ntrary b e tte r d e fi ne d and

,

m o re fully c o nstitut e d th an in any o th e r I n d e e d m e t a .

physic al phil o s o phy h as ne ve r b e e n anythi n g but a c o mpr o

mis e d e sti ne d to s atisfy m o re o r l e ss th e n e e ds o f th e o l o gic al
, ,

e xpl an ati o n an d o f r a ti o n a l sci e n c e But p o sitive phil o s o phy

-
.

is pure and u n all o y e d with h e t e ro ge no us e l e m e n ts I t give s .

 C on clu sion 3 53

to th e wh o l e o fe xp e ri e nc e all th e i nt e ll igibi l ity which we c an

h o p e fo r thro ugh th e disc o ve ry o f l aws and in p articul ar o f
, , , ,

th e e n cycl o p ae dic l aws By m aki n g hu m an ity th e supre m e

.

e n d at o n c e o f o u r sp e cul at i o n and o f o u r a ctivity it fur n ish e s ,

m o rality and p o litics with a d e fi nit e b asis and giv e s re ligi o n ,

an o bj e c t I n this way acc o rdi n g t o C o mt e p o sitiv e phi l o

.
, ,

s o phy is m o re truly a phil o s o phy th an m e t aphysi c s si nc e it ,

s e cure s th e h o m o ge ne ity o f k no w l e dge and th e p e rfe ct

m e nt al c o h e re nc e and it is als o m o re truly re ligi o us si nc e as
,
”
,

its fi nal c o n clusi o n it sh o ws th at th e e nd o fth e i nt e ll e c t its e l f

,

li e s in d e vo ti o n to hum anity .

Ev e ry ne w phil o s o phi c al d o c tri ne is in g e ne ral g uid e d by a

d o ubl e t e nd e n cy At th e s am e tim e it s e e ks to e st ablish its
.

o rigi n al ity and to fin d o u t its an t e c e d e n ts I n o rd e r to r e ach

.

t h e fo rm e r r e sult it criti c is e s pr e c e di ng and c o n t e mp o r ary

,

d o ctri ne s and sh o ws th at b e tt e r th an any o f th e o th e rs i t

, , ,

succ e e ds in summi ng up e xp e ri e n c e But at th e sam e .

,

tim e it disc o ve rs a p e digre e fo r its e lf in histo ry whi c h is ne ve r

,

ve ry difficult to e st ablish .

Lik e th e o th e rs p o sitive phil o s o phy fulfils this tw o fo ld

,

r e quire m e nt in such m e as ur e h o w e v e r as its p articul ar

, , ,

n ature an d th e d e fi n iti o n o f its o bj e ct r e as o na bly all o w P ro .

pe rly sp e aki ng it d o e s no t u nd e rt ak e to r e fut e th e m e t a

,

physic al syste ms which it d e e ms its e lf d e sti ne d to r e pl ac e .

Th o se syst e ms in re futi ng p o sitive phil o s o phy are faith ,

ful to th e ir pri n cipl e ; an d p o sitive phil o s o phy is faithful

to its o wn pri n cipl e in n o t fo ll o wi n g th e ir e x ampl e It .

su ffi c e s fo r it t o l o c at e th e m in th e g e ne ral e v o l uti o n o fth e

“ ”

hum an mi n d and to sh o w acc o rdi ng to this law o f e v o l uti o n

, , ,

h o w th e v e ry n e c e ssity which bro ugh t th e m i nt o b e i ng is als o

th e c au s e o f th e i r dis app e ar an c e Th e ir o ffic e is fulfill e d th e ir
.
,

2 3
3 54 T h e P hilosophy 0] A ug u ste C o m te

p art is e nd e d I t m att e rs littl e th at th e y sh o uld s e e k to pro

.

l o ng an e bbi ng e xis te nc e ; c as e s o f sur v i val m ay sl ack e n t h e

rat e o f pro gre ss but th e y are p o w e rl e ss to arre st it A nd so
,
.

p o sitive phil o s o ph y is th e o n l y o ne which c an b e p e rfe ctly

just to w ards its adve rs a ri e s “
I t c e as e s s ays C o mt e
.
“
b e i ng ,
”
,

cri t ic al in r e g ard to th e wh o l e o f th e p ast I n o rd er to b e .

”

e st ablish e d it d o e s n o t re quir e to c o m b at and to suppl an t th e

,

phil o s o phi e s which h av e pre c e d e d it With its e lf it pl ac e s all .

,

d o ct ri ne s in hist o r y It s ubs ti tu te s th e his to ric al g e ne sis to

.

abstr ac t di al e ctics .

U nd o ub te dly C o mt e r e c o gn is e s a l o ng s e ri e s o f his pre

c urs o rs pro p e rly so c all e d in th e d o ubl e li ne o f phil o s o ph e rs
-
,

and sci e n tifi c m e n wh o h av e c o n tr ibut e d to t h e pr og r e ss o ft h e

o sitiv e spirit fro m Arist o tl e an d Archim e d e s to C o n d o rc e t

p
an d G all . But p o sitive phil o s o phy n o ne th e l e ss l o o ks up o n
, ,

its e lf as h e ir to all th e phil o s o phi e s e ve n to th o s e whi c h are ,

m o st o pp os e d to its pri ncipl e F o r th ey lik e th e o th e rs h ave

.
, ,

b e e n ne c e ss ary m o m e n ts in th e pro gre ss which was to e nd in

t h e p o sitiv e
syst m
’
e .

Thus c o n sid e re d in its re l ati o n t o th e m e t aphysic al spe c u .

l ati o n which pre c e d e d it this syst e m d o e s n o t r e fut e it fo r it

, ,

is ne ith e r ne c e ss ary no r e ve n p o ssibl e fo r it to do 5 0 N e ith e r .

d o e s it i n c o rp o r at e it withi n its e lf fo r it c o uld n o t do so wi th

,

o u t a fo rm al c o n tr adicti o n Still ac c o rdi ng to C o mte s o wn c o n ’

.
,

fe ssio n it pr o c e e ds fr o m m e t aph y sics as much as fr o m sci e n c e

,

pr o p e rly so c all e d I n wh at th e n d o e s this r e l ati o n c o nsist if

-
.
,

p o siti ve phil o s o ph y ne ith e r o pp o s e s n o r ad o pts pre v i o us

d o ctri ne s —I t tra nsposes th e m Wh at its pre d e c e ss o rs h ad .

studi e d fro m th e abs o lute p o i nt o f V i e w it pro j e cts up o n th e ,

re l ative pl ane .

As we pr o c e e d e d we h av e n o te d m o re th an o ne o f th e s e
tra nsp os i ti o ns . I t m ay p e rh aps n o t b e us e l e ss to m ak e a
r e c apitul ati o n o f th e m h e re with o u t h o w e ve r cl a imi ng fo r it
, , ,

p e rfe ct c o mpl e t e ne ss .
 C o n clu sion

M e ta physi cal P h ilosophy . P osi tive T ra nspositions .

I Disti ncti o n b e twe e n

. I Dis ti ncti o n b e twe e n th e sta
.

p o t e nti ality and re ality . tic al and th e dy n amic al p o i n ts o f

V i e w o r be tw e e n o rd e r and pro
,

gr e ss .

I I Pri n cipl e Of fi nality

. . I I Pri n cipl e o f th e c o ndi
.

ti o n s o f e xiste n c e .

I I I Th e o ry o f i nnate ne ss
. . III . D e fi n iti o n Of hum an
n a tur e as immut abl e e v o l uti o n ,

cre ati n g n o thi n g b ut bri ngi ng ,

o ut th e l at e n t p o t e n ti aliti e s in

th at nat ure .

I V T h e id e a o f th e un i
. I V T h e id e a o f th e wo rld
. .

v e rs e .

V All th e ph e no m e na o f V T h e id e a o f hum an ity is

'

. .

th e u niv e rs e are r e l at e d to th e o nly r e ally u n iv e r s al c o n c e p

o ne ano th e r . ti o n be c au se th e c o nditi o n s o f
,

e xist e n c e o f hum an s o ci e ti e s are

in a ne c e ss ary r e l ati o n n o t o n ly ,

with th e l aws o fo ur o rg anis ati o n ,

but a ls o with all th e physic al

an d ch e mic al l aws o f o ur pl ane t .

and t h e m e ch an ic a l l aws o f th e

s o l ar syste m .

V I T h e Arist o t e li an th e V I S ci e n c e c o nsists in sub

. .

o ry o f sci e n c e (k no wl e dg e st it uting r ati o nal pre visi o n to t h e

,

thro ugh c ause s a p io ri ) and e mpiric al e st ablishm e nt o f facts

, r , .

C art e si an th e o ry (d e ductive ,

k n o wl e dge st arti ng fr o m th e
simp le ) .

V I I T h e pri ncipl e s o fm a
. V I I G e o m e try and m e ch an ics .

th e m atics are s y nth e tic al a are natural sci e n c e s an d pure ,

priori pr o p o siti o ns (K ant ) an alysis c an ne ve r e stab lish t h e ir

. .

'

r1nc i le s
p p .
35 6 T h e P h ilosophy of A ug u ste C om te

V I I I T h e o rd e r o f th e V I I I T h e c o n duct o f m an
. .

u nive rse is th e b asis o fm o r al is re gul at e d e xt e r nall y by th e

o rd e r : ( Sto ics Spi no z a L e i wh o l e o f th e l aws o f th e w o rld in
, ,

b nitz ) . which h e liv e s .

I X T h e histo ry o f h u
. I X T h e e vo lutio n o fh um anity
.

m an ity is dire ct e d by a pro is acc o mplish e d acc o rdi ng to a

vide nt ial wisd o m . law .

X T h e no ti o n o fa n atural X T h e v ari o us o rd e rs o f
. .

law d o e s no t n e c e ss a rily n a tur al ph e n o m e n a are irre du c

imply a m e ch an ism ibl e and ne ve rth e l e ss c o nve rge nt

.
,

th e r e al b e c o mi ng rich e r at e ach

ne w d e gr e e .

X I The o ry o f th e im
. X I Th e o ry o fth e subj e c tive
“
.

m o rtality o fth e s o ul e x ist e nc e

. o r o f su rviv al in t h e ,
”

c o n sci o u s ne ss o fo th e rs .

X I I R ati o nal th e o l o gy
. X I I T h e po sitive sci e nc e o f
. .

H um an ity .

This list might e asily b e pro l o nge d O n c e ag ai n it sh o ws .

us th at in th e hist o ry o f phil o s o phy as in hist o ry in g e ne ral

, ,

th e r e sult o f th e m o st app ar e n tl y r adic al r e v o luti o n s is n o t so

much to ab o lish as to tran sfo rm Thus K an t s phil o s o phy .

,
’

might s ee m to be e ntire ly o pp o s e d to th at o f Le ib n it z Y e t .

we se e th at th e m e t aphysics o f L e ib n it z is to b e fo u n d a lm o st
in its e n tir e ty in K an t O f this d o gm atic phil o s o phy K an t
.

h as pre se r v e d t h e d o ctri ne H e o n l y r e j e ct e d its d o gm atism

.

which as a m atte r o f fact was o f c api tal imp o rtan c e I n th e

, , .

s am e way p o sitiv e phil o s o phy h as o fte n b e e n pre s e nte d as th e

,

fo rm al ne gati o n o f th e phil o s o phy which pre c e d e d it Wh e n

we v e rify this we n e arly alw ays find th e m b o th c o n c e rn e d
,

with th e s am e pro bl e ms an d o ft e n re achi ng an al o g o us

,

s o luti o n s H e re ag ai n it is o n ly a qu e sti o n o f tran sp o siti o n

.

a n e xtr e m e l y s e ri o us o n e it is tru e o n a cc o u n t o f all th at

,

it impli e s .

E rro r s o f i nt e rpre t ati o n are ve ry o fte n due to a l ack o f

 C onclusion 357

hist o ric al p e rsp e c tive O nc e th e y h av e b e e n fo rmul ate d and

.

ad o pt e d by curr e n t o pi n io n th e y are difficult to r e ctify Tim e .

is ne e d e d in o rd e r th at b e ne ath sup e rfici al di ffe re nc e s d e e p ,

s e ate d re s e mbl an c e s m ay app e ar D uri ng m any y e ars K an t

.

was in all si nc e rity l o o k e d up o n as a sc e pti c in Fran c e Th o s e .

wh o c riticis e d him c o uld n o t c o n c e ive h o w any o ne c o uld giv e

up m e taphysi c al d o gm at ism with o ut at th e so m e t im e
,

ab an d o n i ng th e d o ctri ne s which h ad b e e n c ast in t h e m e t a

physic al fo rm b e fo re K ant I n th e s am e way in th e e y e s o f

.
,

m o st o f his adv e rsari e s C o mt e s syste m mu st h ave app e are d

,
’

as th e ve ry ne g ati o n o f phil o s o phy b e c aus e th e t e r m s

,
ph il
o s o phy r e l ative s ee m e d i nc o mp atibl e to th e m B ut
“
and .

this syst e m whi c h is an e ffo rt to re alis e fro m t h e p o i nt o f

, ,

vi e w o f p o sitiv e s c i e nc e th e u n ity o f th e und e rst andi ng and

, ,

th e
“
p e rfe ct l o gi c al c o h e re n c e in r e ality e nds by putti ng th e
,
”

tr aditi o nal pro bl e m s o f phil o s o phy in a fo r m suitab l e to th e

spirit o fo ur ag e .

I f th e re l ati o nship b e tw e e n C o mt e s phil o so phy and th e

’

d o ctri ne s which pre c e d e d it is su ffi c i e ntly e vid e n t it d o e s no t ,

fo ll o w th at this phil o so phy h as bro ught with it no thi ng ne w .

O n th e c o ntr ary t h e t r an sp o siti o n o f pr o bl e ms and th e

“
,

c o n st ant e ffo rt t o substitut e th e re l ative to th e abs o l ut e p o i nt

o f vi e w e n t ails s e ri o us c o n s e qu e n c e s with v e ry f
,
ar r e ac h ing

ef fe cts
. S o m e o fth e s e we re at o nc e app are n t and first s e rv e d
-
,

t o ch aract e ris e p o sitiv e phil o s o phy in t h e e y e s o f th e pub l i c .

O th e rs m o re re m o t e but no l e ss i mp o rt ant app e are d m o re

, , ,

sl o wly .

T h e ne g ative c o n s e qu e n c e s al m o st al o n e attract e d att e n ti o n

at first . T h e chi e f ch ar act e ristic o fth e n e w phil o s o phy s e e m e d
to b e th e d e n i al o f t h e l e gitim a cy an d e v e n o fth e p o ssibility

Of m e t aphysi c s in all its fo rms r ati o nal psych o l o gy th e

'

,
3 58 T h e P h ilosophy o f A ug uste C om te

phil o s o phic al th e o ry o f m atte r and o f life rati o nal th e o l o gy , ,

e tc. I t s e e m e d als o to d e ny th e p o ssibility o f i ntr o sp e ctive

psy c h o l o gy o fe thics inits traditi o nal fo rm as w e ll as o f l o gic
, , .

I n a w o rd o ne aft e r ano th e r it e xclud e d all th e p arts o f wh at

, ,
C

c o nstitut e d a c o urs e o f phil o s o phy NO w o nd e r the n if .

”
, ,

this d o ctri ne which t o o k th e nam e o f p o sitive appe are d to

be c hi e fly ne gativ e .

H o we v e r in re ality th e ne g ati o n o nly affe ct e d th e so c all e d

, ,
-

rati o nal o r phil o s o phic al sci e n c e s

” “
C o mt e re pro ach e d .
”

th e m with wh at Arist o tl e c alls 7 6 x wg fgr in Stri n ’

ev i
-
e

ge ntly applyi ng th e pri n cipl e o f th e r e l ativity o f k no wl e dge ,

h e r e fus e d t o admit anythi n g abs o lut e H e was th e re fo r e .

p e rfe c tly tru e to hims e lf in rej e cti ng d o ctri ne s fo u nd e d U p o n

m e t aphysic al pri nc ipl e s But this e ntire ly ne g ative asp e ct o f
.

his phil o s o phy is v ery far fro m b e i n g th e o ne ac c o rdi ng to

which we c an b e st u n d e rstan d it Truly sp e aki ng it is o n l y
.
,

pre p arat o ry and hi st o ri ans h av e O ft e n c o mmitt e d th e mist ak e

,

o f all o wi ng p e o pl e t o b e li e v e th at it is e ss e n ti al We only .

destroy wh a t we rep lac e s aid C o mt e

”
.
,

T h e qu e sti o n was n o t to rui n but t o tr an sfo rm th e psych o

l o gic al m o ral and s o ci al sci e nc e s As we h av e s e e n p o sitive
,
.
,

phil o s o phy d o e s no t d e ny th e p o ssibility o fa psych o l o gy .

O n th e c o nt rary it e st ablish e s th at psychic al ph e no m e na l ik e

, ,

th e o th e rs are subj e ct to l aws and th at th e s e l aws m ust be

, ,

l o o k e d fo r by th e p o sitiv e m e th o d I t o n ly re j e cts th e.

p sych o l o gy o f t h e id e o l o gist s as a bstr act and th at o f C o usi n ,

as m e t aphysi c al . I t cl aim s th at in pre s e nc e o fth e ph e no m e na

,

which h e is study ing th e psych o l o gist sh o uld assum e th e

,

s am e attitud e as th e bi o l o gist o r th e physicist th at any s e arch ,

aft e r c aus e o r e sse n c e sh o u ld b e c a r e fully a v o id e d t h at a ny ,

‘

m e t aphysic al o r e thic al aft e r th o ught sh o uld be se t asid e

-
.

The n a sci e nc e o f physi c al ph e n o m e na will b e e st ablish e d ;

still it will o nly be abl e to stu dy th e high e st m e n t al func ti o n s
in th e unive rsal subj e c t in hum an ity I f we wish to do so
”
.
, ,
 C onclu sion 3 59

we m ay c o nt inu e to c al l it by its t radit io nal nam e al th o ugh ,

it is to th e o ld psych o l o gy o nly wh at th e ch e mis try o f o ur

day is to alch e my .

A simil ar tran sfo rm ati o ngive s ris e to s o ci a l sc i e nc e H e r e .

ag ai n t h e i ndisp e n s abl e c o n diti o n f

,
o r th e sci e n t ific k n o w l e dg e

o f fa cts an d Of l aws is a n e w attitud e o f mi n d in pr e s e n c e o f

th e se facts We must se t asid e wh at i nt e re sts us subj e c tive ly

.

in th e m and c o n sid e r wh at is sp e cifi c al ly s o ci al in th e m

“ ”
, ,

j u st as th e physi o l o gist studi e s wh at is sp e cific all y b io l o gi c al

in th e ph e no m e n a o fth e o rg an ism M Durkh e im as a re al
. .
,

h e i r o f August e C o mt e re as o nably m ai nt ai ns th at thi s is a

,

c o ndit io n si ne qua non o f p o sit ive s o c i o l o gy This o nly .

e xists as a sci e n c e if th e r e are fa c ts wh ic h are p ro p e r l y s o ci al ,

subj e ct to spe ci a l l aws be sid e s th e m o re g e ne ral l aw s o f

,

n atur e which rul e th e m als o and if th e s e fa ct s by c o n st an t

, ,

o bj e ctiv e ch ar act e rist ic s are su ffi c ie nt ly disti nc t fro m th e

,

ph e no m e n a c all e d psych o l o gic al .

P o sitive psych o l o gy is n o w alre ady c o n stitut e d P o sitive .

s o ci o l o gy is b e i n g fo rm e d T h e sci e nc e o f l angu age th e

.

sci e nc e o f re ligi o n s th e histo ry o f art are als o assum ing a

,

p o sitive fo rm T h e m o ve m e nt whi c h h as b e gu n and o fwhich

.
,

we o n ly se e th e b e gi nn i ngs will pr o b ably e xt e n d m uc h furth e r

,

th an we thi n k I t supp o s e s at l e ast a pro visi o n al s e p arati o n

.

be tw e e n th e sci e ntific i n t e re st and th e p o litic al m o ral and ,

r e ligi o us i nt e re sts B e i ng already c o n stitute d fo r a c o nsid e rabl e

.

p art o fo ur k no wl e dge this s e p arati o n fo r th e re m ai n d e r is still

,

dist aste ful to th e traditi o n al h abits o f th e m aj o rity o f mi nds .

We are accust o m e d to sp e cul ate up o n physi c al o r ch e mic al

natur e with p e rfe ct d isi n t e r e st e d ne ss as t o t h e m e t aphysic a l

c o ns e qu e nc e s o fth e re sults which we m ay o bt ai n F o r we are .

c o nvi n c e d th at th e l aws o f th e s e ph e no m e na do no t ne c e s
saril
y imply a n y c o n s e q ue n c e s o f this ki n d
. o r th at th e y c an
,

be alm o st i n di ffe r e n tly br o ught i nt o acc o rd with any fo rm o f

m e t aphysics we m ay b e pl e as e d to ad o pt Wh at do physi c s .
,
3 6 0 Th e P h ilosophy f
o A ug u ste C om te

ch e mistry natural phil o s o phy prove as to th e d e sti ny o f m an

, ,

o r th e supr e m e c a us e o f th e u n iv e rs e ? N o thi ng and it d o e s ,

n o t o ccur to us to b e surpris e d at it We c o nsid e r th at th e s e

.

sci e nc e s are in acc o rd an c e with th e ir d e fi niti o n if th e y gi ve us

a k n o wle dg e o f t h e l a ws o f ph e no m e n a and if this k n o wl e dg e
‘

e n abl e s us withi n c e rt a i n limits to e x e rcis e a r ati o n al a nd e f fi

c ac io us acti o n up o n natur e .

A re we in t h e s am e p o siti o n in wh at c o n c e r n s psych o l o gy
and th e m o r al and s o ci a l sci e n c e s ? This is d o ubtful T h e .

ve ry n am e o f m o ral sci e nc e s is signific ant e no ugh o n this

“ ”

p o i nt We c anno t re fr ai n fr o m thi nki n g th at th e s e sc i e nc e s

pr o v e s o m e thi ng o utsid e th e ms e lv e s F o r s e ve ral o f th e
.

sch o o ls o f this c e ntury psych o l o gy is stil l th e p ath th at l e ads to

,

m e t aphysics Spiritu ality and th e imm o rt ality o f th e s o ul

.

s e e m to h ave a dire ct i n te re st in it I n a m o re o r l e ss c o n
.

sci o us m anne r o rth o d o x p o litic al e c o no my h as fo u nd its e lf

pro vi ng th e l e gitim acy o fth e m o d e r n c apit alist reg i m e and
”
,

h as re pre s e nt e d it as b e i ng in c o n fo rmit y with th e immut abl e

l aws o fn ature T h e histo ric al m ate ri alism o f M a rx pr o ve s
.
”

t h e ne c e ssity o f c o ll e ctivism H ist o ry to o o fte n s e rve s

.

n ati o n al i n t e re sts o r p o litic al p arti e s

,
.

C o mt e s m o st i n te re sti ng and fe rtil e l e adi ng id e a is t h at th e

’

sci e nc e s c o nc e ive d in this way are still in t h e ir i n fan cy and do

n o t d e s e rv e th e ir n am e Th o s e wh o t ak e th e m up sh o uld in
.
,

th e first pl ac e c o nvi n c e th e ms e lv e s o ft h e fa ct th at th e y pr o v e
,

no m o r e in fav o ur o f spiritu alism o r m at e ri alism o f pr o t e cti o n ,

o r o f fre e e xch an g e th an physics o r ch e mistry pro v e in

,

favo ur o f th e u n ity o r th e plurali ty o f subst anc e s in th e

u niv e rs e I n th e sch o o l o f th e m o re advan c e d sci e nc e s m e n
.

m ay b e t aught to dis t i n guish b e tw e e n th e o bj e cts o f p o sitiv e

r e s e arch a nd th e m e t aph y sic al o r pra ctic al qu e sti o ns Th e y .

will se e als o th at th e hum an mi n d did n o t b e gi n by m ak

ing this disti ncti o n I n t h e c as e o f i n o rg an ic a n d o f livi n g
n atur e . F o r a l o n g tim e it c o uld o nly thi nk o f physi c al
 C on clusion 3 6 I

ph e no m e n a re ligi o usly With o ut th e admirabl e e ffo rt o fth e

.

Gre e k m e n o f sc i e nc e and phil o s o ph e rs we might ye t find ,

o u rs e lve s in this p e r i o d an d p o sitiv e phil o s o phy m ight stil l

,

b e aw aiti ng t h e h o ur o fits birth T o day this phil o s o phy h as

.
-

c o m e i nt o be in g I n o rd e r to p ro ve fi nally e st ablish e d it
.
,

re quire s th at i nd ividu al and s o ci al h um an nat ure sh o uld

be c o m e th e o bj e c t o fa sci e nc e asdisi nt e re ste d as phy si c s and
bi o l o gy h ave alre ady b e c o m e Fro m th at day al o ne wi ll th e
.

S o ci al sc i e n c e s b e d e fi nite l y c o nstitute d
”
.

I t is tru e th at si nc e in a c e rt ai n way th e o bjec t o f the se

sc ie nc e s is o u rse lv e s it se e ms p arad o xic al to l o o k up o n
,

th e m in th e sam e way as if it w e re a qu e sti o n o f s alts o r

o f c ry st als . We p e rsist in b e l i e vi ng th at any k no wl e dge o f
this o rd e r as s o o n as it is acquire d admits o f imm e di ate
, ,

app l i c at io n s t o o u r c o n diti o n o r c o n duct But th is is an .

i ll usi o n
. I s n o t th e I mp o rt anc e o f th e “
m ilieu in whi c h
”

we fin d o urs e l ve s and o fth e fo rc e s which af

,
fe ct us fr o m with
o ut f o r o ur w e lfar e and e v e n f o r o ur pr e s e rv ati o n which de

p e nds up o n th e m at e ve ry m o m e n t a simpl e m atte r o f e vi

,

d e nc e ? N e ve rthe l ess we s e e k a p ure l y ab strac t s c i e ntifi c

, ,
‘

k no w l e dge o fth e l aws o fph e no m e na be caus e we k no w th at o ur

,

ef fe ctive p o we r up o n n atural fo rc e s is sub o rdi nat e to sc i e nc e .

I n th e s am e way we s e p arat e physi o l o gy fro m th e r ap e uti c s

and m e dici ne and we e sp e c ially aw ait th e pr o gr e ss o f th e s e
,

fro m physi o l o gy S o in th e s am e way pre dag o g y r ati o nal

.
, ,

e c ono my p o litics and in ge ne r al all th e so ci al a rts in th e

, ,

future will b e sub o rdi nate d to th e the o re ti c al s c i e nc e o f th e

i ndividu al and s o c ial nature o f m an wh e n thi s sc i e nc e h as
,

b e e n c o nstitute d by m e ans o f a pure l y p o sit ive m e th o d and ,

is no l o nge r e xp e c te d to p ro ve anythi ng b ut its l aws

”
.

This m ay pe rh aps be t h e w o rk o f c e nt uri e s We are o nl y .

w it ne s si ng its e arly b e gi nni ng s We still h ave o nly a vag ue

.

id e a o fa p o lity fo u nd e d up o n s c i e nc e ; and we do n o t ye t k no w
wh at i ndividu al and s o ci al psy c h o l o gy will yi e l d as a p o sit ive
*
2 3
3 6 2 T h e P hilosophy of A ug uste C om te

s c i e nc e
. C o mt e anti c ip at e d r e sults which c o u l d n o t be
imm e di ate This is ye t ano th e r fe ature which he h as in
.

c o mm o n w ith D e sc arte s to wh o m we h ave so o ft e n h ad

,

o cc asi o n to c o mp are him H avi ng c o nc e ive d a c e rt ai n

.

m ath e m ati c al id e al o f physi c al sci e nc e D e sc art e s pi c ture d th e

,

pro bl e ms o fnature and e sp e ci ally o f l ivi ng natur e as b e i ng

, ,

i nfi nite ly l e ss c o mpl e x th an th e y are O ur sci e ntific m e n .

to day n o l o n ge r v e n tur e t o put to th e ms e lv e s t h e bi o l o gi c al

-

q ue sti o n s wh o s e so luti o n app e are d to D e sc art e s t o b e c o m

a rative ly e asy I n t h e s am e way August e C o mt e h avi n g
p .
.
, ,

r e c o gn is e d th at m o r al and s o ci al ph e no m e na sh o u l d b e
o bj e c ts o f sci e n c e j ust as th o s e o f i no rg an i c and livi ng
,

nat ur e b e l i e v e d t his n e w sci e n c e to b e f

,
a r m o r e adv an c e d by

his o wn l ab o urs th an it was in r e ality .

I t is e asy to u n d e rst an d h is mi st ak e H e was an xi o us t o .

pro c e e d to th e s o ci al r e o rg ani sati o n in v ie w o f which h e

“
,
”

was c o nstructi n g his phil o s o phy Th e n give n th e c o n c e pti o n

.
,

h e h ad fo rm e d o f so ci al sci e n c e h e was b o u n d to thi n k th at

,

t h e disc o v e ry o fth e gr e at dy namic law o f th e thr e e St ate s was

s uffici e n t to fi nally c o n stitut e it I n his e y e s th e h ard e st

.
“

p art o f th e w o rk was d o ne S o c i o l o gi sts at pre s e nt be li e ve

.
”

th at alm o st e ve rythi ng re m ai ns to be d o ne But h e re ag ain .

, ,

we m ay re ne w th e c o mp aris o n be twee n D e s c art e s and C o mt e .

I n t h e w o rk o f b o th with o ut m uc h di f
, fi c ulty we c an dis ,

t ing uish wh at is d o ne by t h e s c i e ntifi c m an pr o pe rly so c all e d -

and wh at is d o ne by th e phil o s o ph e r I t is th e sam e with

C o mt e th e s o ci o l o gist as w
.

ith D e s c art e s th e physicist Th e i r .

hyp o th e se s h av e m e t with th e fat e c o mm o n to s c i e n tifi c

l ab o urs o f which C o mte himse lf h as so w e ll se t fo rth th e
,

ne c e ss ary tr an sit o ri n e ss T h e o th e r p o rti o n o f th e ir w o rk,

.

m o re ge ne ral in c h arac te r is p o ss e ssed o f m o re e nd uri ng

,

qu aliti e s I n this se ns e and se tti ng asid e h is p o l iti c al and

.
,

re l igi o u s vi e ws which be l o n g to ano th e r o rd e r th e spe c ul ativ e

, ,

phil o s o phy o f C o mte is livi ng sti l l and pursu e s its e vo l uti o n

,
 C onclusion 6
3 3

ev e n withi n th e mi nds of th o se wh o are en gage d in o pp o s

ing it.

T H E E ND .