Prof. CELEDONIO A.

NOBLEZA
(Lecturer)
Photography - It is an art or science of reproducing image on a sensitized
material or surface through the reaction of a certain electromagnetic
radiation of rays.
Police Photography - It is the study of general practices, methods, and steps
in taking pictures to the crime scene, physical things and other circumstances
that can be used as criminal evidences or law enforcement purposes.
Forensic Photography - Is that field covering the legal application of
photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal investigation.
Photomicrography - The art of photographing minute objects when
magnified by means of the microscope and enlarge from 10x up.
Photomacrography - The photographing of an object directly enlarge to the
negative and magnified from 1 to 9 x.
Infrared Photography - The art of process of photographing or recording
unseen object by means of infra-red light .
"Photography" is derived from the Greek words photos ("light") and graphein ("to
draw") The word was first used by the scientist Sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839. It is a
method of recording images by the action of light, or related radiation, on a sensitive
material.
Topic: History of Photography
Pinhole Camera
Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham), a great authority on optics in the Middle
Ages who lived around 1000AD, invented the first pinhole camera,
(also called the Camera Obscura} and was able to explain why the
images were upside down. The first casual reference to the optic laws
that made pinhole cameras possible, was observed and noted by
Aristotle around 330 BC, who questioned why the sun could make a
circular image when it shined through a square hole.

The First Photograph

On a summer day in 1827, Joseph Nicephore Niepce made the first
photographic image with a camera obscura. Prior to Niepce people
just used the camera obscura for viewing or drawing purposes not for
making photographs. Joseph Nicephore Niepce's heliographs or sun
prints as they were called were the prototype for the modern
photograph, by letting light draw the picture.
Niepce placed an engraving onto a metal plate
coated in bitumen, and then exposed it to light. The
shadowy areas of the engraving blocked light, but
the whiter areas permitted light to react with the
chemicals on the plate. When Niepce placed the
metal plate in a solvent, gradually an image, until
then invisible, appeared. However, Niepce's
photograph required eight hours of light exposure
to create and after appearing would soon fade
away.
Louis Daguerre
Fellow Frenchman, Louis Daguerre was also
experimenting to find a way to capture an image,
but it would take him another dozen years before
Daguerre was able to reduce exposure time to less
than 30 minutes and keep the image from
disappearing afterwards .
The Birth of Modern Photography
Louis Daguerre was the inventor of the first practical process of
photography. In 1829, he formed a partnership with Joseph Nicephore
Niepce to improve the process Niepce had developed.
In 1839 after several years of experimentation and Niepce's death,
Daguerre developed a more convenient and effective method of
photography, naming it after himself - the daguerreotype.
Daguerre's process 'fixed' the images onto a sheet of silver-plated copper.
He polished the silver and coated it in iodine, creating a surface that was
sensitive to light. Then, he put the plate in a camera and exposed it for a
few minutes. After the image was painted by light, Daguerre bathed the
plate in a solution of silver chloride. This process created a lasting image,
one that would not change if exposed to light.
In 1839, Daguerre and Niepce's son sold the rights for the daguerreotype
to the French government and published a booklet describing the process.
The daguerreotype gained popularity quickly; by 1850, there were over
seventy daguerreotype studios in New York City alone.
Negative to Postive Process
The inventor of the first negative from which multiple
postive prints were made was Henry Fox Talbot, an
English botanist and mathematician and a
contemporary of Daguerre.
Talbot sensitized paper to light with a silver salt
solution. He then exposed the paper to light. The
background became black, and the subject was
rendered in gradations of grey. This was a negative
image, and from the paper negative, Talbot made
contact prints, reversing the light and shadows to
create a detailed picture. In 1841, he perfected this
paper-negative process and called it a calotype,
Greek for beautiful picture.
Tintypes
Tintypes, patented in 1856 by Hamilton Smith, were another
medium that heralded the birth of photography. A thin sheet of
iron was used to provide a base for light-sensitive material,
yielding a positive image.
Wet Plate Negatives
In 1851, Frederick Scoff Archer, an English sculptor, invented the
wet plate negative. Using a viscous solution of collodion, he
coated glass with light-sensitive silver salts. Because it was glass
and not paper, this wet plate created a more stable and detailed
negative.
Photography advanced considerably when sensitized materials
could be coated on plate glass. However, wet plates had to be
developed quickly before the emulsion dried. In the field this
meant carrying along a portable darkroom.
Dry Plate Negatives & Hand-held Cameras
In 1879, the dry plate was invented, a glass negative plate with a
dried gelatin emulsion. Dry plates could be stored for a period of
time. Photographers no longer needed portable darkrooms and
could now hire technicians to develop their photographs. Dry
processes absorbed light quickly so rapidly that the hand-held
camera was now possible.
Flexible Roll Film
In 1889, George Eastman invented film with a base that was
flexible, unbreakable, and could be rolled. Emulsions coated on a
cellulose nitrate film base, such as Eastman's, made the mass-
produced box camera a reality.
Color Photographs
In the early 1940s, commercially viable color films (except
Kodachrome, introduced in 1935) were brought to the market.
These films used the modern technology of dye-coupled colors in
which a chemical process connects the three dye layers together
to create an apparent color image.
Photographic Films
The first flexible roll films, dating to 1889, were made of cellulose
nitrate, which is chemically similar to guncotton. A nitrate-based
film will deteriorate over time, releasing oxidants and acidic
gasses. It is also highly flammable. Special storage for this film is
required.
Nitrate film is historically important because it allowed for the
development of roll films. The first flexible movie films measured
35-mm wide and came in long rolls on a spool. In the mid-1920s,
using this technology, 35-mm roll film was developed for the
camera. By the late 1920s, medium-format roll film was created.
It measured six centimeters wide and had a paper backing
making it easy to handle in daylight. This led to the development
of the twin-lens-reflex camera in 1929. Nitrate film was produced
in sheets (4 x 5-inches) ending the need for fragile glass plates.
Triacetate film came later and was more stable, flexible, and
fireproof. Most films produced up to the 1970s were based on this
technology. Since the 1960s, polyester polymers have been used
for gelatin base films. The plastic film base is far more stable than
cellulose and is not a fire hazard.
Today, technology has produced film with T-grain emulsions.
These films use light-sensitive silver halides (grains) that are T-
shaped, thus rendering a much finer grain pattern. Films like this
offer greater detail and higher resolution, meaning sharper
images.
•Film Speed (ISO) — An arbitrary number placed on film that tells
how much light is needed to expose the film to the correct
density. Generally, the lower the ISO number, the finer grained
and slower a film. ISO means International Standards
Organization. This term replaces the old ASA speed indicator. The
slower the film, the more light is needed to expose it.
Photographic Prints
Traditionally, linen rag papers were used as the base
for making photographic prints. Prints on this fiber-
base paper coated with a gelatin emulsion are quite
stable when properly processed. Their stability is
enhanced if the print is toned with either sepia (brown
tone) or selenium (light, silvery tone).
Paper will dry out and crack under poor archival
conditions. Loss of the image can also be due to high
humidity, but the real enemy of paper is chemical
residue left by photographic fixer. In addition,
contaminants in the water used for processing and
washing can cause damage. If a print is not fully
washed to remove all traces of fixer, the result will be
discoloration and image loss.
•Fixer (Hypo)—A chemical, sodium thiosulfate, used to remove
residual silver halides (grain) from films and prints when
processing them. Fixer "fixes" the remaining silver halides in
place on either film or prints. Fixer is also called hypo.
The next innovation in photographic papers was resin-coating, or
water-resistant paper. The idea is to use normal linen fiber-base
paper and coat it with a plastic (polyethylene) material, making
the paper water-resistant. The emulsion is placed on a plastic
covered base paper. The problem with resin-coated papers is that
the image rides on the plastic coating, and is susceptible to
fading.
At first color prints were not stable because organic dyes were
used to make the color image. The image would literally
disappear from the film or paper base as the dyes deteriorate.
Kodachrome, dating to the first third of the 20th century, was the
first color film to produce prints that could last half a century.
Now, new techniques are creating permanent color prints lasting
200 years or more. New printing methods using computer-
generated digital images and highly stable pigments, offer
permanency for color photographs
By definition a camera is a lightproof object, with a lens, that
captures incoming light and directs the light and resulting image
towards film (optical camera) or the imaging device (digital
camera).
All camera technology is based on the law of optics first
discovered by Aristotle. By the mid-1500s a sketching device for
artists, the camera obscura (dark chamber) was common. The
camera obscura was a lightproof box with a pinhole (later lens
were used) on one side and a translucent screen on the other.
This screen was used for tracing by the artists of the inverted
image transmitted through the pinhole.
Around 1600, Della Porta reinvented the pinhole camera.
Apparently he was the first European to publish any information
on the pinhole camera and is sometimes incorrectly credited with
its invention.
Johannes Kepler was the first person to coin the phrase Camera
Obscura in 1604, and in 1609, Kepler further suggested the use
of a lens to improve the image projected by a Camera Obscura.
Daguerreotype Cameras
The earliest cameras used in the daguerreotype
process were made by opticians and instrument
makers, or sometimes even by the photographers
themselves. The most popular cameras utilized a
sliding-box design. The lens was placed in the front
box. A second, slightly smaller box, slid into the back
of the larger box. The focus was controlled by sliding
the rear box forward or backwards. A laterally
reversed image would be obtained unless the camera
was fitted with a mirror or prism to correct this effect.
When the sensitized plate was placed in the camera,
the lens cap would be removed to start the exposure .
Box Camera
George Eastman. a dry plate manufacturer from Rochester, New
York, invented the Kodak camera. For $22.00, an amateur could
purchase a camera with enough film for 100 shots. After use, it
was sent back to the company, which then processed the film.
The ad slogan read, "You press the button, we do the rest." A
year later, the delicate paper film was changed to a plastic base,
so that photographers could do their own processing.
Eastman's first simple camera in 1888 was a wooden, light-tight
box with a simple lens and shutter that was factory-filled with
film. The photographer pushed a button to produce a negative.
Once the film was used up, the photographer mailed the camera
with the film still in it to the Kodak factory where the film was
removed from the camera, processed, and printed. The camera
was then reloaded with film and returned.
Flashlight Powder
Blitzlichtpulver or flashlight powder was invented in
Germany in 1887 by Adolf Miethe and Johannes
Gaedicke. Lycopodium powder (the waxy spores from
club moss) was used in early flash powder.
Flashbulbs
The first modern photoflash bulb or flashbulb was
invented by Austrian, Paul Vierkotter. Vierkotter used
magnesium-coated wire in an evacuated glass globe.
Magnesium-coated wire was soon replaced by
aluminum foil in oxygen. On September 23, 1930, the
first commercially available photoflash bulb was
patented by German, Johannes Ostermeier. These
flashbulbs were named the Vacublitz. General Electric
made a flashbulb called the Sashalite.
Filters - Frederick Charles Luther Wratten (1840-1926)
English inventor and manufacturer, Frederick Wratten founded
one of the first photographic supply businesses, Wratten and
Wainwright in 1878. Wratten and Wainwright manufactured
and sold collodion glass plates and gelatin dry plates.
In 1878, Wratten invented the "noodling process" of silver-
bromide gelatin emulsions before washing. In 1906, Wratten
with the assistance of Dr. C.E. Kenneth Mees (E.C.K Mees)
invented and produced the first panchromatic plates in
England. Wratten is best known for the photographic filters
that he invented and are still named after him - Wratten
Filters. Eastman Kodak purchased his company in 1912.
35mm Cameras
As early as 1905, Oskar Barnack had the idea of reducing the
format of film negatives and then enlarging the photographs
after they had been exposed. As development manager at
Leica, he was able to put his theory into practice. He took an
instrument for taking exposure samples for cinema film and
turned it into the world's first 35 mm camera: the 'Ur-Leica'.
Polaroid or Instant Photos
Polaroid photography was invented by Edwin
Herbert Land. Land was the American inventor and
physicist whose one-step process for developing and
printing photos created instant photography. The
first Polaroid camera was sold to the public in
November, 1948.
Disposable Camera
Fuji introduced the disposable camera in 1986. We
call them disposables but the people who make
these cameras want you to know that they're
committed to recycling the parts, a message they've
attempted to convey by calling their products
"single-use cameras
Illustration of Camera Obscura in Use
Joseph Nicephore Niepce's
Heliograph PhotographySimulation of the oldest known photograph in
the world.Joseph Nicephore Niepce's heliographs or sun prints as they were called were the prototype for the
modern photograph.
Daguerreotype taken by Louis Daguerre Boulevard du
Temple, Paris
Daguerreotype Portrait of Louis Daguerre 1844
First American Daguerreotype - Robert
Cornelius Self-Portrait First American Daguerreotype
Robert Cornelius's self-portrait
Daguerreotype - Portrait of Samuel Morse
Daguerreotype Photograph 1844 The General
Post Office Washington, D.C.
Daguerreotype - Key West Florida 1849
Daguerreotype Photograph - Mount of the Holy
Cross 1874
Example of an Ambrotype - Unidentified
Florida Soldier Period of Use 1851 –
The Calotype Process
The oldest photographic negative in existence
The inventor of the first negative from which multiple postive prints were made was Henry Fox Talbot .
Tintype Photography
The tintype photograpy process was patented in 1856 by Hamilton Smith.
Daguerreotypes and tintypes were one of a kind images and the image was almost always reversed left
to right.
Glass Negatives & The Collodion Wet Plate1851 - 1880'sThe
glass negative was sharp and the prints made from it produced fine detail.
The photographer could also produce several prints from one negative.
Example of a Wet Plate Photograph
This photograph shows a typical field setup of the Civil War era. The
wagon carried chemicals, glass plates, and negatives - the buggy used as
a field darkroom.
Before a reliable, dry-plate process was invented (ca. 1879)
photographers had to develop negatives quickly before the
emulsion dried. Producing photographs from wet plates
involved many steps. A clean sheet of glass was evenly coated
with collodion. In a darkroom or a light-tight chamber, the
coated plate was immersed in a silver nitrate solution,
sensitizing it to light. After it was sensitized, the wet negative
was placed in a light-tight holder and inserted into the camera,
which already had been positioned and focused. The "dark
slide," which protected the negative from light, and the lens
cap were removed for several seconds, allowing light to expose
the plate. The "dark slide" was inserted back into the plate
holder, which was then removed from the camera. In the
darkroom, the glass plate negative was removed from the plate
holder and developed, washed in water, and fixed so that the
image would not fade, then washed again and dried. Usually
the negatives were coated with a varnish to protect the surface.
After development, the photographs were printed on paper and
mounted.
Photograph Using the Dry Plate Process Made from Glass Negatives
and Gelatine Dry Plate
Gelatine dry plates were usable when dry and needed less exposure to light than the wet plates.
The Magic Lantern - Example of a Lantern Slide
aka Hyalotype The Magic Lantern was the forerunner of the modern
slide projector. Magic Lantern's reached their popularity about 1900, but continued to be
widely used until they were gradually replaced 35mm slides.
Print Using Nitrocellulose Film
 Topic: Parts of A camera
Listed below are 15 functional components of a Camera,
following which I will explain the function of 10 of them.
1. The Camera Body
2. Lens
3. Film
4. Viewfinder
5. The Shutter
6. Aperture
7. Shutter Release Button
8. Shutter Curtains
9. Shutter Speed Control Knob
10. Film Cavity
11. Film Rewind Knob
12. Film Sprockets
13. Flash Shoe (Accessory Jack)
14. Focusing Ring
15. Self - Timer Button
(1) The Camera Body: All the internal mechanical, optical, and chemical parts
of a camera are held together by the Camera body. This serves to protect
these very sensitive parts. The Camera body also serves as a framework
against which the other parts of the Camera articulate to function properly.
(2) The Lens: The Lens is undoubtedly the most important component of the
Camera (considering the main purpose of a Camera). The lens takes the beams
of light bouncing off an object and focuses this light on the image plane so
that a real image is formed that can be photographed. The greater majority of
the modifications and refinements that have occurred in the camera since its
invention have centered on or around the Lens, and that underscores the
importance of this part of the camera.
(3) The Film: This is a thin roll of light -sensitive plastic which is placed at the
image plane of the Lens. When the Camera is ready to take pictures, several
devices combine to ensure that the film is exposed to the image formed by the
lens. When the film is exposed to the image coming from the lens it records
the image, and we have pictures! Before and after use, the film is stored in a
light-tight film holder. Unknown to most persons, there are no black and white
or color cameras. We only have black and white and color films. It is the film
that determines whether a picture will come out as black and white or
colored.
(4) Viewfinder: This is a part of the Camera that helps us decide which object
we want to photograph. It helps us point the camera in the correct direction
and indicates what will or will not appear in the final photograph. Viewfinders
are of two types: (1) Those that work independent of the lens, known as aim-
and -shoot cameras; (2) Those that show exactly what the lens is seeing, found
in SLR (Single Lens Reflex) cameras.
(5) Shutter: The shutter determines how long the film is exposed to light or to
the image coming from the lens. Shutters are of two types: the one located just
behind the lens, called the leaf shutter; the second type is located in front of
the film plane, it's called the focal plane shutter. The shutter consists of two
metal sheets or "curtains" which remain shut or closed when the camera is not
in use. But when the shutter release button is depressed, one of these curtains
slide open to allow the image from the lens to hit the film. After a brief
moment, the second metal sheet of curtain will slide in to close the opening.
The interval between the opening and closing depends on the speed we
selected using the shutter speed knob.
(6) Aperture: This is an opening, or hole, at the center of the lens. The function
is to cause images to be brightened or dimmed uniformly. This is achieved by
increasing or reducing the size of the hole, using a knob called the Aperture
Ring. When the opening is enlarged, more light passes through the lens, causing
the picture to brighten. Conversely when the opening reduces, less light is let in,
thus dimming the image or picture.
(7) Flash Shoe (or Accessory Jack): This is the hook to which one may attach a
flash, if one chooses to use a flash and the camera supports it. This accessory is
located just above the Viewfinder.
(8) Focusing Ring: When we are looking through the Viewfinder, it is the Focusing
Ring that is used to bring the object into focus. It is more like an adjuster.
(9) Film Cavity: This is the location where the roll of film is placed in the camera.
This cavity is secured from light. It is a sort of dark chamber whose job is to
ensure that the only light reaching the film is the one coming through the lens,
and even then only when the shutter is open. This is important since the film
cannot differentiate between the light coming from the lens and the one coming
from other sources. Without this cavity lights from the surrounding area would
easily hit the film and distort the picture quality.
(10) Film Rewind Knob: This knob is used to return all the exposed roll of film
back into their casing. This must first be done before removing the exposed film
from the camera; otherwise the negative will be ruined! Some modern cameras
perform this function automatically once we've taken the last exposure.
Topic: The basic principles of processing chemical
photography through film process and digital
process, and its function of the camera and other
lightning effects.

a. The careful processing of chemical process is highly

appreciated. Since, the positive result or the photo paper
outcome will used as an evidence in court presentation
against any accused.

b. The law enforcement agencies will responsible in any

evidence gathering thru photographic evidences in a crime
incident, and the proper guidelines should be follow in
preserving those evidences to avoid contamination and lapses
before it will part of the litigation. ( SCRA citation)

c. The ultimate facts will rely on the photographic evidences as

a basis in analyzing the crime to collaborate any conflicting
statement or other supporting information against any accused.
( SCRA citation)
 LIGHTS
Light - Is a radiant energy which emanates from
heat.
Light travels through space at 186,000 miles per
second and approximately seven (7) and a half
times around the earth per second.
Wave -Is any phenomenon having a periodic
disturbance of some sort and travels outward
from the source.
Wavelength - Is the distance measured between
two successive crest or through.
 Kinds of Lights
Natural light - Refers to the sunlight which is the chief
source of light for outdoor photography, that sunlight
maybe classified according to its intensity into bright
light, hazy light and dull light.
Bright sunlight - Define as the direct sunlight and the
reflected coming from the sky, whish act as a reflector.
When the sun is shining bright objects in open space
glossy colors and saturated.
Hazy -Refers to the sunlight obscured by light clouds, the
intensity of the direct sunlight
falling on object on open space is decreased.
Dull sunlight -
 Lighting Methods for Copy and
Evidence Close-up Photography
The following lighting methods are effective for photographing various evidence subjects. The
effects should be previewed in order to select the best lighting technique for the evidence
subject.

Direct Lighting
Direct lighting uses normal copy lighting with one or more light sources at a 45-degree angles.
 Direct Reflective Lighting
Light is reflected directly off the subject into the lens. Place the subject at a 10-degree
angle from the lens to film plane and place the light source at 10-degree angle from
the subject. The light source reflects at a 20-degree angle into the lens. The light
source may need to be diffused to prevent hot spots. This method creates very high
contrast.
 Oblique Lighting
Oblique lighting uses a light source at a low angle, usually to show detail by
creating shadows in the subject surface. It is commonly used when
photographing impressions, tool marks and certain types of fingerprints.
 Bounce Lighting
Light is bounced off a white or reflective surface. The bounce surface may be positioned at
different locations (above or to one side of the subject) to create the desired effect. This
usually produces even non-glare lighting with low contrast.
 Diffused Lighting
An opaque material is placed between the light source and the the subject to diffuse the
light. This usually results in even lighting with reduced reflections and hot spots.
 Transmitted Lighting
With transparent subjects the light source is transmitted through the subject toward
the lens. The angle of the transmitted lighting is adjusted from 90 degrees to 45
degrees for the desired effect.
 Front Directional or Axis Lighting
A clear piece of glass is placed between the subject and lens at a 45-degree
angle. The light source is positioned parallel to the film place and 45-degrees to
the glass. While the light is transmitted through the glass, some is reflected
downward directly on the subject. This technique is effective when
photographing fingerprints on mirrors and into glasses or cups
 FOCUSING SYSTEM
Focus - Is the means by which the distance is estimated or calculated to form
sharp image.
Focusing - Is the adjusting or changing the distance between the focal plane and
the lens.
Stamp in the surface around the the focusing ring series of numbers called.
Distance scales. These scales are feet (ft) and Meters (m), it indicates distances
that camera is focused. A typical footage in feet in feet and meter scales read, in
ascending order.
2 2.25 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 7 10 15 30 ft
00-infinity
O,6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 5 10 m

Manual Focus – some advance compacts and all SLR cameras have adjustable
focusing that allows you to decide which element in a scene you wish to be
sharply focused and which you want to remain blurred.
Autofocus –autofocus built in which allows for even more spontaneity in instant
shots without turning the focusing ring
LENS
A camera lens is made of many small parts.
The camera lens is an integral part of photography. Many
elements make up a camera lens, and these parts join to
contribute to a working camera with clear focus and zoom.
There are many small parts to a camera lens, but not one is
more important than the next.
Rear Mount Assembly
This part of the lens connects the lens to the aperture through a series of washers and
rings as well as a small number of carefully placed screws. This part of the lens is
important to camera stability. Using a lens without the rear mount assembly can seriously
damage the rest of the lens.

Iris
The iris of the camera lens is named after the iris of the human eye. The iris on a camera
somewhat mimics the function of the human iris, limiting the amount of light that the
camera is exposed to. Opening the iris will allow more light into the image and increase
the brightness while closing the iris will do the opposite. Some cameras only come with
automatic irises, while others have manual ones allowing the photography to fine-tune the
exposure.
Lens Elements
Lens of various lenses of different shapes and sizes. These usually consist of
biconvex lenses, convex lenses and plano-convex lenses. The names describe
the shape of the lens and in which direction the lens curves. Biconvex lenses,
for example, curve outward on both sides.
Focusing Ring
The focusing ring is an important instrument in adjusting the lens elements. It
can bring different parts of the desired photograph into focus. Many modern
digital cameras include an auto-focus function that can be toggled via a
physical switch. Some focusing rings will have markings estimating the
distance of the object to be focused on from the tip of the lens.
Electrical Connector Strip
The electrical connector strip is what joins the lens to a camera in digital
photography. This is not how the lens is mounted, but how the camera
properly communicates with the lens. It is important that the strip is properly
aligned with the camera for functions such as auto-focus to work properly
Zoom Ring
Camera lenses that have a zooming capability (not fixed focal length lenses) are
operated by rotating the zoom ring on the barrel of the lens.
Focusing
SLR camera lenses can be focused manually or by using autofocus. Some lenses
have a toggle switch on the side to choose manual or auto. If focusing manually,
rotate the focusing ring on the barrel of the lens until the desired level of focus is
reached.
Front
The front of an SLR camera lens is threaded so it can accept a variety of filters with
a thread mount. UV haze filters, sky filters and black and white filters are often
attached long term to the front end of a lens to protect the glass and multicoating
on the end of the lens.
Rear
The rear of the lens has a series of contact points that align with the body of the
SLR camera to transfer data.
Lens Data
On the barrel of the lens the focal range and aperture will be printed. The filter size
will be printed on the front end of the lens.
Lens -Is the disk of transparent glass generally bounded by two
spherical surfaces capable of transforming image, and considered
as the eye of the camera is also the heart of camera.
Is a piece of transparent material made of glass or plastic with 2
opposite systematic (proportional or well balanced) surface s or
atleast one curved surface, any transparent device for concentrating
or dispersing radiation by refraction camera lenses refract (bend)
light rays in doing so can form image of the object.

All photographic lenses do the same basic job; such as they

collect light then as image unto the film at the back of the
camera.
Camera lenses can be used to control the ff.
1.Amount of light that reaches the film
2.Magnification of the image
3.Area of the image to be recorded on the film
HOW LENS WORK
A COUNTLESS NUMBERS OF LIGHT RAYS THAT ARE
BOUNCE OFF A POINT AND HIT THE LENS. The lens bends
all rays so that they meet together as point on the film.
KINDS OF LENS
1. Simple lens - Is made of glass or other transparent
substance, having two opposite regular surface.
2. Positive lens - Is a converging lens which is
characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the center
than the edge.
3, Compound lens - Those are simple lenses that
generally produced aberrated (imperfect) images.
4. Negative lens - Is a diverging lens that is always thinner
at the center than the edge.
Topic: TYPES OF OPTICAL LENS DEFECT,
characteristic of lens and speed
•Spherical aberration - Is founding all lenses in which the marginal
portion of the lens bring the rays of the light to a shorter focus than
the center.
•Chromatic aberration - The in ability of a simple to bring the
different wavelength to focus on the same plane.
•Astigmatism - The in ability if a lens to bring horizontal and vertical
lines in the subject to the same plane of focus in the image.
•Coma - this occurs when light falling obliquely to the lens an
passing through different circular zone is brought to a focus to
different distances from the film plane.
•Distortion - When there is exist a different magnification for rays
at different angles distortion exists.
•Curvature - The image distance is different or different points of
the object due to their differing distance from the axis.
OTHER LENS DEFECT

Flare or optical flare - Is a result of double reflection

from inner lens surface and it exhibit a self as a misty or
hazy cloudy semi circular patch of light.
Mechanical flare - Are bright spot of the film cause by
stray light from worn shiny parts of the lens such as the
stop, shutter, lens mount or from inside the camera
itself.
CHARACTERISTIC OF LENS ACCORDING TO FOCAL LENGTH AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS

1.Wide angle lens - A lens which has a focal length less than the diagonal measure
of the image in the area.
2. Normal angle lens -A lens which has a focal length approximately equal but not
more than twice the length of the diagonal measure in the image area.
3. Zoom lens - Lens variable focal length which can be adjusted continuously by
the movement of the variable focus lens.
4. Narrow angle lens/Telephoto lens - A lens which has a focal length equal or
two or more than the length of the diagonal measure in the image area.
5. Fish eye lens - A lens with an extreme angle of view.
6. Macro lens - A lens that will allow the photographer to get very closed to the
subject without the need of special close up attachment.
7. Shift or perspective control lens - It allows photographer of an objects that is
very tall, without the problem of converging vertical; this occurs when the side of
the subjects taper toward the top of the picture.
LENS SPEED, LENS OPENING AND F-STOPS
1. Fast lens - Is a lens used during the daytime or when the lighting condition is very bright, or in
taking pictures of fast moving objects.
2.Slow lens - This lens will used during nighttime or when dim light is available.

Lens Speed - Is the larges opening of the diaphragm that the light can passes through; it determines
the maximum intensity of the light that entering the light tight box.
Focal plane - When light passes through a lens and it forms an image. The area in which the images
formed.
Focal length - Is the distance from the optical center of a lens to the focal plane. When the lens is
focused on infinity.
Irish diaphragm - The camera lenses is equipped with a mechnical counter part of the iris and the
pupil
Aperture - When the ring to which the metal plates attached is rotated in on one direction or the
other metal plates move on unison to reduce the increased of diameter of the circle
Hyper focal distance - When the a lens is focus to an object at infinity, the distance from the lens to
the nearest object in sharp focus.
Cone - Are organs of vision in bright light and color.
Rods - Are organs of vision in dim light and yield only neutral gray sensation.
Circle of confusion - The lens collect the rays reflected from each point and brings them into focus at
the focal plane. The lens, how ever does not focus the rays onto an exact point representing the
original but smaller circle
Depth of field -The distance between the nearest and the farthest objects in apparent sharp focus
when a lens is focus at a given point.
Topic: The FILM and its historical
settings
History of film
Early photography in the form of daguerreotypes did not use film at all. The light-
sensitive chemicals were formed on the surface of a silver-plated copper sheet.
Beginning in the 1850s, thin glass plates coated with photographic emulsion
became the standard medium. Although fragile and heavy, the glass used for
photographic plates was of better optical quality than early transparent plastics,
and in early years it was also less expensive, so the use of such plates persisted
long after the introduction of film. Eastman Kodak marketed the first flexible
photographic roll film in 1885, but this original "film" was actually coated on
paper. After exposure, as part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was
stripped from the paper base and transferred to a glass support to facilitate
printing from it. The first transparent plastic film was produced in 1889. It was
made from highly flammable nitrocellulose (celluloid), now commonly known as
"nitrate film". Although cellulose acetate or "safety film" had been introduced by
Kodak in 1908,[5] it was not until the 1920s that it began to significantly replace the
hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher,
slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was not completed for X-
ray films until 1933, and although safety film was always used for 16mm and 8mm
home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35mm motion pictures
until it was finally discontinued in 1951.
There are several types of photographic film, including:
•Print film, when developed, turns into a negative with the colors (or black and white values,
in black-and-white film) inverted. This type of film must be "printed"—that is either enlarged
by projecting through a lens, or placed in direct contact as light shines through it—onto
photographic paper (which in turn is itself developed) in order to be viewed as intended.
Print films are available in both black-and-white and color. Color print films use an orange
color correction mask to correct for unwanted dye absorptions and improve color accuracy.
Although color processing is more complex and temperature-sensitive than black-and-white
processing, the great popularity of color and minimal use of black-and-white prompted the
design of black-and-white film which is processed in exactly the same way as a standard
color film.
•Color reversal film after development is called a transparency and can be viewed directly
using a loupe or projector. Reversal film mounted with plastic or cardboard for projection is
often called a slide. It is also often marketed as "slide" film. This type of film is often used to
produce digital scans or color separations for mass-market printing. Photographic prints can
be produced from reversal film, but the process is expensive and not as simple as that for
print film.
•Black-and-white reversal film exists, but is uncommon. Conventional black-and-white
negative stock can be reversal-processed, to give black & white slides, as by dr5 Chrome.[3]
Some kits were available to enable B&W reversal processing to be done by home-processors,
but most are discontinued. B&W transparencies can be produced from almost all B&W
films.[4]
In order to produce a usable image, the film needs to be
exposed properly. The amount of exposure variation that a
given film can tolerate while still producing an acceptable level
of quality is called its exposure latitude. Color print film
generally has greater exposure latitude than other types of film.
Additionally, because print film must be printed to be viewed,
after-the-fact corrections for imperfect exposure are possible
during the printing process.
The concentration of dyes or silver salts remaining on the film
after development is referred to as optical density, or simply
density; the optical density is proportional to the logarithm of
the optical transmission coefficient of the developed film. A
dark image on the negative is of higher density than a more
transparent image.
Film - A cellulose tape or plate where silver salts are suspended
capable of recording light and it is only a fraction of an inch thick.

Parts of the film

1. Top coating - This composition of black and white film is hard
and transparent coating that will help ward off from scratches.
2. Emulsion layer-Is the light sensitive part of the film and
comprises a binder usually a gelatin and silver halides.
3. Anti halation backing - This composition of film hinders from
curling caused by the different drying rates of the emulsion and
the based.
4. Film base - This composition of film will support the emulsion.
Emulsion -The part of the film that record the image
 This film color is consider as primary colors when mixed
together and these
colors are; Red, Blue and Green
The yellow filter known as Carey lea, silver suspended gelatin
coated between
the top and the second layer to absorb any penetrating blue light
but freely passes green
and red.
Cyan -A blue-green minus red color.
Magenta - A reddish-blue minus green color.
TYPES OF FILM DEFECT
1. Panchromatic - This film is sensitive to all colors of the visible
spectrum.
2. Orthochromatic -This film is sensitive of which includes blue,
green and some of the yellow but not sensitive to red color.
Film speed
Film speed - Refers to the film sensitivity to light. The
higher the rating of the film the more sensitive it will be.
This sensitivity expressed in a manner rating known as ASA
exposure index.
ASA -American Standard Association
Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on the light sensitivity of photographic
emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed
to be devised.
Film speed describes a film's threshold sensitivity to light. The international
standard for rating film speed is the ISO scale which combines both the ASA speed
and the DIN speed in the format ASA/DIN. Using ISO convention film with an ASA
speed of 400 would be labeled 400/27°. A fourth naming standard is GOST,
developed by the Russian standards authority. See the film speed article for a table
of conversions between ASA, DIN, and GOST film speeds.
Common film speeds include ISO 25, 50, 64, 100, 160, 200, 400,
800, 1600, and 3200. Consumer print films are usually in the ISO
100 to ISO 800 range. Some films, like Kodak's Technical Pan, are
not ISO rated and therefore careful examination of the film's
properties must be made by the photographer before exposure
and development. ISO 25 film is very "slow", as it requires much
more exposure to produce a usable image than "fast" ISO 800
film. Films of ISO 800 and greater are thus better suited to low-
light situations and action shots (where the short exposure time
limits the total light received). The benefit of slower film is that it
usually has finer grain and better color rendition than fast film.
Professional photographers of static subjects such as portraits or
landscapes usually seek these qualities, and therefore require a
tripod to stabilize the camera for a longer exposure.
Photographing subjects such as rapidly moving sports or in low-
light conditions, a professional will choose a faster film.
A film with a particular ISO rating can be push-
processed, or "pushed", to behave like a film
with a higher ISO, by developing for a longer
amount of time or at a higher temperature
than usual. More rarely, a film can be "pulled"
to behave like a "slower" film. Pushing
generally coarsens grain and increases
contrast, reducing dynamic range, to the
detriment of overall quality. Nevertheless, it
can be a useful tradeoff in difficult shooting
environments, if the alternative is no usable
shot at all.
TYPES OF FILM
1.Slow - The finer the grain structure, the richer the color saturation
and more impressive the image sharpness. ASA 25, 50 and 64 films
added in glamour photography but all required a high level of light.
2. Fast - A film having ASA of 200 to 1600 above that needs less light,
the feature courser grain, weaker color and slight reduction in image
sharpness.
3. Medium - A film having ASA of 100 and 200.
Types of film sensitivity
1.Non-chromatic - Sensitive to ultraviolet and blue violet colors only.
2.Infra red - Sensitive to blues and infra red radiation, which is
beyond to the human eye
sensitivity.
3.Contrast process Ortho film -This is a fine grain film that gives a
sharp differences between the black and white, and it is used in
police work in copying documents and photographing fingerprint.
Spectral sensitivity
Early photographic plates and films were usefully sensitive only to
blue, violet and ultraviolet light. In 1873, Hermann Wilhelm Vogel
discovered that the spectral sensitivity could be extended by adding
very small quantities of certain dyes to the emulsion. The instability
of early sensitizing dyes and their tendency to rapidly cause
fogging initially confined their use to the laboratory, but in 1883
the first commercially dye-sensitized plates appeared on the
market. These early products, described as isochromatic or
orthochromatic depending on the manufacturer, were also
significantly sensitive to green and yellow, making possible a more
accurate rendering of colored subject matter into a black-and-
white image. Because they were still disproportionately sensitive to
blue, the use of a yellow filter and a consequently longer exposure
time were required in order to make full use of their extended
sensitivity. In 1894 the Lumière Brothers introduced their Lumière
Panchromatic plate, which was made sensitive, although very
unequally, to all colors including red. New and improved sensitizing
dyes were developed, and by 1902 the much more evenly color-
sensitive Perchromo panchromatic plate was being sold by the
German
manufacturer Perutz. However, all of these were glass-based plate
products. Panchromatic emulsions on a film base were not
commercially available until the 1910s and did not come into
general use until much later. In part, this was because many
photographers who did their own darkroom work preferred to go
without the seeming luxury of sensitivity to red—a rare color in
nature and uncommon even in man-made objects—rather than be
forced to abandon the traditional red darkroom safelight and
process their exposed film in complete darkness. Kodak's popular
Verichrome black-and-white snapshot film, introduced in 1931,
remained a red-insensitive orthochromatic product until 1956,
when it was replaced by Verichrome Pan. Amateur darkroom
enthusiasts then had no option but to handle undeveloped film by
the sense of touch alone.
 DEPHT OF FIELD
Depth of field -The distance between the nearest and the
farthest objects in apparent sharp focus when a lens is
focus at a given point.

3 FACTORS CAN AFFECT DEPTH OF FIELD

•Focal length of the length
•Distance from the camera to the subject
•Aperture settings F-stop
 SHUTTER
Shutter – is a devise that allows the light pass through the lens and
closes at given time . it measure ed in fractions of a second. 125
means 1/125 o f a second. 60 means 1/60 a second. A shutter speed
setting for a bright sunlight(using f/11 . 1/25 for cloudy day and 1/60
sec with the same aperture .

Irish diaphragm - The camera lenses is equipped with a mechnical counter part of
the iris and the pupil
Aperture - When the ring to which the metal plates attached is rotated in on one
direction or the other metal plates move on unison to reduce the increased of
diameter of the circle
Hyper focal distance - When the a lens is focus to an object at infinity, the distance
from the lens to the nearest object in sharp focus.
Cone - Are organs of vision in bright light and color.
Rods - Are organs of vision in dim light and yield only neutral gray sensation.
Circle of confusion - The lens collect the rays reflected from each point and brings
them into focus at the focal plane. The lens, how ever does not focus the rays onto
an exact point representing the original but smaller circle
Topic: The FILTERS and Flash
Function
Filter -Are color disk of glass or gelatin which are place in front of a
camera lens to prove
the quality of pictures
The following are the components of filter
1.Gelatin
2. Glass sandwiches
3. Dyed glass
Classes of Photographic filters
1. Color filter - This classes of filter increases the contrast in black and
white photograph.
2. Viewing filter - This filters are designed to show by direct observation
of the relative values in which colors will be reproduced by a particular
type of sensitive material with or without filter.
3. Neutral density filter - This filter is used to eat down light transmission.
They are designed to cut down or reduce amount of light that reaches the
film during exposure.
4. Polarizer filter - This filter is used when the light from the sun travels in
wave in all direction, and when these wave strike the objects, some of the
vibration are subdued and reflected rays vibrate in a simple plane.
5. Multiple image filters - The filters that allows you to repeat the subjects in
various permutation up to 25 repeated images can be created around one main
central image.
6. Graduated filters - Filters that are clear at the bottom, and it is used
recommended in a situation in which the sky part of the scene is much brighter
than the foreground.
7. Starburst filters - Filters that turns bright points of lights into star up to 16
points.
8.Corrective filters - Those filters that intended to alter the response to the
spectral sensitivity in terms by the naked eye.
9. Contrast filters - Those filters that intended to darken or lighten certain colors
which may produced of the same brightness.
10. Red filters When taking black and white photograph of an apple tree. The
apples will look light gray, and the leaves and the sky will be dark gray or black. This
filter is going to use.
11. Yellow filter - Under the blue sky, this filter produces a less extreme effect
because more blue light is transmitted to the film.
12. Blue filter - This filter removes excess reddish in color pictures taken soon after
sunrise of just before sunset.
 FLASH PHOTAGPHY
1. Flash bulb - Are artificial light sources that make light by
burning certain metals in an atmosphere of oxygen.
2. Photo Floods - This photographic lighting is the most
economical artificial light to use and the one that can produced
the most careful result.
3. Flash lamps - This photoflash equipment are light bulbs with
highly combustible mixture of oxygen and hair fine magnesium
wire.
4. Open flash photography The simplest form of flash
photography is a method of using lamps without any
synchronizing devices.
5. Synchronized flash photography - Is an open flash techniques
where the cameras is in the tripod supported, the shutter can be
open with one hand while the flash gun is fired with the other.
 Topic: The Photograpic
SENSITIZED PAPERS
The final form of a large proportion of a photographic records and
pictures is the paper print. It is produced by exposing a sheet of
sensitized paper in contact with a negative projected by an enlarger.
Velox paper made by Kodak offers the most and in six degrees of
contrast and glossy (f) surface.
Velox No. 0 - used for printing from extremely contrast negative the
low contrast in the sensitized paper counteracts the high contrast in the
negative
Velox No. 1 - Used for high contrast negative
Velox No. 2 - A paper for normal contrast used for normal negative
Velox No. 3 - For used for negatives that are little weak in contrast
Velox No. 4 - provides sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin
weak negatives.
Velox No. 5 - For negative so flat as to be otherwise unprintable
PAPER WEIGHT
•Light weight ( LW) – intended for purposes which involve
folding
•Single weight (SW) – used for all ordinary photographic
purposes
•Double weight (DW) – generally used for prints because
they stand up better under rough treatment
CHLORIDE PAPERS – These papers contain silver chloride in
their emulsion. Their sensitivity to light is low and generally
used for contact printing.
SILVER BROMIDE PAPERS – These papers known as
bromide papers. The emulsion contains silver bromide with
perhaps a trace of silver iodide.
CHLORO BROMIDE – This appear type using of silver salts
of bromide and chloride to give an image tone from warm
black to reddish brown.
 Midterm Period
Learning Outcomes:
Discussion
Topic: Film Developing and chemical mixing

First: Explain the different steps in conducting film developing and

digital printing.

a. In the chemical process:

* First, mix the chemicals according to its mixing solution formula, that
includes the Developer, Stop Bath and Fixer.
>The developer chemical set compose of Three (3), set A, B, and C,
and the ratio of mixing is 1:4
>1 chemical is to 4 distilled water and put it into mixing bowl and stir
with the stirring rod with in 1-3 minutes
>The stop bath chemical set compose of two (2) set A and B only, and
the ratio is 1:1
>1 chemical is to 1 distilled water and put it into mixing bowl and stir
with the stirring rod with 1-3 minutes
>The fixer chemical set compose of one (1) set only, and the ratio is 1:1
1 chemical is to 1distilled water and put it into mixing bowl and
stir it with the stirring rod with 1-3 minutes
Minutes
Second, separate all the mixed chemicals of developer, stop bath
and the fixer inside the separate bowl.

Third, film developing procedure:

1.Unload the film from the camera at the dark
room, and put the film at the reel and make sure
that the film is rolled properly before filed inside
the film tank.
2.Pour 500 ml of developer into the film tank and
observe for 1 minute and agitate every 30 seconds
until reaching the 7-8 to minutes of developing
time.
3. Remove the developing chemical at the film tank
and return it into the separate service bowl for
reusable purposes, and put the 500ml distilled
water for ringed bath for 2 minutes and agitate
every 30 seconds, then remove the distilled water
from the film tank.
4. Pour 500 ml of stop bath into the film tank and agitate every 30
seconds until reaching 2 minutes stop bath bleaching process.
5.Remove the stop bath chemical at the film tank and return it into the
separate service bowl for reusable purposes, and put the 500ml
distilled water for ringed bath for 2 minutes and agitate every 30
seconds, then remove the distilled water from the film tank.
6. Pour 500 ml of fixer into the film tank and one minute and agitate
every 30 seconds until reaching 6-7 minutes fixing time process.
7. Remove the fixing chemical at the film tank and return it into the
separate service bowl for reusable purposes, and put the 500ml
distilled water for ringed bath for 2 minutes and agitate every 30
seconds, then remove the distilled water from the film tank.
8. Unload the film from the film tank and wash it with running water for
atleast 2 minutes with clean foam and dry the film by hanging into the
prepared drying area.
 CHEMICAL FILM PROCESSING
DEVELOPING FILM
After reading this section you will be able to do the
following:
•Identify and explain the three important parts to a
radiographic film.
•Summarize the basic process of developing film.
To understand how the image on a radiograph is
formed, we need to first look at the characteristics of
the film itself. There are three important parts to a
radiographic film. These include the base, the
emulsion, and the protective coating
The base
All radiographic film consists of a base for which the other
materials are applied. The film base is usually made from a
clear, flexible plastic such as cellulose acetate. This plastic is
similar to what you might find in a wallet for holding pictures.
The principle function of the base is to provide support for the
emulsion. It is not sensitive to radiation, nor can it record an
image.
The clarity or transparency of the film base is an important
feature. Radiographic film must be capable of transmitting
light. Once a film has been processed chemically, it is subject
to interpretation. This is commonly done by using a film
illuminating device, which is usually a high intensity light
source.
The emulsion
The film emulsion and protective coating comprise the other two
components and are essentially made from the same material.
They are applied to the film during manufacturing and usually
take on a pale yellow color with a glassy appearance. Although
they are made from the same material, they offer two distinct
features to the film. These features are separated into the image
layer of the emulsion, and the protective layer.

The protective layer

The protective layer has the important function of protecting the
softer emulsion layers below. It is simply a very thin skin of
gelatin protecting the film from scratches during handling. It
offers very important properties to film manufacturers, which
include shrinkage (during drying that forms glassy protective
layers) and dissolving in warm water. It will absorb the water and
swell if it is dissolved in cold water.
The softer layers of the gelatin coating are technically known as the emulsion. An
emulsion holds something in suspension. It is this material in suspension that is
sensitive to radiation and forms the latent image on the film. During
manufacturing of the film, silver bromide is added to the solution of dissolved
gelatin. When the gelatin hardens the silver bromide crystals are held in
suspension throughout the emulsion. Upon exposure of the film to radiation, the
silver bromide crystals become ionized in varying degrees forming the latent
image. Each grain or crystal of silver bromide that has become ionized can be
reduced or developed to form a grain of black metallic silver. This is what forms
the visible image on the radiograph. This visible image is made up of an
extremely large number of silver crystals each is individually exposed to
radiation but working together as a unit to form the image.

Once a film has been exposed to radiation and possesses the latent image, it
requires chemical development. The purpose of developing the film is to bring
the latent image out so that it can be seen visibly. There are three processing
solutions that must be used to convert an exposed film to a useful radiograph.
These are the developer, stop bath, and the fixer. Each of these solutions is
important in processing the image so that it may be viewed and stored over a
period of time.
The process of developing film
1. To begin the process of converting the latent image on the radiograph to a
useful image we first expose the film to the developer solution. The developer’s
purpose is to develop, and to make the latent image visible. A special chemical
within the developer solution acts on the film by reducing the exposed silver
bromide crystals to black metallic silver. This process of developing is actually a
multi-step process. Recall the characteristics of the film manufacturing
mentioned earlier, they become important in the development process. Before
the developer can change the silver crystals it must penetrate the protective
coating of the film. Keep in mind that the protective coating of the film is made of
gelatin and is sensitive to temperature and water. The developer solution is
comprised of a combination of chemicals, consisting of alkali and metol or
hydroquinone mixed with water. The purpose of the alkali is to penetrate the
protective coating allowing the metol to reduce the exposed silver bromide to
black metallic oxide. This process will do with in 7 minutes in concentrating the
developer to the film by agitation of 5 counts for the first 1 minute and continue
agitation every 30 seconds. Water rinse bath after reaching the 7 minutes, rinse
in 2 minutes then agitation for every 30 seconds.
2. The second step in the development process is the
stop bath. This bath is comprised of a glacial acetic acid
and water. It is important to recognize that alkali’s and
acid’s neutralize each other. The function of the stop
bath is to quickly neutralize any excessive development
of the silver crystals. Over development of the silver
crystals results in a radiographic image that is virtually
impossible to interpret. Stop bath for 2 minutes and
agitate 5 counts for every 30 seconds, then water rinse
bath for 2 minutes to remove the chemical components
of stop bath.
3. The third step in development is the fixer. Its
function is to permanently fix the image on the
film. This is also a multi-step process. The fixer
must first remove any unexposed silver crystals
and then harden the remaining crystals in the
emulsion. It is this process that is used to
preserve the radiographic image over time. Fixed
the image for 6 minutes and agitate every 1
minute. The water rinse bath for 2 minutes and
agitate for every 3o seconds.
4. Once the film has been properly developed, it
is then rinsed in running water and dried so that
it may be visually examined.
Review:

1.The three main part to radiographic film are

the base, the emulsion, and the protective
coating.

2.Steps in developing film include developing,

stopping the developer, fixing, rinsing and
drying.
Film Tank
Enlarger
Dark Room
 Semi Final Period
Discussion

Topic : The different function of criminal investigators in gathering

evidences through photographic methods, and the important terms
to ponder in the forensic photography.
(See PowerPoint attachment for the historical setting of photography
and definition of terms.)

Topic #2. Solve the problem in photographic evidences to become

conclusive in court through case study on the mock crime scene
actual activity. ( SCRA citation
 Final Period
Learning Outcomes:
Discussion

Topic : The different concept in digital process of photography such as:

Single Lens Digital Camera,
Cellphone Camera,
Computer camera, and
Satellite guided digital high optical camera ( PowerPoint Attachment for
discussion)

Topic: The principle of gathering photographic copy such as:

Fixed photograph of a subject,
Surveillance photograph or video graph,
Moving photography by a surveillance camera like, drone camera and
aircraft mounted camera, and
Crime scene photography ( PowerPoint Attachment for discussion)

References: POP Manual, 2010

Police Photography book
Supreme Court Report Annotated (SCRA)
Topic: DEFINITION OF TERMS in the crime scene invesigation.
The following terms are operationally defined as used for a better
understanding of this SOP:
a. Crime Scene - A venue or place where the alleged
crime/incident/event has been committed;
b. Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) - Is a comprehensive inquiry of a
crime by conducting systematic procedure of various investigative
methodologies which involves recovery of physical and testimonial
evidence for the purpose of identifying the witnesses, and arrest of
perpetrator(s) for prosecution. CSI shall technically commence upon
the arrival of the FRs and conclude with the lifting of the security
cordon and release of the crime scene by the IOC;
c. First Responder (FR) – Are members of the PNP or other law
enforcement agencies who are mandated and expected to be the first
to respond to calls for assistance in cases of incidents of crime. They
generally refer to police officers who have jurisdiction of the area
where the incident or crime has taken place and will proceed to the
crime scene to render assistance to the victim and to protect and
secure the incident scene; 3
d. Criminal Investigator – A Police Officer who is tasked to conduct the
investigation of all criminal cases as provided for and embodied under the
Revised Penal Code/Criminal Laws and Special Laws. A well-trained,
disciplined and experienced professional in the field of criminal
investigation duties and responsibilities;
e. Investigator-on-Case (IOC)/ Duty Investigator – Shall refer to any PNP
personnel who is duly designated or assigned to conduct the inquiry of the
crime by following a systematic set of procedures and methodologies for
the purpose of identifying witnesses, recovering evidence and arresting
and prosecuting the perpetrators. The IOC shall assume full responsibility
over the crime scene during the conduct of CSI;
f. Scene of the Crime Operation (SOCO) – A forensic procedure performed
by the trained personnel of the PNP Crime Laboratory SOCO Team through
scientific methods of investigation for the purpose of preserving the crime
scene, gathering information, documentation, collection, and examination
of all physical and other forensic evidence;
g. After SOCO Report – It is a report rendered and prepared by the Team
Leader of the PNP Crime Laboratory SOCO Team which conducted the
scene of the crime operations;
h. Crime Scene Search – Is a systematic method employed by the SOCO Team,
if the nature of the case is sensational or sensitive, and the IOC in the conduct of
search in the crime scene and in the surrounding areas where the alleged
crime/incident/event has taken place for the purpose of finding and recovering
evidence. There are several methods of crime scene search which can be
employed such as strip search, double strip search, spiral search, zone or
quadrant search, wheel method, etc.;
i. Evidence – The means sanctioned by the Rules of Court, of ascertaining in a
judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact. These include but are not
limited to documentary, testimonial, electronic and object evidence, gathered in
the course of the investigation;
j. Physical Evidence - Evidence addressed to the senses of the court that are
capable of being exhibited, examined, or viewed by the court. This includes but
not limited to fingerprints, body fluids, explosives, hazardous chemicals,
soil/burned debris, bombs, electronic parts used in the commission of the crime;
k. Forensic Evidence - A form of legal evidence that can be used in a court of
law to convict a person of a crime and as a category of public presentation; and l.
Jurisdiction – The word “jurisdiction” as used in the Constitution and statutes
means jurisdiction over the subject matter only, unless an exception arises by
reasons of its employment in a broader sense.
V. POLICIES AND GUIDELINES: General Policy:
Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) shall refer to the
post-incident police operational procedures
undertaken at the crime scene. It presupposes that
the crime has been consummated and therefore
investigation is to be commenced with the securing
and processing of the place of occurrence. The CSI
start with the arrival of the PNP First Responders
(FRs) to the arrival of the Duty Investigator/IOC
and the SOCO Team until the lifting of the security
cordon and release of the crime scene. 4
Specific Functions, Responsibilities and Procedures: The following are the
functions and responsibilities of the different players during the crime scene
investigation as well as procedures to be observed:

1. First Responder: a. The first Police Officers to arrive at the crime scene are the
FRs who were dispatched by the local police station/unit concerned after receipt of
incident/flash/alarm report; b. Immediately, the FR shall conduct a preliminary
evaluation of the crime scene. This evaluation should include the scope of the
incident, emergency services required, scene safety concerns, administration of life
saving measures, and establishment of security and control of the scene; c. The FR is
mandated to save and preserve life by giving the necessary first aid measures to the
injured and their medical evacuation as necessary. The FR shall likewise secure and
preserve the crime scene by cordoning the area to prevent unauthorized entry of
persons; d. The FR shall take the dying declaration of severely injured person/s, if any.
The FR shall make the initial assessment on whether a crime has actually been
committed and shall conduct the preliminary interview of witnesses to determine what
and how the crime was committed; e. If and when there is a suspect present in the
area, the first responder shall arrest, detain and remove the suspect from the area;
and f. The FR, upon the arrival of the IOC, shall turn-over the crime scene to the duty
investigator/IOC after the former has briefed the investigator of the situation. The FR
shall prepare and submit the CSI Form “1” - First Responders Report to the IOC
and be prepared to assist the IOC in the investigation.
2. Investigator-on-Case (IOC) /Duty Investigator: a. Upon arrival at the crime
scene, the IOC shall request for a briefing from the FR and make a quick
assessment of the crime; b. At this stage, the IOC shall assume full responsibility
over the crime scene and shall conduct a thorough assessment of the scene and
inquiry into incident. If necessary the IOC may conduct crime scene search
outside the area where the incident happened employing any of the various
search methods; c. Based on the assessment, if the IOC determines that a SOCO
team is required, he shall report the matter to his COP and request for a SOCO,
otherwise, the IOC shall proceed with the CSI without the SOCO team and shall
utilize CSI Form “4” – SOCO Report Forms in the conduct of the CSI; d. The
IOC may by himself if the situation so demands, conduct CSI if, there is no
Provincial Crime Laboratory Office/Regional Crime Laboratory Office in the
province. The IOC must, however, ensure that the correct procedures in the
collection of evidence are observed to ensure the admissibility of the evidence; e.
The Police Station Operation Center, upon directive of the COP, shall make the
request for the SOCO team through the Provincial/City Operations Center; 5
f. It shall be the responsibility of the Provincial/City Operations Center to facilitate
the request for the SOCO Team; g. Upon the arrival of the SOCO Team, the IOC
shall
accomplish the CSI Form “2” - Request for the Conduct of SOCO and submit
the same to the SOCO Team Leader. The SOCO team shall not enter the
crime scene unless the IOC makes the official written request wherein he
assures the SOCO team of his presence and support; and h. The IOC shall
brief the SOCO Team upon their arrival at the crime scene and shall jointly
conduct the preliminary crime scene survey. 3. SOCO Team: a. The SOCO
Team shall not join any operations conducted by the local police or
accompany the FRs or the IOC in going to the crime scene. They will only
respond upon request through the Operations Center and after the IOC has
already made proper assessment of the crime scene; b. Upon receipt of the
Request for Conduct of SOCO, the SOCO Team shall then conduct the scene
of the crime operations which include among others the narrative
description of the crime scene, photography, videography, crime scene
search, crime scene sketch, crime scene location sketch, physical evidence
recording and collection, and other procedures necessary; c. In case the
SOCO Team needs to temporarily suspend the processing, the Chief of
Police shall be primarily responsible and accountable for securing the crime
scene and ensuring its integrity until the return of SOCO Team and the
conclusion of the CSI; d. After the termination of the SOCO, the SOCO Team
Leader shall brief the IOC on the initial results and thereafter conduct the
final crime scene survey together with the IOC; and e. The SOCO Team shall
accomplish the CSI Form “4” - SOCO Report Forms and furnish the IOC of
copies of the same before leaving the crime scene.
4. Release of the Crime Scene a. The IOC shall decide on the lifting of
the security cordon and the release of the crime scene upon consultation
with the SOCO Team Leader and he shall be responsible in ensuring
that all pieces of potential evidence were collected by the SOCO Team
as any re-entry into the crime scene after its release to the owner will
require a Search Warrant issued by the Court; b. The IOC shall
accomplish the CSI Form “6” – IOC/Investigator’s CSI Form before
the cordon shall be lifted; c. The IOC shall ensure that appropriate
inventory has been provided by the SOCO Team and shall only lift the
security cordon and release the crime scene only after completion of the
documentation process; d. The IOC or the COP shall turn-over the crime
scene to the owner of the property or where the crime scene is a public
place, to any local person in authority; e. The IOC as well as the SOCO
Team shall completely fill-up the forms specified in this SOP. The IOC
shall accomplish and submit the Investigator’s Report with all the
required attachments to the COP within two (2) working days from the
date of incidence (See Annex H); and 6
f. The CSI Report shall be the first entry in the Case Folder for the
investigation of the incident.
VI. STANDARD CSI FORMS:
a. CSI Form “1” – (First Responder’s Report Form) To be accomplished by the FR
detailing among other things, his rank, name, initial information gathered and
anything that was moved in the crime scene prior to the arrival of the investigator.
Further, Form 1 should be signed by a witness. Form 1 should always be included as
part of the FR’s kit. (See Annex B)
b. CSI Form “2”– (Request for the Conduct of SOCO) To be accomplished by the
IOC and submitted to the SOCO Team Leader at the crime scene. (See Annex C)
c. CSI Form “3” – (Turn- over of Collected Evidence from IOC to SOCO Team) To
be accomplished by the IOC certifying that the items/physical evidence found,
collected and initially marked and inventoried by the investigator at the crime scene
were properly turned-over to SOCO Team Evidence Custodian. (See Annex D)
d. CSI Form “4” – (SOCO Report Forms 1-4) The initial findings of the SOCO Team
shall be contained in the SOCO Report Forms 1 to 4 which shall be accomplished
immediately after completion of the SOCO. A copy of the said reports shall be
provided to the IOC within 24-hour after the release of the crime scene. The IOC may
also use those forms in the absence of a SOCO Team. (See Annex E)
e. CSI Form “5” – (Release of Crime Scene Form) This shall be accomplished by
the IOC or the COP and witnessed by the SOCO Team Leader and conformed by the
owner of the property or representative of the local authority. A copy of the crime
scene release form shall be provided to the owner. (See Annex F)
f. CSI Form “6” – (IOC/Investigator’s CSI Form) This shall be accomplished by the
IOC at the OSCP prior to the lifting of the security cordon. (See Annex G)
VII. FLOW CHART See Annex “A” for the Crime Scene
Investigation Flow Chart VIII. PENAL CLAUSE: Any
violation of this SOP shall be dealt with administratively.
All Unit Commanders shall be investigated under the
principle of command responsibility. If evidence further
warrants, criminal complaints shall also be filed against
those who may have committed acts or omissions in
violation of the Revised Penal Code or any special law.
IX. REPEALING CLAUSE: Any issuance, memoranda,
rules and regulations issued by the PNP inconsistent
herewith are deemed repealed or amended accordingly.
X. EFFECTIVITY: This SOP shall take effect fifteen days
(15) days from filing a copy thereof at the University of the
Philippines Law Center in consonance with Sections 3
and 4, Chapter 2, Book VII of Executive Order No. 292,
otherwise known as “The Revised Administrative Code of
1987”. 7
ATTY RAUL M BACALZO, Ph.D.
Police Director General Chief, PNP
Inclusion: Standard CSI Forms Annex A – Crime Scene Investigation
Flow Chart Annex B – CSI Form “1” – First Responder’s Report Annex
C – CSI Form “2”- Request for the Conduct of SOCO Annex D – CSI
Form “3” – Turn-over of Collected Evidence fm IOC to SOCO Annex E
– CSI Form “4” – SOCO Report Forms 1 to 4 Annex F – CSI Form “5” –
Release of Crime Scene Form Annex G - CSI Form “6” –
IOC/Investigator’s CSI Form Annex H - CSI Report Annex I –
Investigator’s Checklist at the Crime