General Chemistry I Quarter 2 Modules

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Senior High School
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General Chemistry 1
Quarter 2 - Module 1
Quantum Mechanical Description
Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

General Chemistry I- Grade 11
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Quarter 2 - Module 1: Quantum Mechanical Description
First Edition, 2020
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Quantum Mechanical Description
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What I Know
Pretest: MULTIPLE CHOICE:

Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct
answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What do you call the three-dimensional orientation of the orbital in space around the
nucleus?
A. magnetic quantum number C. electron configuration
B. principal quantum number D. geometry
2. Which quantum number indicates the relative size of an orbital?

3. Who are the founding fathers of Quantum Mechanics?

A. Werner Karl Heisenberg C. Isaac Newton
B. Erwin Schrodinger D. A & B
4. Which of the following combinations is allowed?

A. n=2, ℓ =1, ml= -1, ms= +1/2 C. n=3, ℓ =1, ml=-3, ms= -1/2
B. n=1, ℓ =1, ml= +1, ms= -1/2 D. None of the above
5. Who said that no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers?
A. Heisenberg C. Hund
B. Einstein D. Pauli
6. Which of the following symbolizes the spin of an electron?

A. mℓ C. n
B. ms D. ℓ
7. How many types of quantum numbers?

A. 6 C. 8
B. 2 D. 4
8. What does the magnetic quantum number describe?

A. distance of the most electron-dense C. number of electron
B. spatial orientation of the orbital D. shape of orbital
9. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that the___ and ___ of an electron cannot
be known simultaneously. How does this statement be completed correctly?
A. position, momentum C. position, charge
B. momentum, speed D. position, mass
10. What does the quantum mechanical model describes electrons?

A. particles with wave-like properties C. particles
B. small, hard spheres D. waves
iii
What I Need to Know
In your previous lesson, you were taught about subatomic particles or the
composition of an atom. They are the proton and neutron that are located inside, and
the electron that is located outside the nucleus. In this lesson, we will be focusing on
the characteristics of an electron since it has an important role in chemical bonding.
Since the electron is located outside the nucleus, it is difficult to determine its exact
location. That is why we have to learn about the behaviors of quantum particles. Of
these behaviors, the most we can do is to calculate probabilities as to the location and
behavior of the particles.
Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom suggests that the electron orbits the
nucleus like our solar system (e.g. the planets around the sun). However, the
quantum mechanical description of the hydrogen atom has proven that Bohr’s
model of electrons is incorrect. It states that we do not know exactly where the electron
is, but with high probability, we can conclude that the electron is most likely to be found
in an orbital (Chang, 2010). In this lesson, you should be able to describe the electrons
(e-) in orbitals using the four quantum numbers.
Figure 1. Bohr’s Model (Electron in orbit) Figure 2. Quantum Mechanics

(Electron in orbital)
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, it is impossible to determine

both the energy and position of an electron at the same time. Thus, as we know more
about the electron’s energy, we know less about its position and vice versa.
What’s New
Activity 1: Fact or Bluff

Directions: Carefully read the following statements below and write FACT if it is TRUE
and BLUFF if it is FALSE on the space provided on the left side.
_______1. The quantum mechanical description of the electron is more accurate than
that of Bohr’s model.
_______2. No two electrons have the same 4 quantum numbers.
_______3. We can both know the energy and the position of electrons at the same
time.
_______4. Any two electrons in the same orbital must have the same spins.
_______5. The four quantum numbers are used to describe the probable location of
an electron in an atom.
1
GUIDE QUESTION:
What is the difference between Bohr’s model and the quantum
mechanical model of an electron? State your answer in 3-5 sentences only.
What Is It
To describe the orbitals in which electrons can be found, quantum
numbers are required. Quantum numbers are a set of values that give us information
about the location of electrons in the electron cloud of an atom. It can be used to
determine the electron configuration of an atom. According to the Pauli Exclusion
Principle, each electron in an atom has an exclusive set of quantum numbers and no
two electrons can have the same combination of four quantum numbers.
To fully characterize the movement and trajectories of each electron within an
atom, four quantum numbers are used. A wave function that obeys the Schrödinger
equation describes the combination of all quantum numbers of all electrons in an
atom. Each electron in an atom has its own set of quantum numbers, and no two
electrons may have the same four quantum numbers, according to the Pauli
Exclusion Principle. Quantum numbers are essential because they may be used to
figure out an atom's electron configuration and where its electrons are most likely to
be found. Other properties of atoms, such as ionization energy and atomic radius, are
also understood using quantum numbers.
The main quantum number (n), the orbital angular momentum quantum
number (l), the magnetic quantum number (ml), and the electron spin quantum number
(ms) are the four quantum numbers found in atoms. The energy of an electron and the
most likely distance of the electron from the nucleus are described by the primary
quantum number, (n). In other terms, it relates to the size of an electron's orbital and
the energy level it occupies. The form of the orbital is described by the number of
subshells (l) (Silberberg, 2013).
The Four Quantum Numbers
Table 1. Quantum numbers and their possible values

Quantum Number Symbol Possible Values
Principal Quantum Number n 1,2,3,4… (positive integers)
Angular Momentum Quantum Number ℓ 0,1,2,3… (0 to n-1)
Magnetic Quantum Number ml - ℓ,…-1,0,1…,+ ℓ
Spin Quantum Number ms +1/2, -1/2
1. Principal Quantum Number
The principal quantum number (n), describes the energy of an electron. It refers
to the energy level and the size of the orbital an electron is likely to be found. The
value of n starts from 1 to the shell containing the outermost electron of that atom. The
2
larger the value of (n), the greater is the energy and the larger is the orbital. The group
of orbitals with the same value of n is called an electron shell. All the orbitals that have
n = 2, for example, are said to be in the second shell.
Carbon is in the second period of the periodic table, so, its outermost electron
is in the shell with an energy level of 2. Therefore, an electron in Carbon can have an
(n) value from 1 to 2.
2. Angular/Azimuthal Quantum Number
In chemistry, the angular quantum number (ℓ), defines the shape of an atomic
orbital. It also strongly influences bond angles and chemical bonds. It is defined in
chemistry that if ℓ = 0, it is called an s orbital, ℓ = 1 is a p orbital, ℓ = 2 a d orbital, and ℓ
= 3 an f orbital. The first p orbital (ℓ = 1) is in the second electron shell (n = 2), the first
d orbital (ℓ = 2) is in the third shell (n = 3), and so on. The set of orbitals that have the
same n and l values is called a subshell.
3. Magnetic Quantum Number
The magnetic quantum number (ml), describes the orientation of the orbital
in space and can have integral values between - ℓ and ℓ, including zero.
For example, the p subshell (ℓ = 1) contains three orbitals, so the m l of an
electron in a p subshell will be −1, 0, or 1.
The outermost electron of Carbon is in a 2p subshell. This means that for that
electron, n=2 and ℓ = 1. Since ℓ = 1, we can conclude that there are three 2p orbitals
in this subshell because there are three values of (ml), given by -1, 0, and 1.
4. Spin Quantum Number
Individual electrons within an orbital has a property represented by the spin

quantum number. Each orbital may hold up to two electrons with opposite spin
directions. Electrons are not spinning in a physical sense, this is just a representation
of the idea that there are two possible values for the spin quantum number. When an
electron is assigned to spin up, it is represented by an upward arrow and a value of
+1/2. If an electron is spinning down, it is represented by a downward arrow and a
value of -1/2 (Brown, 2015).
Figure 3. Representation of the Spin Quantum Number values
3
The following are the principles and rule involved in quantum mechanics: (These
will be elaborated in the next module)
Pauli Exclusion Principle:

Wolfgang Pauli established in 1926 that a set of quantum numbers is unique to
a single electron. That is to say, no two electrons can have the same n, l, ml, or ms
values. The first three quantum numbers identify a specific orbital and can have the
same values, but the fourth is important and must have opposite spins.
Hund's Rule:
When orbitals belong to the same primary shell, their energy levels may be the
same. These orbitals are referred to be degenerate, or "equal energy," orbitals.
Electrons fill orbitals one at a time, according to Hund's Rule. This means that when
using the arrow model to design electron configurations, you must first fill each shell
with one electron before starting to pair them up. Remember that an electron has
a negative charge and that electrons repel each other. By remaining unpaired,
electrons will attempt to establish distance between themselves and other electrons.
This also explains why electrons in orbitals have opposite spins (i.e. and ).
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

This principle states that we cannot accurately measure an electron's
momentum and position at the same time. The position of the electron gets less
certain as the electron's momentum becomes more certain, and vice versa
(Silberberg, 2013).
What’s More (A)
Activity 2.1: Let’s test your understanding!

Directions: Answer the following questions below as directed on a separate sheet of
paper and submit it to your teacher as soon as you are finished.
1. List the values of n, ℓ, and m/ for orbitals in the 4d subshell.
n value/s ℓ value/s ml value/s
2. What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum
number n=3? Defend your answer.
For items 3-5, identify if the following set of quantum numbers are correct. If not,
indicate which quantum number is wrong.
3. n=2, ℓ =1, ml= -1, ms= +1/2
4. n=3, ℓ =1, ml=-3, ms= -1/2
5. n=1, ℓ =1, ml= +1, ms= -1/2
4
What’s More (B)
Activity 2.2: Identify the orbital
Directions: Determine which orbital is described by the following sets of quantum
numbers. If the set includes an incorrect value, write “not allowed”.
n ℓ ml Orbital
Number
2 1 -1 2p (example)
1. 1 0 0
2. 3 -3 2
3. 3 2 -2
4. 2 0 -1
5. 0 0 0
6. 4 2 1
What Have I Learned

Activity 3: How much have you learned?
Directions: In your own words, describe the following terms in 2-3 sentences only.
1. Quantum Number
2. Principal Quantum Number
3. Angular Quantum Number
4. Magnetic Quantum Number
What I Can Do
Activity 4: I am ELECTRON MAN!
Directions: Imagine yourself as an electron. Like an electron, you should keep track
of your location and activity for three days. If quantum numbers give information about
the location of an electron or set of electrons, you could describe your location in any
number of ways (e.g. GPS coordinates, qualitatively describing your surroundings,
google map, etc.). Fill out the table below with the needed details and answer the
questions that follow. The first row serves as an example.
Electron Name: Special Skill:

Day Time Location Activity
Dining Area, Rizal’s House, Having breakfast
1 9:00 AM Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines with family
1 9:00 AM
1 3:00 PM
5
1 7:00 PM
2 9:00 AM
2 3:00 PM
2 7:00 PM
3 9:00 AM
3 3:00 PM
3 7:00 PM
Follow-up Questions:
1. What is the importance of understanding the role of quantum numbers in

chemistry?
2. How are GPS (Global Positioning System) and quantum numbers related to
each other?
3. Why is it important to be aware of your location and surroundings?
6
SUMMARY
• All electrons have four quantum numbers which describe the location of
electrons in the electron cloud of an atom and can be used to determine the
electron configuration of an atom.
• Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom suggests that the electron orbits the
nucleus like our solar system.
• Quantum mechanical description of the hydrogen atom has proven that
Bohr’s model of electrons is incorrect. It states that we do not know exactly
where the electron is, but with high probability, we can conclude that the
electron is most likely to be found in an orbital
• According to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, each electron in an atom has an
exclusive set of quantum numbers and no two electrons can have the same
combination of four quantum numbers.
• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that we cannot accurately
measure an electron's momentum and position at the same time. The position
of the electron gets less certain as the electron's momentum becomes more
certain, and vice versa
• The principal quantum number (n) describes the size of the orbital where the
electron resides. The azimuthal or angular quantum number (l) describes the
shape of the orbital. The magnetic quantum number (ml) defines the orientation
of the orbital in space and the electron spin number (ms) defines the direction
that the electron spins on its axis.
• Hund’s rule states that before additional electrons with opposite spins can
occupy the same orbitals, single electrons with the same spin must occupy
each equal-energy orbital first.
7
Assessment: (Post-Test)
Multiple Choice. Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct

2. Which of the following combinations is allowed?

A. n=2, ℓ =1, ml= -1, ms= +1/2 C. n=3, ℓ =1, ml=-3, ms= -1/2
B. n=1, ℓ =1, ml= +1, ms= -1/2 D. None of the above
3. Which of the following symbolizes the spin of an electron?

A. mℓ C. n
B. ms D. ℓ
4. What does the magnetic quantum number describe?

A. distance of the most electron-dense C. number of electron
B. spatial orientation of the orbital D. shape of orbital
5. What does the quantum mechanical model describes electrons?

A. particles with wave-like properties C. particles
B. small, hard spheres D. waves
6. What do you call the three-dimensional orientation of the orbital in space around
the nucleus?
7. Who are the founding fathers of Quantum Mechanics?

A. Werner Karl Heisenberg C. Isaac Newton
B. Erwin Schrodinger D. A & B
9. How many types of quantum numbers?

A. 6 C. 8
B. 2 D. 4
10. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that the___ and ___ of an electron
cannot be known simultaneously. How does this statement be completed correctly?
A. position, momentum C. position, charge
B. momentum, speed D. position, mass
8
Senior High School
NOT
General Chemistry 1
Electron Configuration and Magnetic
Property of Atoms
Image Source: https://bit.ly/3g9QjgY

Alternative Delivery Code
Quarter 2 - Module 2: Electron Configuration and Magnetic Property
of Atoms
First Edition, 2020


Author: April Sweet L. Tapayan, RCh., Kim Charies L. Okit

Ma. Doris P. Napone

Management Team

Jean S. Macasero,Ph.D. EPS

Telefax: (08822) 855-0048
Senior
Senior High
High School
School
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Chemistry 1
Electron Configuration and Magnetic
Property of Atoms

comments, and recommendations to the Department of Education at
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What I Know

1. What do you call the three-dimensional orientation of the orbital in space around
the nucleus?

3. [Kr]4s23d6 is the electron configuration of which element?

A. Krypton C. Rhodium
B. Palladium D. Silver
4. Which of the following sets of orbitals is degenerate?

A. 2px and 3py C. 4fx3-3xy2 and 4fzx2-zy2
2
B. 1s and 2s 2 D. 2s1 and 2px
6. What do you call the arrangement of electrons within the orbitals of an atom to
know more about an atom’s electronic property?
A. principal quantum number C. electron configuration
B. magnetic quantum number D. geometry
7. What is the other term for the building up principle?

A. Uncertainty Principle C. Roblox Principle
B. Hammer Principle D. Aufbau principle
8. Which element has an electron configuration of 1s22s22p5?

A. Carbon (atomic number = 6) C. Fluorine (atomic number = 9)
B. Oxygen (atomic number = 8) D. Hydrogen (atomic number = 1)
9. What do you call the pictorial descriptions of the electrons in an atom?

A. orbital diagrams C. gaussian curve
B. energy diagrams D. cliparts
10. What do you call atoms with unpaired electrons?

A. Paramagnetic C. Single atoms
B. Diamagnetic D. Lone pair
iii
Electron Configuration and
the Magnetic Property of
1 Atoms
What’s In
In Module 1, you have learned that electrons have four quantum numbers (n, l, ml, and
ms) which describe the location of electrons in an orbital. The principal quantum number (n)
describes the energy level and size of the orbital. The greater the n value, the higher the
energy, the larger the orbital, and the more orbitals it can contain. The Angular quantum
number (l) defines the shape of the atomic orbital. It can be an s shape (l=0), p shape (l=1), d
shape (l=2), or f shape (l=3). The magnetic quantum number (ml) describes the orientation of
the orbital in space (2l + 1). The s orbital has only 1 orientation, p orbital has 3 orientations (px
py pz), d orbital has 5 orientations (dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2-y2, dz2), and f orbital has 7 orientations (fy3-
3yx2, f5yz2-yr2, f5xz2-3xr2, fx3-3xy2, fzx2-zy2, fxyz, fdz3-3zr2). The different shapes of orbitals and their
corresponding orientation in space can be visualized in figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Cartesian coordinate visualization of orbitals in space

Source: https://bit.ly/3vcdH1k
1
It is important to understand that in a strict sense, orbitals do not have a well-defined
shape. The shape representation in figure 1 will just show us the probability density of finding
the electrons in space. The fourth quantum number (ms), as you have learned, indicates the
spin of the electron, which was experimentally determined by Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach
in 1924 (Chang, 2010). The quantum numbers help us determine where the electron of an
atom resides. This is very much simple for a single electron atom like hydrogen. However, for
many-electron atoms, we must know the electron configuration. Knowing the electron
configuration of atoms helps us understand and predict the chemical properties of the
elements. In this lesson, you will learn more about electron configuration, orbital diagram, and
magnetic property of an atom based on its electron configuration.
What’s New
Activity 1: What is the Mystery Word?

Directions: Identify the letter that is described by each item below. Use these letters to reveal
the mystery word in the box.
__ __ __ L P T H __ L E __ N
1 2 3 4 5
1. The symbol of the element in the third period with 5 valence electrons and is used in
the manufacture of safety matches.
2. The symbol of the element in the first period with 2 valence electrons and used to
inflate party balloons.
3. The symbols of the two gaseous elements in the second period with valence electrons
equal to 5 and 6, respectively.
4. The first letter of the name of the principle states that electrons fill atomic orbitals of
the lowest available energy levels first before occupying higher levels in the atom’s
ground state.
5. The symbol of the halogen with a complete electron configuration:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p5.
Hint: The “word” is often used as an indicator in acid-base titrations. It turns colorless in acidic
solutions and pink in basic solutions.
2
What Is It
Suppose there is a group of 20 people who want to ride a bus going to the same
destination. To prevent the spread of Covid-19 virus to the passengers, we would like to
arrange the passengers such that there are only 2 people (1 on each side of the aisle) who
can sit in a row and they should be arranged by increasing energy level (suppose, age is
inversely proportional with energy) in the following order: age 50-59 in rows 1 and 2, age 40-
49 in rows 3 and 4, age 30-39 in rows 5 and 6, age 20-29 in rows 7-9, and age 16-19 in row
10. Isn’t this a safe and conventional way of arranging the passengers?
At the atomic level, electrons of an atom are arranged according to increasing energy
level with a maximum of 2 electrons in every orbital. This system of distributing electrons of
an atom among their orbitals is known as electron configuration. The ground-state electron
configuration is the most stable arrangement of electrons in an atom. All the electrons in an
atom reside in the lowest energy orbitals possible in this arrangement. Since each orbital can
accommodate a maximum of two electrons, using the periodic table, we can predict the
electron configuration of all elements.
By convention, the electron configuration of an atom is written in the format below:
Number of electrons in
Principal quantum number the orbital
or the energy level
2
1s Type of orbital (s,p,d,f)
The way we arranged the people in the bus was regulated by two rules: physical
distancing and age. In the case of electrons, their arrangement is guided by the following rule
and principles:
The Aufbau Principle
The electrons in an atom fill up its atomic orbitals according to the Aufbau Principle;
"Aufbau," in German, means "building up." According to this principle, electrons are filled in
the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…
Figure 2. The order in which atomic subshells are filled in a many-electron atom.
3
Notice that the orbitals with the lowest energy level are filled up first before the higher
energy levels. The energy level of an orbital is not only determined by the principal quantum
number (n) but also by the angular momentum quantum number (l). For instance, although 2s
and 2p orbitals have the same principal quantum number, 2s has lower energy level than 2p.
Hence, 2s and 2p orbitals are no longer degenerate (orbitals with the same energy level). For
many-electron atoms, the attraction between an electron and the nucleus is affected by
shielding effect of the lower energy electrons, repulsion among electrons and distance from
the nucleus.
Figure 3 shows the energy level of the orbitals.
Figure 3: Electron energy filling diagram

Image Source: https://bit.ly/3g9QjgY
Hund’s Rule
Hund’s rule states that before additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the
same orbitals, single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital
(degenerate) first (Silberberg, 2013). Figure 4 below shows the correct and incorrect way of
filling electrons.
Figure 4: Filling of electrons in degenerate orbitals according to Hund’s rule.

Source: https://bit.ly/3itIwMe
4
Pauli Exclusion Principle
According to Pauli Exclusion Principle, no two electrons can have the same
combination of four quantum numbers. A maximum of two electrons may occupy a single
orbital, but only if the electrons have opposite spins. The electron configuration can also be
represented by an orbital diagram which shows the spin of the electrons as shown in the table
below.
Table 1 Electron configurations of some lighter elements
The sum of superscripts of the ℓ values in the electron configuration of an element

equals the total number of electrons of the element. This is one way of checking whether the
electron configuration is correct or incorrect. The superscripts represent the total number of
electrons residing in the said orbital.
There is only one (1) s orbital since the value of ℓ is only equal to zero. There are three
2p orbitals since the values of ml are equal to -1,0 and +1. Orbitals of the same n values have
the same energy and that filling of orbitals should be according to Aufbau’s principle, Hund’s
rule, and Pauli’s exclusion principle. Note that p orbitals have higher energy compared to s
orbitals.
Electron Configuration Shorthand

Writing the electron configuration for smaller atoms is simple. However, as the number
of electron increases, it can become tiresome. Thus, chemists made a shorthand for writing
the electron configuration for larger elements using the Noble Gasses electron configuration
as a reference point. The shorthand is written by writing the electron configuration of the
closest noble gas in a square bracket followed by the remaining electron configuration. For
example, the electron configuration of sulfur with 16 electrons in the ground state is
1s22s22p63s23p4. The closest noble gas lower than sulfur is neon with the electron
configuration of 1s22s22p6. We just use the electron configuration of neon [Ne], then write the
remaining configuration for sulfur (3s23p4). Hence, the shorthand electron configuration of
sulfur is [Ne] 3s23p4.
5
Magnetic Property of an Atom
The behaviour of an atom in relation to magnetic fields is influenced by its electron

configuration. This behaviour is also called the magnetic property of an atom and is dependent
on the number of electrons an atom has that are spin paired. An atom with electrons that will
be very slightly affected by magnetic fields is called diamagnetic. The orbitals of this atom
are all filled and therefore all its electrons are paired with an electron of opposite spin. Neon
is an example of a diamagnetic atom. Conversely, atoms that do not have all their electrons
spin-paired and are affected by magnetic fields are called paramagnetic. Lithium and sodium
are examples of paramagnetic atoms (Brown, 2015).
What’s More (A)
Activity 2.1: Electron Configuration and Orbital Diagrams

Directions: Write the complete electron configuration of the following elements and draw their
orbital diagrams. State whether the element is paramagnetic or diamagnetic. The
first one is done for you.
Number
Electron Magnetic
Element of Orbital Diagram
Configuration Property
electrons
Lithium 3 Paramagnetic
Oxygen
Fluorine
Bromine
Silicon
Zinc
What’s More (B)
Activity 2.2: Label it!

Directions: Label each part of the following notation of an outermost electron and state what
each part represents.
b
a 3s 2
6
What I Have Learned
Activity 3: Boarding House Analogy
Directions: Imagine you are the landlord of a very strange boarding house. Your job is to fill
the rooms in the building in the most efficient way possible. The rules you have to follow
are as strange as the building because quantum mechanics is not like anything you might
have expected. State what electron rule is being applied in the situations stated on the left
side of the table. Explain each rule. (This activity is adapted from birdvilleschoosl.net).
Boarding House Rules Electron Rules

From the Bottom Up: Rooms should be filled
from the ground floor and up. Fill up first the rooms
on the first floor before starting to put new tenants
on the second floor.
Singles First: the owner of the building wants to
have the renters spread out as much as possible.
For that reason, singles are placed first in rooms
before couples. If couples must be placed into a
room then all of the other rooms on that floor must
already have a single in them.
Opposite Gender Only: When two people are to
be situated in a room, they must be of opposite
genders. No men may stay together, and no
women may room together. This is an arbitrary
rule on the part of the owners: in a just world, we
wouldn’t have to follow it, but quantum mechanics
has nothing to do with society’s norm.
What I Can Do
Activity 4: What are you eating?
Directions: Research on the ingredients of “PIATTOS”. Identify at least two elements present
in the food and research the properties and uses of each element. Fill out the table
with the needed details and answer the questions that follow. Use the shorthand
electron configuration of each element.
FOOD NAME: PIATTOS- CHEESE FLAVOR

Electron Orbital Paramagnetic/
Element Properties Uses
Configuration Diagram Diamagnetic?
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
7
Follow-up Questions:
1. Why is it important to be aware of the ingredients of the food you eat?
2. Based on your research, is your favorite food good for your health? Why?
3. Why is it important to gain knowledge on the properties and characteristics of some

elements?
SUMMARY
• All electrons have four quantum numbers which describe the location of electrons in
the electron cloud of an atom and can be used to determine the electron configuration
of an atom.
• According to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, each electron in an atom has an exclusive
set of quantum numbers and no two electrons can have the same combination of four
quantum numbers.
• The principal quantum number (n) describes the size of the orbital the electron is
residing. The azimuthal or angular quantum number (l) describes the shape of the
orbital. The magnetic quantum number (ml) defines the orientation of the orbital in
space and the electron spin number (ms) defines the direction that the electron spins
on its own axis.
• Electron configuration is the arrangement of electrons within the orbitals of an atom to
know more about an atom’s electronic property.
• The electrons in an atom fill up its atomic orbitals according to the Aufbau Principle;
"Aufbau," in German, means "building up." According to this principle, electrons are
filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s,
5f, 6d, 7p…
• Hund’s rule states that before additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the
same orbitals, single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy
orbital first.
• Atoms with unpaired electrons in their electron configuration and are affected by a
magnetic field are paramagnetic. Atoms with no unpaired electrons in their electron
configuration are diamagnetic.
8
Multiple Choice. Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct
1. [Kr]4s23d6 is the electron configuration of which element?

A. Krypton C. Rhodium
B. Palladium D. Silver
2. Which of the following is a valid orbital diagram?
A. C. C.
B. D.
3. Which element has an electron configuration of 1s22s22p5?

A. Carbon (atomic number = 6) C. Fluorine (atomic number = 9)
B. Oxygen ((atomic number = 8) D. Hydrogen (atomic number = 1)
4. What principal quantum number can an electron in an f sublevel have?

A. 4 C. 1
B. 5 D. 8
5. Which of the following set of orbitals is degenerate?

A. 2px and 3py C. 4fx3-3xy2 and 4fzx2-zy2
B. 1s2 and 2s2 D. 2s1 and 2px
6. Which element has an electronic configuration of 1s22s2p6 3s23p64s23d3?

A. Carbon (atomic number = 6) C. Krypton (atomic number = 36)
B. Vanadium (atomic number = 23) D. Copper (atomic number = 29)
7. Which of the orbitals has the highest energy?

A. 1s C. 2p
B. 2s D. 3s
8. Which of the following atom is paramagnetic?

A. Zinc C. Calcium
B. Krypton D. Potassium
9. How many unpaired electrons are there in the ground state of a cobalt atom? What is the
magnetic property of the atom?
A. 3, paramagnetic C. 2, diamagnetic
B. 5, paramagnetic D. 0, diamagnetic
10. Which of the following electrons described by quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms) has the
highest energy?
A. (3,0,0,+1/2) C. (4,1,0,+1/2)
B. (3,1,‐1, ‐1/2) D. (3,2,0,+1/2)
9
Senior High School
General Chemistry 1
Types of Bonding and their Properties
Quarter 2 - Module 3: Types of Bonding and their Properties

First Edition, 2020


Author: April Sweet L. Tapayan, RCh.
Ma. Edna M. Lamco, MT – I Science
Ellenita D. Agbalog, T- II

Management Team


Telefax: (08822)855-0048
General
Chemistry 1
Types of Bonding and their Properties

What I Know
Pre-test: MULTIPLE CHOICE:

Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct answer.
Use separate answer sheet of paper.
1. The complete transfer of one or more electrons between atoms constitutes in forming
___________.
A. ionic bond C. coordinate covalent bond
B. covalent bond D. dative bond
2. A list of non-metals is given below. Which elements can exceed the octet rule?
S, C, Cl, O
A. O C. Cl
B. C D. S
3. Which of the following represents a non-polar covalent bond?

A. H-O C. C-C
B. C-N D. Li-F
4. What type of bond does NO2 forms?

A. ionic bond C. coordinate covalent bond
B. covalent bond D. dative bond
5. Atoms bond to other atoms to obtain a/an _______________ electron configuration.

A. alkali metal C. noble gas
B. halogen D. chalcogen
6. It is a measure of how equally the electrons in a bond are distributed between the
two atoms involved in a covalent bond.
A. polarity C. ionization energy
B. octet rule D. electron affinity
7. How many covalent bonds does carbon form?

A. It does not form covalent bonds. C. 3
B. 2 D. 4
8. Which of the following does not contain ionic bonds?

A. Sulfur dioxide C. Silver oxide
B. Sodium oxide D. Strontium oxide
9. Which of the following does not contain covalent bonds?

A. Carbon (graphite) C. HCl (g)
B. Carbon (diamond) D. NaCl (s)
10. Which of the following is not a property of substances with ionic bonding?
A. High melting point C. Conduct electricity when molten
B. Crystallinity D. Conduct electricity in the solid state
iii
MODULE
3
Types of Bonding and their
Properties
What I Need to Know
Atoms usually interact with other atoms or group of atoms. They might be connected
by strong bonds and formed into molecules or crystals, or they might also form temporary,
weak bonds with other atoms. These bonds hold molecules together and are essential to the
chemistry of our bodies and to the existence of life itself. In this lesson, we examine the models
of chemical bonding and their properties, and how they influence the behavior of the
substances around us.
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=the+structure+of+flavonoid+isorhamnetin
Figure 1. Three-dimensional structure of the flavonoid isorhamnetin. It shows bonding of

Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms to each other.
1
What Is It
Why do atoms bond at all? The answer is that atoms are trying to reach the most stable
or lowest-energy state that they can. Usually, atoms become more stable when their orbital of
the outermost energy level or valence shell is filled with electrons, satisfying the octet rule. If
atoms do not have this arrangement, they reach it by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons via
chemical bonds. In chemical bonding, only valence electrons, electrons located in valence
shell of the element, are involved.
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=stable+and+unstable+atoms
Figure 2. Electron Shells and Atom Stability
Types of Bonding
1. Ionic Bond
An ionic bond is formed when metals on the left side (Group 1(A) and Group 2(A) of
the periodic table and non-metals on the right side (except noble gases, group 8A) interact.
Once the electrons have been transferred to the non-metal, both the metal and the non-metal
become ions. The metal becomes positively charged and the nonmetal becomes negatively
charged. An ionic compound is formed when the two oppositely charged ions attract each
other. For instance, positively charged sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions
attract each other to make sodium chloride, or table salt.
Ionic compounds tend to have higher melting and boiling points. They are hard and
brittle and conduct electricity when dissolved in water. Some common ionic compounds are
magnesium bromide (MgBr2), magnesium oxide (MgO), and potassium bromide (KBr).
2
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Common+elements+that+form+ionic+bonds
Figure 3. Common elements that form ionic bonds
2. Covalent Bond
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms reach stability by sharing electrons (rather
than fully gaining or losing them). Covalent bonds are more common than ionic bonds in the
molecules of living organisms. These bonds mostly occur between nonmetals or between two
of the same (or similar) elements. One, two, or three pairs of electrons may be shared between
atoms, resulting in single, double, or triple bonds, respectively. The more electrons that are
shared between two atoms, the shorter and stronger their bond will be.
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=structure+of+single%2C+double%2C+and+triple+bonds+of+common+covalent+c
ompounds
Figure 4. Structures of Some Common Covalent Compounds
Compounds formed through covalent bonding are brittle solid, have relatively low
melting and boiling points, and are poor conductor of heat and electricity. Several covalent
compounds have high vapor pressure, which makes them volatile and good as fuels. Propane,
methane and gasoline are all covalent compounds that readily undergo combustion, producing
energy as a bi-product.
3
What’s More
Activity 1: The Name is Bond… Chemical Bond
Directions: Fill out the table below with correct answers. The first one is done for you.
Type of Good conductor of High Boiling High Melting

Compound Point? Point?
Bond heat or electricity?
NaCl ionic Yes Yes Yes
CH4
HCl
N2
O2
H2O
KBr
MgCl2
PCl3
CO
CaF2
What Have I Learned
Activity 2: What type of bond do you form?
Directions: Imagine yourself and the people around you as atoms. Just like atoms, you need
to form bonds to be more stable. Your attitude, talents and potentials, love and care, advises
and compliments, and the things you treasure should serve the function of electrons. Based
on your understanding on the concept of ionic and covalent bonds, what type of bond do you
want to form with other people? What do you want to do with your electrons? Support your
answer. Your answer should not be less than 7 sentences and not more than 10 sentences.
SUMMARY
• Atoms form bonds because they are trying to reach the most stable or lowest-energy
state that they can. In chemical bonding, only valence electrons, electrons located in
valence shell of the element, are involved.
• An ionic bond is formed when metals on the left side (Group 1(A) and Group 2(A) of
the periodic table and nonmetals on the right side (except noble gases, group 8A)
interact.
• Covalent bonds are formed when atoms reach stability by sharing electrons (rather
than fully gaining or losing them).
• These bonds mostly occur between nonmetals or between two of the same (or similar)
elements. One, two, or three pairs of electrons may be shared between atoms,
resulting in single, double, or triple bonds, respectively. The more electrons that are
shared between two atoms, the shorter and stronger their bond will be.
4
Multiple Choice. Answer the questions that follow. Choose the best answer among
the given choices for each item.
1. Which one of the formulas for ionic compounds below is incorrect?

A. SrCl2 C. Al3P2
B. AlCl3 D. Cs2S
2. Which of the following is a nonpolar covalent molecule?
A. NH3 C. HCl
B. H2O D. CCl4
3. Which of the following has the highest boiling point?
A. NaCl C. CH3CH2CH3
B. HBr D. CCl4
4. Which of the following statements about water is not correct?
A. Water molecules contain covalent bonds.
B. Water has weak forces between molecules.
C. Water has a low melting point.
D. Water molecules contain H+ and OH- ions.
5. Which of the following phrases would be used in a description for the bonding in BOTH
metals and ionic salts?
A. Strong electrostatic attraction C. Giant lattice
B. Ions D. Delocalized electrons
6. Which of the following statements gives the best explanation for the fact that carbon forms
4 bonds?
A. Carbon is in group 4 of the periodic table
B. Carbon has 2 shells of electrons.
C. Carbon forms 4+ ions.
D. Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer shell.
7. Which of the following covalent molecules is the best illustration of typical properties of
substances with simple molecular covalent structures?
A. Water C. Iodine
B. Hydrogen D. Sulfur
8. Which of the following have both ionic and covalent bonds?
A. NH4Br C. both A and B
B. NaNO2 D. neither A nor B
9. Why can ionic substances conduct electricity when in solution or molten, but not when
they are in the solid state?
A. When in solution or molten, the ions are free to move but not free to move in the
solid state.
B. When in solution or molten, the atoms are free to move, but not free to move in the
solid state.
C. Electrons cannot travel through solids.
D. When in solution or molten, the protons are free to move, but not free to move in
the solid state.
10. When a covalent bond is formed, what happens to the outer shell of electrons?
A. Each atom gains electrons to reach a full outer shell.
B. An electron is removed from each atom's outer shell.
C. An electron from each atom is shared.
D. One of the atoms gains electrons while the other atom loses electrons.
5
Senior High School
General Chemistry 1
Lewis Structures and Bond Formation
Quarter 2 - Module 4: Lewis Structures and Bond Formation
First Edition, 2020


Ma. Edna M. Lamco
Ellenita D. Agbalog

Management Team


Telefax: (08822)855-0048
General
Chemistry 1
Lewis Structures and Bond Formation

What I Know

1. Which element will have 5 electrons in its Lewis dot symbol?

A. Argon C. Carbon
B. Boron D. Phosphorus
2. Which element is the least electronegative?

A. Calcium C. Iron
B. Cesium D. Barium
3. It is important to know the geometry of a molecule because it

A. affects the physical and chemical properties of the substance
B. will give the Lewis structure of the molecule
C. will determine whether the molecule is ionic or covalent
D. B and C
4. If there are four (4) electron pairs around the central atom of a molecule, these
electron pairs are in a _________________arrangement.
A. linear C. tetrahedral
B. trigonal planar D. octahedral
5. Which element will have 5 electrons in its Lewis dot symbol?

A. Argon C. Carbon
B. Boron D. Phosphorus
6. Which element is the least electronegative?

A. Calcium C. Iron
B. Cesium D. Barium

D. B and C
8. The number of lone pairs in CO2 molecule are ______________.

A. 1 C. 3
B. 2 D. 4
9. A molecule with trigonal planar geometry:

A. H2O C. BF3
B. CO2 D. CH4
10. The number of lone pairs of electrons around the central oxygen atom in In the Lewis
structure of the OF2 molecule is:
A. 1 C. 3
B. 2 D. 4
iii
MODULE Lewis Structures and
4 Bond Formation
What’s In
In lesson 1, we have learned that atoms transfer or share their electrons to other atoms
to become more stable, thus forming new substances. In this lesson, the bonding models will
be represented through Lewis dot symbols and structures and the bond formation of atoms
will be illustrated. Furthermore, we will learn how to predict bonding and formula of molecular
compounds though Lewis structures and the application of the octet rule.
What’s New
Activity 1: Meet the Nobles
Directions: Study the table below and answer the questions that follow.
Atomic
Element Electron Configuration
Number
He 2 1s2
Ne 10 1s2 2s2 2p6
Ar 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Kr 36 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
Xe 54 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6
Ra 86 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10
6s2 6p6
1. To what group in the periodic table do the elements listed belong?

2. Why are these elements called the noble gases? What is their common characteristic?
3. Why are light bulbs filled with argon gas rather than oxygen gas?
4. How many valence electrons do noble gases have? Draw the Lewis dot symbol of the
noble gas Xe?
5. Can we relate the number of valence electrons with the stability of the element?
1
What Is It
Lewis Dot Symbols
Valence electrons of an atom are better represented with Lewis dot symbols. From the
previous module, the number of valence electrons of a main block element is usually
equivalent to its group number. For instance, Carbon is a Group 4(a) element, thus it has 4
valence electrons. The number of valence electrons of Fluorine is 7 because it is in Group7(a).
Magnesium has 2 valence electrons because it belongs to Group2(a).
Lewis dot symbol is very useful when learning about chemical bonding, and chemical
reactions. It consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence electron in an
atom of the element. The dots are placed on the four sides of the symbol—top, bottom, left,
and right—and each side can accommodate up to two electrons. The choice on which sides
to place two electrons rather one electron is arbitrary since all four sides are equivalent. It is
recommended that we spread out the dots as much as possible. In general, we cannot write
simple Lewis dot symbols for the transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides because they
all have incompletely filled inner shells.
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Lewis+dot+symbols+of+some+main+block+elements
Figure 1. Lewis Dot Symbols of Some Main Block Elements
The Octet Rule and Bond Formations
The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain, lose or share electrons to have
eight electrons in the valence shell or attain the same number of electrons as the noble gas
nearest to them in the periodic table. Noble gases are known as stable elements as evidenced
by their general lack of reactivity. All the noble gases except Helium have eight valence
electrons that is why many atoms undergoing reactions end up with eight valence electrons.
Octet rules does not generally apply to the d or f electrons. Only the s and p electrons
are involved in the octet rule, making it useful for the main group elements (elements not in
the transition metal or inner-transition metal blocks). Main group elements have an octet which
corresponds to an electron configuration ending with s2p6. However, there are some
exceptions to the octet rule: boron and aluminum readily form compounds in which they have
six valence electrons, rather than the usual eight predicted by the octet rule.
2
For instance, table salt or NaCl is the result of Na+ ions and Cl- ions bonding together
in an ionic bond. If sodium metal and chlorine gas react under the right conditions, they will
form salt. Since sodium is a metal, it loses an electron, becomes positively charged and the
chlorine gains that electron and becomes negatively charged. The resulting salt is mostly
unreactive — it is stable. It will not undergo any explosive reactions, unlike the sodium and
chlorine that it is made of. (Note that each line that connects two atoms represents two bonded
electrons.)
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Ionic+bond+formation+of+sodium+chloride
Figure 2. Ionic bond formation of Sodium Chloride
In covalently bonded atoms, sharing of electrons is being exhibited by all atoms

involved to satisfy the octet rule. For example, two hydrogen share each of their valence
electron with each other to have two electrons in their valence shells through a single bond.
As a result, each hydrogen atom achieves an electron configuration as helium, the nearest
noble gas which has only 2 valence electrons.
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Covalent+bond+formation+of+H2+
Figure 3. Covalent bond formation of H2
Several atoms form multiple bonds to satisfy the octet. If two atoms share two pairs of
electrons, the covalent bond is called a double bond. This type of bond is much stronger and
shorter than single bonds. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the compounds where double bonds
are found.
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Electron+sharing+of+CO2+through+double+bonds
Figure 4. Electron sharing of CO2 through double bonds
3
A triple bond arises when two atoms share three pairs of electrons, as in the nitrogen
molecule (N2). This type of bond is much stronger and shorter than single and double bonds.
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Electron+sharing+of+N2+through+a+triple+bond
Figure 5. Electron sharing of N2 through a triple bond
Writing Lewis Structures
Lewis structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule,
and the unbonded electrons that may exist in the molecule. A Lewis structure can be drawn
for any covalently-bonded molecule. Lines are drawn between electrons that are bonded to
one another.
Excess electrons that are not bonded or lone pairs are represented as pair of dots
and are placed next to the atoms on which they reside. According to Brown, these procedures
should be followed when writing Lewis structures:
Note that the central atom is the least electronegative atom in the molecule.
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the electrons. It increases
from left to right across a period and decreases down a group. Moreover, check the formal
charge of each atom. It is imperative to remember that atoms are more stable when they have
lesser charge or no charge at all. Negative formal charges should be assigned to more
electronegative atoms.
4
The overall formal charges of the atoms being bonded should be equal to the overall
charge of the compound.
Example: Lewis Structure of CO2
Source: Tapayan, 2020
5
What’s More
Activity 2: Predicting Chemical Products
Directions: The following pairs of atoms form ionic or covalent compounds when bonded.
Complete the table below with the needed details. Two answered rows serve as examples.
Charge of each Lewis dot
Lewis dot
Type of ion after electron symbol of each
Atoms symbol of Formula of the
Bond transfer if ionic ion if ionic
involved each atom Product
bond is formed bond is formed
Na, Cl ionic Na+ Cl- Na+

NaCl
C, I covalent Not applicable Not applicable CI4
Mg, Cl
Ca, F
Na, O
Ca, N
S, Cl
What I Have Learned

Activity 3: Spotting Mistakes
Directions: The following Lewis structures are incorrect. Explain what is wrong and give a correct
Lewis structure for the molecule. (Relative positions of atoms are shown correctly.)
6
SUMMARY
• Lewis dot symbol is very useful when learning about chemical bonding, and chemical
reactions. It consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence electron
in an atom of the element.
• Valence electrons of an atom are better represented with Lewis dot symbols. From the
previous module, the number of valence electrons of a main block element is usually
equivalent to its group number.
• The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain, lose or share electrons to have
eight electrons in the valence shell or attain the same number of electrons as the noble
gas nearest to them in the periodic table.
• Lewis structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule,
and the unbonded electrons that may exist in the molecule.
7

A. 1 C. 3
B. 2 D. 4

A. H2O C. BF3
B. CO2 D. CH4
3. In ammonia, the tetrahedral shape gets distorted because of the lone pair and becomes
__________.
A. trigonal pyramidal C. linear
B. T-shaped D. bent
A. 1 C. 3
B. 2 D. 4
5. Write the singly bonded Lewis dot structure for BF3. Which of the following statements
best describes this structure?
A. It obeys the octet rule on all atoms.
B. It has less than an octet on at least one atom.
C. It has a lone pair of electrons on the boron atom.
D. It has less than an octet of electrons on all atoms.
6. Which of the following elements can only form one bond in a Lewis structure?
A. N C. C
B. O D. H
7. Which of the following molecules has a dipole moment?

A. CCl4 C. NH3
B. O2 D. CO2
8. Bond energy is the energy
A. required to break a chemical bond.
B. released when a chemical bond breaks.
C. required to form a chemical bond.
D. absorbed when a chemical bond forms.
9. In drawing a Lewis structure, the central atom is the

A. atom with the greatest mass.
B. atom with the highest atomic number.
C. atom with the fewest electrons.
D. least electronegative atom.
10. The substance whose Lewis structure shows three covalent bonds is
A. H2O. C. NH3.
B. CH2Cl2. D. CCl4.
8
Senior High School
General Chemistry 1
Molecular Geometry and Polarity
Quarter 2 - Module 5: Molecular Geometry and Polarity
First Edition, 2020


Ma. Edna M. Lamco, MT – I Science
Ellenita D. Agbalog, T- II

Management Team


Telefax: (08822)855-0048
General
Chemistry 1
Molecular Geometry and Polarity

What I Know


D. B and C
2. If there are four (4) electron pairs around the central atom of a molecule, these
electron pairs are in a _________________arrangement.
A. linear C. tetrahedral
B. trigonal planar D. octahedral
3. A molecule with Linear geometry

A. AlCl3 C. BeCl2
B. H2O D. SF6
4. A molecule with Trigonal planar geometry

A. AlCl3 C. BeCl2
B. H2O D. SF6
5. Predict the molecular shape of PH3

A. bent C. trigonal pyramidal
B. tetrahedral D. Octahedral
For numbers 6-7 identify the Central atom

6. SF6
A. S B. F
7. CHCl3 -
A. C B. H C. Cl
8. The central selenium atom in selenium hexafluoride forms an expanded octet. How
many electron pairs surround the central se atom?
A. 4 C. 6
B. 5 D. 7
9. All of the following compounds have bent molecular shapes EXCEPT
A. BeH2 C. H2O
B. H2S D. SeH2
10. Predict which of the following bonds is the most polar

A. C – O C. C –Cl
B. Si – O D. C- Br
iii
Module Molecular Geometry and
5 Polarity
What’s In
The previous lesson helped us understand the compositions of molecules and their
bonds through the Lewis structure theory. However, Lewis structures do not demonstrate one
of the most important features of molecules—their overall shapes. The size and shapes of
molecules are defined by the distances and angles between the nuclei of the atoms involved.
In this lesson, we learn how to portrait a molecule by writing a two-dimensional structure for it
and translating it to a three-dimensional shape, and we examine the effects of molecular shape
on molecular polarity.
Molecular polarity is an important factor in how molecules of one type interact with
other molecules. For example, polar solvents are better at dissolving polar substances, and
nonpolar solvents are better at dissolving nonpolar substances. Polarity also influences the
way that molecules arrange themselves in the solid and liquid states.
What Is It
Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
The approach in predicting molecular geometry is called the Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR). This prediction is anchored from the assumption that all
electron pairs in the valence shell around a central atom repel one another. These valence
shell electron pairs are the ones involved in bonding and they want to stay apart from each
other as possible. The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:
1. Electron pairs stay as far apart from each other as possible to minimize repulsions.
2. Molecular shape is determined by the number of bond pairs and lone pairs around
the central atom.
3. Treat multiple bonds as if they were single bonds (In making the prediction).
4. Lone pairs occupy more volume than bond pairs. Lone pair-lone pair repulsions
are greater than lone-pair-bond pair repulsions which in turn are greater than bond
pair-bond pair repulsions.
VSEPR focuses not only on electron pairs, but it also focusses on electron groups. An
electron group can be an electron pair, a lone pair, a single unpaired electron, a double bond
or a triple bond on the central atom. The actual determinants of molecular shape are classified
into two groups: the electron-group and the molecular geometry. Electron-group geometry
is determined by the number of electron groups, or the number of atoms bonded to the central
atom. Molecular geometry, on the other hand, depends on not only on the number of electron
1
groups or the number of atoms bonded to the central atom, but also on the number of lone
pairs or unbonded pair of electrons on the central atom.
Table 1. Summary of Molecular Geometry
Geometry Type # of Electron Pairs Ideal Bond Angle Examples

linear AB2 2 180° BeCl2
trigonal planar AB3 3 120° BF3
tetrahedral AB4 4 109.5° CH4
trigonal bipyramidal AB5 5 90°, 120° PCl5
octohedral AB6 6 90° SF6
bent AB2E 3 120° (119°) SO2
trigonal pyramidal AB3E 4 109.5° (107.5°) NH3
bent AB2E2 4 109.5° (104.5°) H2O
seesaw AB4E 5 180°,120° (173.1°,101.6°) SF4
T-shape AB3E2 5 90°,180° (87.5°,<180°) ClF3
linear AB2E3 5 180° XeF2
square pyramidal AB5E 6 90° (84.8°) BrF5
square planar AB4E2 6 90° XeF4
Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/introduction-to-molecular-geometry-603800
Figure 1. Molecular Geometry Examples

Pyramidal
Tetrahedral
Trigonal
Bent
SeesawSeesaw
T-shape
Linear
bipyramidal
Trigonal
Square Pyramid
Square Planar
Octahedral
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/molecular-geometry/
Figure 2. VSEPR Geometries
2
Predicting Molecular Geometry
1.
2.
..
Molecular Polarity
Polarity is a physical property of compounds which relates other physical properties
such as solubility, boiling and melting points and intermolecular interactions between
molecules. It is a measure of how equally the electrons in a bond are distributed between the
two atoms involved in a covalent bond. Bond polarity increases with the increasing
electronegativity difference between the atoms in a molecule since there is a shift in electron
density towards the more electronegative atom. In a few cases, a symmetrical arrangement
gives rise to a non-polar molecule even though a molecule may have polar bonds.
The shift in electron density is symbolized by a crossed arrow ( ) with the arrow
pointing toward the direction of the shift. For instance, the shift in electron density points toward
fluorine in the polar HF molecule since it is more electronegative than hydrogen.
3
Molecules whose atoms have equal or nearly equal electronegativities are nonpolar.
A molecule with polar bonds, but the molecular geometry is symmetrical allowing the bond
dipoles to cancel each other out like in the molecule C02 is also nonpolar.
Source:http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless-static/www.boundless.com/chemistry/textbooks/boundless-chemistry-
textbook/basic-concepts-of-chemical-bonding-9/electronegativity-74/bond-polarity-344-7948/images/molecular-dipole-
moment/index.html
Figure 3. Example of Non-polar molecule (CO2)
Polar molecules exhibit dipole moments while nonpolar molecules do not. In the
presence of an electric field, the positive end of the molecules positions itself towards the
negative plate. The molecular geometry determines whether the molecule is polar or not.
15
Source:https://int.search.tb.ask.com/search/AJimage.jhtml
Figure 4. Some Examples of Common Polar Compounds
What’s More
Activity 1: Synthesizing concepts
Directions: Complete the table below with correct answers. The first one is done
for you.
Covalent Lewis Structure with

Geometry Name Polar or Nonpolar?
Compound correct geometry
CO2 Linear Nonpolar
CH4
NH3
SF4
4
What I Have Learned
Activity 2: Reasoning Challenge
Directions: Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences only.
1. VSEPR theory specifies “valence shell” electrons. Explain why these are the most critical
electrons for determining molecular shape?
2. Draw the Lewis structure of ozone, O3. Describe why ozone has a bent shape instead of a
linear shape.
SUMMARY
• A dipole moment measures a separation of charge. For one bond, the bond dipole
moment is determined by the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms.
For a molecule, the overall dipole moment is determined by both the individual bond
moments and how these dipoles are arranged in the molecular structure.
• The approach in predicting molecular geometry is called the Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR).It can be used to predict the three-dimensional shape
of a molecule. Electron pairs repel each other and determine both the shape of and
bond angles in a molecule.
• Two orbitals form two sp hybrid orbitals, and the molecule is linear. Three orbitals,
forming three sp2 hybrid orbitals, form a molecule that is trigonal planar. Four orbitals,
forming four sp3 hybrid orbitals, form a molecule that is tetrahedral.
• Electron-group geometry is determined by the number of electron groups or the

number of atoms bonded to the central atom. Molecular geometry, on the other hand,
depends on not only on the number of electron groups or the number of atoms bonded
to the central atom, but also on the number of lone pairs or unbonded pair of electrons
on the central atom.
• Polarity is a physical property of compounds which relates other physical properties

such as solubility, boiling and melting points and intermolecular interactions between
molecules.
• Molecules whose atoms have equal or nearly equal electronegativities are nonpolar.
A molecule with polar bonds, but the molecular geometry is symmetrical allowing the
bond dipoles to cancel each other out like in the molecule C02 is also nonpolar.
5

A. 1 C. 3
B. 2 D. 4

A. H2O C. BF3
B. CO2 D. CH4
3. In ammonia, the tetrahedral shape gets distorted because of the lone pair and becomes
__________.
A. trigonal pyramidal C. linear
B. T-shaped D. bent
A. 1 C. 3
B. 2 D. 4

A. CCl4 C. NH3
B. O2 D. CO2
6. Which of the following is a polar molecule?

A. CCl4 C. CH3Cl
B. CH4 D. CO2
7.Which of the following molecules dissolves in water?

A. CCl4 C. CBr4
B. CH3OH D. C6H6
8.Which represents a polar molecule?

A. F2 C. CH4
B. SO3 D. None of these

A. CCl4 C. NH3
B. O2 D. CO2
10. Chloroform (CHCl3 ) was one of the first anaesthetics used in medicine. The chloroform
molecule contains 26 valence electrons in total. How many of these valence electrons
take part in covalent bonds?
A. 4 C. 13
B. 8 D. 26
6
Senior High School
General Chemistry 1
Quarter 2 - Module 6 – Organic Compounds

General Chemistry 1 – Grade 11
Quarter 2 - Module 6: Organic Compounds
First Edition, 2020

Author/s: April Sweet L. Tapayan, RCh.

Reviewers: Jean S. Macasero, PhD, EPS; Doris D. Pabalate
Illustrator and Layout Evaluator: Arian M. Edullantes
Management Team
Co-Chairpersons: Rowena H. Para-on,PhD

Asst. Schools Division Superintendent
Members Lorebina C. Carrasco, OIC-CID Chief

Jean S. Macasero, EPS - Science

Department of Education – Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR)
Office Address: Fr. William F. Masterson Ave Upper Balulang Cagayan de Oro
Telefax: (08822)855-0048
Senior High School
General
Chemistry 1
Quarter 2 - Module 6 - Organic Compounds

answer.
1. Which element is present in all organic compounds?

A. Helium C. Carbon
B. Nitrogen D. Oxygen
2. A hydrocarbon molecule is saturated if the molecule contains ___________

A. Single covalent bonds, only C. A double covalent bond, only
B. A triple covalent bond D. Single and double covalent bonds
3. A functional group with a carbonyl group functionality is _________________.

A. Alcohol C. Ester
B. Amine D. Ketone
4. What is a functional group?

A. Group of atoms that give specific characteristics to a molecule
B. Group of molecules that give specific characteristics to an atom
C. Group of molecules that make up a group of atoms
D. Group of atoms that give specific characteristics to an element
5. Classify the compound based on the functional group present.

A. Alkane C. Alkene
B. Haloalkane D. Haloalkene
6. The general formula for amines is ____________.

A. R-CH2 C. R2CH
B. R-NH2 D. R-COOH
7. Ethanol is an example of what functional group?

A. Alcohol C. Ester
B. Amine D. Ketone
8. Methanoic acid is an example of ___________________.

A. Alcohol C. Ester
B. Carboxylic acid D. Anhydride
9. These hydrocarbons contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond, hence

unsaturated.
A. Alkane C. Alkene
B. Haloalkane D. Alkyne
10. What compounds are used in the production of perfumes and as flavouring agents?
A. Alcohol C. Ester
B. Amine D. Ketone
Hydrocarbons and Functional

iii
1 Groups
What I Need to Know
Organic compounds are carbon-containing compounds that do not only pertain

to hydrocarbons but also compounds with any number of other elements, including
hydrogen (most compounds contain at least one carbon–hydrogen bond), oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, halogens, silicon, and sulfur. In this lesson, you should be able
to familiarize and describe the structures and properties of hydrocarbons and organic
functional groups.
What’s New
Activity 1: Matching Type
Directions: Match column A with the corresponding item in column B. Write the letter
of your answer for each number.
1. ketone a. carbonyl group

2. carboxylic acid b. hydroxyl group
3. alkane c. general formula R3N
4. alkyne d. triple bond
5. ester e. smell of fruits
6. alcohol f. fuels
7. amine g. vinegar
8. hydrocarbon h. carbon and hydrogen
2
What Is It
From the discussion on the bonding models in the previous module, it can be
seen that carbon has a unique nature. Carbon completes its octet by sharing electrons
with other carbon atoms forming single, double, and triple bonds. It also readily forms
bonds with atoms of other elements like H, O, N, and the halogens. Carbon can form
millions of different compounds and can form more compounds than any other element
in the periodic table.
Organic Compounds: Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon is a compound composed of only carbon and hydrogen atoms

and is considered as one of the major groups of organic compounds. Based on
structure, hydrocarbons are divided into two main classes—aliphatic (those that do not
contain a benzene ring) and aromatic (those that contain a benzene ring).
Figure 1. Classification of Hydrocarbons

(https://www.tes.com/lessons/hUjQYBl3Z4qV_w/hydrocarbons)
a. Alkanes- are aliphatic, saturated hydrocarbons and has only single carbon-
carbon bonds in the molecule. They are referred to as saturated
hydrocarbons because they hold the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
that can bond to the carbon atoms present. Some alkanes are gases and
are used directly as fuels. Saturated hydrocarbons that forms a single ring
are called cycloalkanes. Alkanes are nonpolar, not very reactive, insoluble
in water and have little biological activity. They are all colorless and
odorless.
Figure 2. Some common alkanes and cycloalkanes

(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/12-2-structures-and-names-of-alkanes/)
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/12-9-cycloalkanes/)
3
a. Alkenes- also called as olefins. These are unsaturated hydrocarbons that
contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They are all colorless and
odorless in nature except ethene. They are insoluble in water due to their
nonpolar feature but are more reactive than alkanes.
Figure 3. Short chain alkenes

(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/alkenes-structures-and-names/)
b. Alkynes- contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond, hence

unsaturated. They have physical properties similar to alkanes and alkenes.
They dissolve in organic solvents, slightly soluble in polar solvents, and are
insoluble in water. Alkynes are more reactive and have slightly higher boiling
points compared to alkanes and alkenes.
Ethyne Propyne Butyne
Figure 4. Short chain alkynes

(https://www.toppr.com/content/story/amp/physical-properties-of-alkynes-37358/)
Organic Compounds: Functional Groups
A group of atoms that is mainly responsible for the chemical behavior of the
parent molecule is called functional group. Organic compounds may also be classified
according to the functional groups they contain. Compounds with the same functional
groups undergo like reactions.
a. Alcohols- (R-OH; R=hydrocarbon)
All alcohols contain the hydroxyl functional group, -OH. Ethyl alcohol, or
ethanol, which is produced biologically by the fermentation of sugar or starch,
is by far the best known. The alcohols are very weakly acidic and are soluble in
water because of their polar nature. Most alcohols are highly flammable.
Methanol is highly toxic.
4
Methanol Ethanol Propanol Phenol
Figure 5. Some common alcohols
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/alcohols-nomenclature-and-classification/)
b. Ethers- (R-O-R’; R, R’=hydrocarbon)
Ethers contain the R-O-R’ linkage, where R and R’ are hydrocarbon.

They are slightly polar and slightly soluble in water, but they are extremely
flammable. They tend to slowly form explosive peroxides when left standing in
air. Diethyl ether, one of the common ethers, was used as an anesthetic for
many years but also known for its irritating effects on the respiratory system
and the incidence of postanesthetic vomiting and nausea.
Figure 6. Some common ethers

(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/ethers/)
c. Aldehydes and Ketones – ( , )
The carbonyl group ( ) is the functional group of aldehydes and

ketones. At least one hydrogen atom is bonded to the carbon in the carbonyl
group in an aldehyde. The carbon atom in the carbonyl group is bonded to two
hydrocarbon groups in a ketone. Aldehydes and ketones are highly polar
molecules. The small aldehydes and ketones are soluble in water, but solubility
falls with chain length. They also have slightly higher boiling and melting points
than alkanes. Formaldehyde, the simplest aldehyde, is used in the laboratory
to preserve animal specimens. Acetone, the simplest ketone, is primarily used
as solvent for organic compounds and as nail polish remover.
Figure 7. Some common aldehydes and ketones

(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/aldehydes-and-ketones-structure-and-names/)
5
d. Carboxylic acids- ( )
The functional group in carboxylic acids is the carboxyl group,

These acids are weak in nature and are widely found in both plant and animal
kingdoms. Carboxylic acids are polar and are soluble in water. Acetic acid, one
of the common carboxylic acids, is also known as vinegar.
Figure 8. Some common carboxylic acids

(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/carboxylic-acids-structures-and-names/)
e. Esters- ( )
Esters have the general formula R’-COOR, where R’ can be a

hydrocarbon group or Hydrogen and R is a hydrocarbon group. They are used
in the production of perfumes and as flavouring agents. The smell and flavour
of many fruits come from the presence of small quantities of esters. Oranges
contain octyl acetate (CH3COOCHCH3C6H13), and apples contain methyl
butyrate (CH3CH2CH2COOCH3). Esters are polar and water soluble.
Figure 9. Esters in some common fruits

(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/esters-structures-and-names/)
f. Amines – ( )
Amines are organic bases having the general formula R3N, where R may
be Hydrogen or a hydrocarbon group. When amines are allowed to react with
acids, they form colourless and odourless salts. When all Rs are hydrogens,
the resulting compound is ammonia, NH3.
Methylamine Diethylamine Purine Pyrimidine
Figure 10. Some common amines

(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/amines-structures-and-names/)
6
What’s More
Activity 2: Identification
Directions: Identify what functional group the structural compound represents. If the
compound represents two or more functional groups, list all groups being
represented. If the compound is a hydrocarbon, write the specific type of
hydrocarbon class where it belongs. Write your answer on your gen chem
journal.
1. ____________ 2. ____________ 3. _____________
4. _____________ 5. ____________ 6. ______________
7.______________ 8. ____________ 9. ______________
What I Have Learned
Activity 3: Take your pick!
Directions: Choose one functional group which you like most and fill out the table
below with the needed details. Write your answer on your Gen Chem
Journal.
The most Why you find it Give a sample Give its Special Name Products
interesting more interesting structure of Properties and or things in which
functional group. than other your chosen Common Uses this functional group
Functional functional is present.
group? compound
7
What I Can Do
Activity 4: Aroma Chemistry
Directions: Research on the chemistry behind the aroma of coffee. Identify which
chemical compounds are responsible for it and make an infographic
about your findings. The link below contains a sample infographic on the
subject that you may use as your guide.
Link: https://www.compoundchem.com/2015/02/17/coffee-aroma/
SUMMARY
• Alcohols contain the hydroxyl functional group, -OH.

• Alkanes are aliphatic, saturated hydrocarbons and has only single carbon-
carbon bonds in the molecule.
• Alkenes are also called olefins. These are unsaturated hydrocarbons that
contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond.
• Alkynes contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond, hence unsaturated.
• Amines are organic bases having the general formula R3N, where R may be
Hydrogen or a hydrocarbon group.
• Carbon completes its octet by sharing electrons with other carbon atoms
forming single, double, and triple bonds. It readily forms bonds with atoms of
other elements like H, O, N, and the halogens.
• Carbonyl group is the functional group of aldehydes and ketones. At least one
hydrogen atom is bonded to the carbon in the carbonyl group in an aldehyde.
The carbon atom in the carbonyl group is bonded to two hydrocarbon groups in
a ketone.
• Carboxyl group is the functional group of carboxylic acids.
• Esters have the general formula R’-COOR, where R’ can be a hydrocarbon
group or Hydrogen and R is a hydrocarbon group.
• Ethers contain the R-O-R’ linkage, where R and R’ are hydrocarbon.
• Functional group is a group of atoms that is mainly responsible for the
chemical behavior of the parent molecule.
• Hydrocarbon is a compound composed of only carbon and hydrogen atoms
and is considered as one of the major groups of organic compounds.
• Multiple bonds, such as a double or a triple bond, can be converted into other
functional groups using addition reactions.
• Organic compounds are usually synthesized from other groups of organic
compounds. Two or more organic compounds react to form a new organic
compound with characteristic properties. Sometimes, a single type of organic
compound undergoes a certain reaction, producing a new compound as a
product. Heat, temperature and pressure, acids, bases and water are some of
the essentials needed to make a chemical reaction feasible.
8
Multiple Choice:
Direction: Understand and answer the questions that follow. Choose the best letter
among the given choices for each item.
1. Fruits have pleasant odour because of the presence of _______________.

A. ethers C. ethyl
B. esters D. aldehyde
2. Which of the following functional groups does not have double bonds?
A. ethers C. ketone
B. esters D. carboxylic acids
3. Identify the functional group present in this compound.
A. ethers C. ketone
B. esters D. carboxylic acids
4. Classify the compound based on the functional group present.

A. ethers C. ethyl
B. esters D. aldehyde
5. Which of the following hydrocarbons is saturated?

A. ethane C. pentyne
B. butene D. ethene
6. Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain ___.

A. at least one double or triple bond between carbon atoms
B. only double bonds
C. only single bonds between carbon atoms
D. only triple bonds
7. Which atom is bonded to the carbon atom in the functional group of a ketone?
A. F C. O
B. N D. K
8. Which of the following groups can be classified as carbonyls?

A. ethers C. aldehyde
B. ketone D. aldehyde and ketone
9. How is a Carboxyl Group commonly written?

A. OH C. -COOH
B. -COH D. –CHOH
10. A functional group with a hydroxyl group functionality is _________________.

A. Alcohol C. Ester
B. Amine D. Ketone
9
Senior High School
General Chemistry 1
Quarter 2 - Module 7 – Organic Reactions

Quarter 2 - Module 7: Organic Reactions
First Edition, 2020


Management Team



Telefax: (08822)855-0048
Senior High School
General
Chemistry 1
Quarter 2 - Module 7 - Organic Reactions

What I Know

answer.
1. Choose the incorrect option regarding Isomerism:
A. They differ in both physical and chemical properties.
B. They have the different molecular formula.
C. Chain isomers differ in the arrangement of their skeleton.
D. They have the same molecular formula.
2. The reaction of water with alkene to produce an alcohol is a/an ______ reaction.
A. Addition C. Combustion
B. Condensation D. Saponification
3. Hydrolysis (saponification) of a fat would yield_____________.
A. water and alkene C. ethanol and acid
B. ketone and aldehyde D. glycerol and soap
4. This type of isomerism occurs when different compounds are formed due to the
different arrangements of their atoms leading to different functional groups.
A. chain C. positional
B. functional D. geometric
5. What reaction takes place when a substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing
energy in the form of light and heat?
6. What is formed when water is added to ethene?

A. ethane C. ethanol
B. acetone D. glycerol
7. What reaction takes place when two or more molecules combine to form a larger and
new molecule?
8. This type of isomerism occurs when the same functional groups are attached to
different positions on a carbon chain.
9. What reaction is being demonstrated in the chemical equation below?
10. Saponification of fats needs a strong __________ to proceed to completion.

A. halogen C. acid
B. catalyst D. base
iii
Structural Isomerism and
1 Organic Reactions
What’s In
In lesson 1, you have learned that organic compounds are carbon-containing

compounds which do not only pertain to hydrocarbons but also compounds with any
number of other elements. Moreover, you also examined the structures and properties
of hydrocarbons and some functional groups. In this lesson, you will learn the
structural isomerism and simple reactions of selected organic compounds.
What’s New
Activity 1: Clones or isomers
Directions: Identify if the two structures are the same compounds or isomers. Write
“isomers” if the compounds have the same chemical formula but exactly
different structure or compound and write “clones” if the compounds are
exactly the same.
1.
2. .
3.
4.
1
What Is It
I. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
When two or more organic compounds have the same molecular formula but
different properties due to their difference in arrangement of atoms along the carbon,
they are called structural isomers. There are six forms of structural isomerism and
the most common are chain, positional and functional isomerism.
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
CHAIN POSITIONAL FUNCTIONAL METAMERISM TAUTOMERISM RING-CHAIN
Figure 1. Forms of Structural Isomerism

(http://padakshep.org/otp/subjects/chemistry/organic-chemistry/structural-isomerism/)
a. Chain Isomerism
Chain isomers are organic compounds with the same formula, but the
arrangements of their carbon skeleton are different.
FORMULA: C4H10 Figure 2. Example of chain isomerism

(http://padakshep.org/otp/subjects/chemistry/organic-
chemistry/structural-isomerism/)
b. Positional Isomerism
Positional isomerism occurs when the same functional groups are attached to
FORMULA: C4H8 FORMULA: C3H7OH
Figure 3. Examples of positional isomerism

2
c. Functional Isomerism
Functional isomerism occurs if different compounds are formed due to the
different arrangements of their atoms leading to different functional groups. As
functional groups are usually the reactive centre of a molecule that leads entirely
different properties.
FORMULA: C2H6O
FORMULA: C3H6O
FORMULA: C2H4O2
Figure 4. Examples of positional isomerism

II. Simple Reactions of Organic Compounds
a. Combustion Reactions
When a substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy in the form of light
and heat, a combustion reaction occurs. This type of reaction must involve O2 or
oxygen gas as one reactant. One of the most notable combustion reactions is the
combustion of organic fuels. Fuels rapidly react with oxygen to produce energy.
These fuels include: coal, high molecular weight hydrocarbons, methane, propane,
and butane.
Reaction 1. Complete combustion of butane

(https://www.clutchprep.com/chemistry/practice-problems/84902/calculate-the-enthalpy-of-combustion-of-butane-c4h10-g-for-
the-formation-of-h2o-)
b. Addition Reactions
Multiple bonds, such as a double or a triple bond, can be converted into other
functional groups using addition reactions. Other elements such as hydrogen,
halogens, compounds like water and functional groups such as the hydroxyl group
can be attached or added to one or both of the carbons involved in the multiple
bond.
(https://socratic.org/questions/how-can-alkenes-be-used-to-
make-ethanol)
3
(http://lucychemistry.blogspot.com/2013/05/38-
describe-addition-reaction-of.htm)l
(https://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2013/05/24/alkyne-
reaction-patterns-the-carbocation-pathway/)
Reaction2. Addition reactions of alkenes and alkynes
c. Condensation Reactions
A condensation reaction takes place when two or more molecules combine to
form a larger and new molecule, with the simultaneous loss of a small molecule
such as water and a formation of a new bond.
ketone aldehyde
New oxygen-carbon bond is formed Water is lost as a product

Loss of water
(https://www.saddleback.edu/faculty/jzoval/chem108_lab/lab_6_ https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-
carboxylic%20acids/lab_6_Pre_lab_carboxylic_acids_current.pdf) and-answers/reaction-based-nmr-provided-identify-
aldehyde-ketone-possible-list-aldehyde-ketone-list-1—
q27958045
Reactions 3. Examples of condensation reactions
d. Saponification Reactions
Saponification reaction takes place when a fat, oil or lipid is cleaved and
converted into soap and alcohol by the action of heat and with the presence of
water and a base. Fats are typically in the form of esters. When esters undergo
saponification, carboxylate (soap) and an alcohol (glycerol) functional groups are
produced.
(https://sites.google.com/site/chemistry_olp/formation-of-esters)
4
Reaction 4. Saponification reaction of a fat
(https://nsb.wikidot.com/c-9-5-5-1)
What’s More (A)
Activity 2: Structural Isomerism Identification
Directions: Identify what type of structural isomerism is being exhibited by each pair
of compounds. Choose from the three most common types of isomerism
(e.g. chain, position and functional isomerism).
1. 3.
2. 4.
5
What’s More (B)
Activity 3: Organic Reaction Identification
Directions: Identify what type of organic reaction is being represented by each item.
Choose from the basic types of organic reactions (e.g. combustion,
addition, condensation, and saponification reaction).
_____________1. Hydrocarbons reacts with oxygen gas producing water and carbon
dioxide as products.
_____________2. Reaction of water to an alkene leading to the removal of the double
bond and production of an alcohol.
_____________3. A carboxylic acid and an alcohol react forming a new bond with the
simultaneous loss of water molecule, hence the formation of a new
compound.
_____________4. The production of soap from fats.
_____________5. The production of esters from alcohol and carboxylic acid.
What I Have Learned
Activity 4: Think Like a Chemist!
Directions: Level up your way of thinking and put yourself in a chemist’s perspective.
Answer and explain each item briefly and concisely.
1. Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but have different
properties. How is this possible?
2. How does positional and functional isomerism differ from each other?
3. Ethanol and dimethyl ether have the same molecular formula C2H6O.
Ethanol is liquid at room temperature while dimethyl ether is gas. How is this
possible?
4. Why short-chain alkanes like methane and butane serve as good fuels?
5. Does the compound below undergo saponification reaction? Why?
6
What I Can Do
Activity 5: Meet My Isomers
Directions: Do a research about the structural isomers of the compound C4H10O.

Identify at least three structural isomers, provide their structures and their
individual properties, and uses. Write your answers in each cell of the
table below.
STRUCTURAL ISOMERS OF C4H10O
Name of the isomer Structure of the isomer Properties and uses
1.
2.
3.
SUMMARY
• Structural isomers when two or more organic compounds have the same
molecular formula but different properties due to their difference in arrangement
of atoms along the carbon.
• Chain isomers are organic compounds with the same formula, but the
arrangements of their carbon skeleton are different.
• Positional isomerism occurs when the same functional groups are attached to
• Functional isomerism occurs if different compounds are formed due to the
different arrangements of their atoms leading to different functional groups.
• Combustion reaction occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen gas,
releasing energy in the form of light and heat
• Condensation reaction takes place when two or more molecules combine to
form a larger and new molecule, with the simultaneous loss of a small molecule
such as water and a formation of a new bond.
• Multiple bonds, such as a double or a triple bond, can be converted into other
functional groups using addition reactions.
• Saponification reaction takes place when a fat, oil or lipid is cleaved and
converted into soap and alcohol by the action of heat and with the presence of
water and a base.
7
Multiple Choice: Answer the questions that follow. Choose the best letter among
1. Two isomeric forms of a saturated hydrocarbon _____________

A. have the same structure.
B. have different compositions of elements.
C. have the same molecular formula.
D. react vigorously with one another.
2. The reaction of water with alkene to produce an alcohol is a/an ______ reaction.
A. Saponification C. Combustion
B. Condensation D. Addition
3. The isomerism shown is _____________.
4. The isomerism shown is _____________.
5. Saponification of fats needs a strong __________ to proceed to completion.

A. halogen C. acid
B. catalyst D. base
6. What reaction takes place when a substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy in
the form of light and heat?
7. What is lost as a product when a ketone and an aldehyde react to form a new Carbon-
carbon bond?
A. halogen C. acid
B. water D. alcohol
8. Which of the following would undergo addition reactions?

A. halogen C. alkane
B. alkyne D. alcohol
9. Fats are typically in form of what?

A. halogen C. acid
B. alkyne D. esters
10. What is formed when a carboxylic acid and an alcohol undergo condensation reaction?
A. new C-C bond C. new N-O bond
B. new O-C bond D. ester
8
Senior High School
General Chemistry 1
Preparation of Organic Compounds

Quarter 2 - Module 8: Preparation of Organic Compounds
First Edition, 2020


Management Team



Telefax: (08822)855-0048
Senior High School

General
Chemistry 1
Preparation of Organic Compounds

What I Know
answer.
1. Which of the following is formed when an alcohol is dehydrated?

A. Aldehyde C. Alkene
B. Ketone D. Amine
2. The organic starting materials for the preparation of an ester could be_________
A. a ketone and alcohol C. an acid and alcohol
B. water and oxygen D. alkane and aldehyde
3. When an alcohol reacts with an acid, an alkene is formed. What type of reaction took
place?
A. Combustion C. Dehydration
B. Saponification D. Oxidation
4. Which reagent is needed to change an alkyne to an alkane?

A. H2, catalyst C. ether
B. base D. water
5. What reaction takes place when an alcohol is produced during the net addition of
water across the double bond of an alkene?
A. Reduction C. Dehydration
B. Hydration D. Oxidation
6. Esters are produced when carboxylic acids are heated with alcohols in the presence
of a catalyst in the process called ______________.
A. Esterification C. Aldol condensation
B. Heating D. Oxidation
7. Which type of alcohols where the carbon atom of the hydroxyl group (OH) is attached
to only one single hydrocarbon or R group?
A. tertiary C. secondary
B. primary D. none
8. A primary alcohol is converted to a carboxylic acid in the process called _________.

9. Which of the following is likely to be the main product when an alkane is subjected to
high heat and pressure?
A. alcohol C. alkane
B. ester D. amine
10. What is used to speed up a reaction?

A. catalyst C. alkane
B. amine D. ester
iii
Preparation of Organic
1 Compounds
What’s In
In lesson 1, you have learned that organic compounds are carbon-containing

compounds which do not only pertain to hydrocarbons but also compounds with any
number of other elements. Moreover, you also knew how different organic compounds
written through their structural formula and how each organic compound react with
other compounds. In this lesson, you will the preparation of selected organic
compounds.
What’s New
Preparation of Selected Organic Compounds
Organic compounds are usually synthesized from other groups of organic

compounds. Two or more organic compounds react to form a new organic compound
with characteristic properties. Sometimes, a single type of organic compound
undergoes a certain reaction, producing a new compound as a product. Heat,
temperature and pressure, acids, bases and water are some of the essentials needed
to make a chemical reaction feasible. There are several ways to prepare a certain
organic compound; the examples given below are the most common and just few of
the many preparation routes.
1. Preparation of Alkanes
1a. Catalytic Cracking- large hydrocarbon molecules are broken or

fragmented into smaller and more useful bits of hydrocarbons using high
pressures and temperatures.
Heat, pressure
Reaction 1. Catalytic cracking of a large alkane

(https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-notes/uses-and-cracking-of-crude-oil)
1
1b. Alkanes from Unsaturated Hydrocarbon.
Alkane can be prepared from alkene and alkyne through addition of H 2

gas or the process called hydrogenation. In this process, dihydrogen gas is
added to alkynes and alkenes in the presence of a catalyst - substance that
makes the reaction proceed faster.
Reaction 2. Hydrogenation of an alkyne to produce an alkane

https://study.com/academy/lesson/catalytic-hydrogenation-of-alkynes-mechanism-explanation.html
2. Preparation of Alkenes
Alkenes from the Dehydration of Alcohols

Alkenes are generally prepared through dehydration of an alcohol or
removal of water from an alcohol compound. Water is removed from the alcohol
compound and is freed as a product.
acid
Reaction 3. Removal of water from an alcohol to produce an alkene

(http://www.mendelset.com/articles/687/dehydration_alcohols
3. Preparation of Alcohols
Alcohols from the Hydration of Alkenes

Alcohols are usually obtained by the net addition of water across the
double bond of an alkene. This reaction uses an acid as a catalyst.
acid
Reaction 4. Acid-catalysed hydration of an alkene to produce an alcohol

(https://socratic.org/questions/how-can-alkenes-be-used-to-make-ethanol)
4. Preparation of Esters
Esters from the Reaction of Alcohol and Carboxylic acid

Esters are produced when carboxylic acids are heated with alcohols
in the presence of a catalyst (usually an acid) and this process is called
esterification.
2
Heat,acid
Reaction 5. Esterification reaction of ethanoic acid and ethanol to produce an

ester named ethyl ethanoate
(http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/chemistry/carboxylic-acids-reaction-alcohol.html)
5. Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids from the Oxidation of Primary Alcohols

The oxidation of primary alcohols is a common method for the synthesis
of carboxylic acids which requires a strong oxidizing agent. Primary alcohols
are those alcohols where the carbon atom of the hydroxyl group (OH) is
attached to only one single hydrocarbon or R group like ethanol, propanol, etc.
Strong
oxidizing
agent
Heat
Ethanol, primary alcohol
Reaction 6. Oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid (carboxylic acid)

(https://www.chemistryscl.com/organic/oxidation-of-alcohols/index.php)
What’s More
Activity 1: Alcohol Synthesis

Directions: Make a reaction pathway for the synthesis of hexanol. You are given
hexene and water as your starting materials.
What I Have Learned

3
Activity 2: Think Like a Chemist!
Directions: Level up your way of thinking and put yourself in a chemist’s perspective.
Answer and explain each item briefly and concisely.
1. Describe how you will prepare an alcohol from an alkene.

2. Describe how you will prepare an alkene from an alcohol.
3. Describe how you will prepare an ester.
What I Can Do
Activity 3: The Grandma Ester Corporation
Directions: Using the link: https://jameskennedymonash.wordpress.com/2013/

12/13/infographic-table-of-esters-and-their-smells/, look for the
infographic of the ester compounds which is responsible for the smell of
different fruits, perfumes and flowers. The goal is to convince an investor
to invest in your company so that you can build a factory of an ester
compounds. For example, you could make hexyl pentanoate, and sell it
as perfume ingredient. Give at least five ester compounds and fill out the
table below as your guide.
Ester How to
Compound Structure prepare the Properties Uses
Name compound?
SUMMARY
4
• Catalytic Cracking- large hydrocarbon molecules are broken or fragmented
into smaller and more useful bits of hydrocarbons using high pressures and
temperatures.
• Alkane can be prepared from alkene and alkyne through addition of H 2 gas or
the process called hydrogenation.
• Alkenes are generally prepared through dehydration of an alcohol or removal
of water from an alcohol compound.
• Alcohols are usually obtained by the net addition of water across the double
bond of an alkene.
• Esters are produced when carboxylic acids are heated with alcohols in the
presence of a catalyst, specifically an acid, .in the process called esterification.
• The oxidation of primary alcohols is a common method for the synthesis of
carboxylic acids which requires a strong oxidizing agent.
5
Multiple Choice
Direction: Answer the questions that follow. Choose the best letter among the given
choices for each item.
1. The organic starting materials for the preparation of an ester could be_________
A. an acid and alcohol C. a ketone and alcohol
B. water and oxygen D. alkane and aldehyde
2. What is the product of the following reaction?
A. ester C. alcohol
B. aldehyde D. alkyne
3. Which type of alcohols where the carbon atom of the hydroxyl group (OH) is attached to
only one single hydrocarbon or R group?
A. tertiary C. secondary
B. primary D. none
4.Which of the following is likely to be the main product when an alkane is subjected to high
heat and pressure?
A. alcohol C. alkane
B. ester D. amine
5. What is the product of the following reaction?

A. ester C. alcohol
B. aldehyde D. alkyne
6.Which of the following best describes the reaction?
7.What is the best condition and reagent for the following reaction?
A. H2O, H+ C. Cl2, H2O

B. H2, Ni D. HBr, H2O2
8. A primary alcohol is converted to a carboxylic acid in the process called _________.

9. What is used to speed up a reaction?

A. catalyst C. alkane
B. amine D. ester
10.Which reagent is needed to change an alkyne to an alkane?

A. H2, catalyst C. ether
B. base D. water
Key to Answers

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1. Please be aware that there will be another set of students

CONTROL NO: ___________________

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

Published by the Department of Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro

Development Team of the Module

Reviewers: Jean S. Macasero, EPS – Science

Illustrator and Layout Artist: April Sweet L. Tapayan, RCh.

Co-Chairpersons: Rowena H. Para-on, PhD

Printed in the Philippines by

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and reviewed

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

Pretest: MULTIPLE CHOICE:

2. Which quantum number indicates the relative size of an orbital?

3. Who are the founding fathers of Quantum Mechanics?

4. Which of the following combinations is allowed?

6. Which of the following symbolizes the spin of an electron?

7. How many types of quantum numbers?

8. What does the magnetic quantum number describe?

10. What does the quantum mechanical model describes electrons?

Figure 1. Bohr’s Model (Electron in orbit) Figure 2. Quantum Mechanics

According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, it is impossible to determine

Activity 1: Fact or Bluff

The Four Quantum Numbers

Table 1. Quantum numbers and their possible values

1. Principal Quantum Number

2. Angular/Azimuthal Quantum Number

3. Magnetic Quantum Number

4. Spin Quantum Number

Individual electrons within an orbital has a property represented by the spin

Figure 3. Representation of the Spin Quantum Number values

Pauli Exclusion Principle:

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

What’s More (A)

Activity 2.1: Let’s test your understanding!

3. n=2, ℓ =1, ml= -1, ms= +1/2

4. n=3, ℓ =1, ml=-3, ms= -1/2

5. n=1, ℓ =1, ml= +1, ms= -1/2

What Have I Learned

Electron Name: Special Skill:

1. What is the importance of understanding the role of quantum numbers in

3. Why is it important to be aware of your location and surroundings?

1. Which quantum number indicates the relative size of an orbital?

2. Which of the following combinations is allowed?

3. Which of the following symbolizes the spin of an electron?

4. What does the magnetic quantum number describe?

5. What does the quantum mechanical model describes electrons?

7. Who are the founding fathers of Quantum Mechanics?

9. How many types of quantum numbers?

Image Source: https://bit.ly/3g9QjgY

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

Published by the Department of Education – Division of Cagayan de Oro

Development Team of the Module

Reviewers: Jean S. Macasero, EPS – Science

Illustrator and Layout Artist: April Sweet L. Tapayan, RCh.

Co-Chairpersons: Rowena H. Para-on, PhD

Printed in the Philippines by

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and reviewed

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

Pretest: MULTIPLE CHOICE:

2. Which quantum number indicates the relative size of an orbital?