CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Drying is a mass transfer process that involves the removal of water or another solvent by
evaporation or application of heat to a solid, semi solid or liquid. For drying, so defined, to
take place, the moist material must contain heat from its surroundings by convection,
radiation or conduction, or by internal generation such as dielectric or inductive heating, the
moisture in the body (solid) evaporates (Keey, 1992).

Conventionally, drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food with the aid of the
sun, wind or fire, but new generation drying involves the removal of moisture from any
material what so ever so as not to affect unit operations of plants or the material itself (Naseer
et al., 2013).

Drying also denotes the separation of volatile liquids from solid materials by vaporizing the
liquid, reducing its moisture content and then removing the vapor. The liquid that is to be
removed is usually water, but it could also be a solvent such as alcohol or acetone, or a
mixture of such solvents. The solid material that is to be dried can be a natural product, a
semi-finished or finished product such as wood, paper and so on. It is important to also note
that these materials are poor conductors of heat (Valarmathi et al., 2017).

Drying can be termed as a thermal separation process. The material to be dried is called the
solid or moist solid, the substance that carries the necessary heat or the source of heat is
called the heating agent and the moisture removed is called the moisture content of the
material (Keey, 1992).

Moisture content can be evaluated using:

weight of liquid
1.1
weight of dry sand

According to Subrahmanyam, 2014, all solid materials have a certain equilibrium moisture
content when in contact with air at a particular temperature and humidity. If the temperature
or humidity of the air is subsequently changed, then moisture is exchanged until the new

1
equilibrium value is reached. As such, the composition of the material, temperature as well as
humidity have to be noted and controlled to prevent over heating and hence damage of the
heated material.

The IICRC proposing that there are four principles for drying a material: removal of standing
water, evaporation through air movement, dehumidification and temperature control.

1.2 Aim and Objective

The primary aim of this experiment is to produce drying and drying rate curves for a wet
solid being dried with air of fixed temperature and humidity

1.3 Significance of Study

The study of drying as a thermal separation process is significant in so many ways, some of
which include:

1. To prevent damage of equipment (corrosion).

2. To prevent explosion or poisoning of products as a result of high-water content.
3. It helps in the design of unit operations in process plants.
4. Drying curbs the growth of microorganisms in some solids or substances.
5. Drying reduces costs of production in terms of packaging, processing and
transportation.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Drying

Drying is a simple separation technique commonly used for solid-liquid mixtures. It involves
the use of thermal energy to reduce if not completely remove all moisture or solvents in a
body or solid (Keey, 1992).

Once contact is made between the wet solid and a drying agent or source of heat, the
temperature of the solid will adjust until it reaches a steady state. The solid temperature and
the rate of drying may increase or decrease to reach this steady state condition. At steady
state, the temperature of the wet solid is the temperature of the drying agent as it gradually
attains this point. Once the temperature of the wet solid is equal to the temperature of the
drying agent, the drying rate remains constant. At this constant drying rate period the solid
reaches its critical moisture content and it is said that when this happens drying ends. Beyond
this point, the surface temperature of the solid rises and the drying rate falls off rapidly
(Manual, 2022)

2.2 Drying Techniques

In dealing with any material for the removal of water, the method to use in drying differs with
respect to the type of material to be dried, safety as well as cost. Some of these techniques are
listed and explained below:

2.2.1 Sun/Solar Drying

Solar drying uses the sun as the heat source or drying agent. It is a natural method of drying
depending heavily on atmospheric conditions which could either speed up the drying process
or slow down and sometimes have no effect on the drying process (Valarmathi et al., 2017).
Figure 2.1 below is a simple illustration of sun drying.

2.2.2 Oven Drying

Ovens are electronic devices used as a dehydrator. By combining the factors of heat, low
humidity and air flow, an oven can be used as a dehydrator. An oven is an ideal drying

3
technique. This is because it offers steady control and monitoring of the entire drying process
(Valarmathi et al., 2017). Figure 2.2 below is a typical example of an oven.

2.2.3 Contact Drying

This drying method consists of drying a product by putting it in contact with heated walls.
Most of the time the drying happens in rotating drums for a better homogeneity. This
technology is mostly used in heavy industry drying processes. However, the direct contact of
the product with the hot walls can lead to the denaturation of the dried product, and the
process homogeneity is not guaranteed (Valarmathi et al., 2017). Figure 2.3 is a simple
illustration of contact drying.

2.2.4 Di electric Drying

Di electric drying involves drying by microwaves and radio frequency. It involves heating the
entire volume of the product simultaneously, it is particularly recommended in applications
where homogeneous and gentle drying is required. This solution is the most adapted for
drying heat-sensitive products in the food, industrial and medical field, to preserve all of their
properties (Valarmathi et al., 2017). Figure 2.4 is an example of a dielectric drying process.

Other drying techniques include freeze drying, fluidized drying, infrared drying and so on.

Figure 2.1: Sun drying

4
Figure 2.2: Oven drying

Figure 2.3: Contact drying

Figure 2.4: Dielectric drying

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2.3 Factors that affect the rate of drying

The rate of drying is simply the loss of moisture with time. It is affected by a number of
factors which could either increase or decrease the drying rate of a material. They include:

1. Temperature: Temperature is most important factor that affects the drying rate. At
high temperature, the drying rate increases likewise at low temperature, the drying
rate slows down. Hence, there exist a directly proportional relationship between
temperature and drying rate.
2. Relative humidity: Unlike temperature, relative humidity has an inversely
proportional relationship with drying rate. The lower the relative humidity, the faster
the drying and the higher the relative humidity the slower the drying rate. It also
important to note that at high temperature, the relative humidity is low.
3. Composition of the material: the properties of a material or what the material to
undergo drying is made up of has a great effect on the drying rate. For materials like
solids which are tightly packed, the drying rate is faster compared to materials made
of liquids.
4. Moisture content of the material: the actual moisture content of the wet material to
undergo drying affects the drying rate. If the moisture content is high, it will take a
longer time to get dried up unlike when the moisture content is considerably lower.

Source: http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=17082

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials

The materials used in carrying out this experiment include:

1. Water
2. Sand

3.2 Apparatus

The apparatus used in this experiment are:

1. Oven: an electronic device which generates heat that reduces moisture content. Fig
3.1 below is a diagram of the oven used.
2. Weigh balance: this is an equipment used to determine the quantity (mass) of sand. As
shown in Fig 3.2.
3. Beaker: a cylindrical laboratory glass ware. It is used to hold the quantity of water as
well as sand. A typical example is Fig 3.3 below.
4. Spatula: a laboratory equipment used to mix the sand and water. A diagram of a
spatula is shown in Fig 3.4.
5. Stop watch: This is a time piece that is used to indicate or measure the amount of time
elapsed between weighing of dried sand. Fig 3.5 below is a diagram of a stop watch.

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Table 3.1: Apparatus Used during the Experimentation

S/No Apparatus Model

1 Oven ABUAD, chemical engineering department

laboratory equipment

2 Weigh balance ABUAD, chemical engineering department

laboratory equipment.

3 Beaker ABUAD, chemical engineering department

laboratory equipment.

4 Spatula ABUAD, chemical engineering department

laboratory equipment.

5 Stop watch ABUAD, chemical engineering department

laboratory equipment.

3.3 Diagrams

Figure 3.1: Oven

8
Figure 3.2: Weigh balance

Figure 3.3: Beaker

Figure 3.4: Spatula

Figure 3.5: Stop watch

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3.4 Procedures

1. An empty beaker was cleaned and dried.

2. Then the weight of the empty beaker was weighed with the use of the weigh balance
and the value was taken note of.
3. Then 500g of sand was weighed.
4. To the 500g of sand, water was added, this mixture was stirred.
5. Then the excess water was removed from the surface and the wet sand was weighed
and recorded.
6. The tray of the oven was weighed and its weight recorded.
7. Then the wet sand was then spread out across the tray of the oven and the weight of
the tray and wet sand was weighed.
8. The tray of wet sand was then placed into an oven and at an interval of 5minutes the
weight of the wet sand was weighed.
9. This was done until there was a negligible change in the weight of the wet sand.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Results

Weight of empty beaker = 174.64g

Weight of sand + empty beaker = 674.64g

Weight of dry sand = 500g = 0.500kg

Weight of wet sand + beaker = 767.14g

Weight of wet sand = 592.5g

Weight of empty tray = 333.27g

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Table 4.1: Table of Results obtained

S/ Time Weight of wet Weight of wet Moisture Drying rate

No (min) sand (g) sand (kg) content (Kg.h-1m-2)
(X1E)

1 0 586.99 0.5870 0.1740 0.000

2 5 580.93 0.5809 0.1618 0.313

3 10 572.53 0.5725 0.1450 0.209

4 15 563.13 0.5631 0.1262 0.174

5 20 552.48 0.5525 0.1050 0.130

6 25 540.53 0.5405 0.081 0.125

7 30 527.28 0.5273 0.0546 0.113

8 35 512.33 0.5123 0.0246 0.112

9 40 500.30 0.5003 0.0006 0.085

Figure 4.1: Plot of Moisture Content versus Time

Moisture content Vs Time

0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
Moisture Content

0.12
0.1 mc
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time

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Figure 4.2: Plot of Drying rate versus Moisture Content

Drying rate Vs Moisture Content

0.35

0.3

0.25
Drying rate

0.2
t
0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Moisture content

4.2 Discussion of Results

After successfully carrying out the experiment by accurately following the methodology, the
results above were obtained. From the data above, it is clear with an increase in time, the
moisture content reduces because the sand is exposed to more heat with time. Also, from the
graphs plotted, it shows that the moisture content and drying rate decreased as time increased.
After 40 minutes of the experiment, there was no change in weight of wet sand as the water
in the sand cannot be removed because equilibrium with the solid has been achieved.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Following the successful completion of this study and careful examination of the results
obtained it is concluded that time has an inversely proportional relationship with the moisture
content of the wet sand because as time increased the moisture content reduced. Also, the
drying rate and the moisture content reduces with time.

5.2 Recommendation

In view of the success of this experiment, a couple of recommendations are made to further
enhance a more accurate result. These recommendations include:

1. To ensure the full participation of all students more experimental set ups are required.
2. the laboratory should be well ventilated to ensure that warm moist air discharged from
the drier does not affect the original inlet conditions over the period of the
experiment.
3. The appropriate safety PPE should be used when conducting the experiment.
4. Errors such as parallax, zero and random errors should be avoided when taking any
reading from any measuring device.

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 REFERENCES

1. Keey, R.B. (1992). Drying of Loose and Particulate Materials. 110-115.

2. Naseer, A., Singh, J., Harmeet, C., Gupta, P. and Harleen, K. (2013). Different Drying
Methods: Their Applications and Recent Advances. 36-51.
3. Valarmathi, T.N., Sekar, S., Purushothaman, M, Sekar, S.D., Reddy, M. and Reddy,
N.K. (2017). Recent Developments in drying of Products. 1-6.
4. http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=17082.
5. Manual (2022) Chemical Engineering Laboratory Manual.

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 APPENDICES

Weight of empty beaker = 174.64g

Weight of sand + empty beaker = 674.64g

Weight of dry sand = 500g = 0.500kg

Weight of wet sand + beaker = 767.14g

Weight of wet sand = 592.5g

Weight of empty tray = 333.27g

Weight of wet sand = weight of wet sand+tray – weight of empty tray

Weight of wet sand at 0min = 920.26-333.27=586.99g= 586.99/1000 = 0.587kg

Weight of wet sand at 5min = 914.20-333.27=580.93g= 580.93/1000 = 0.5809kg

Weight of wet sand at 10min = 905.80-333.27=572.53g= 572.53/1000 = 0.5725kg

Weight of wet sand at 15min = 896.40-333.27=563.13g= 563.13/1000 = 0.5631kg

Weight of wet sand at 20min = 885.75-333.27=552.48g= 552.48/1000 = 0.5525kg

Weight of wet sand at 25min = 873.80-333.27=540.53g= 540.53/1000 = 0.5405kg

Weight of wet sand at 30min = 860.55-333.27=527.28g= 527.28/1000 = 0.5273kg

Weight of wet sand at 35min = 845.60-333.27=512.33g= 512.33/1000 = 0.5123kg

Weight of wet sand at 40min = 833.30-333.37=500.3g= 500.3/1000 = 0.5000kg

weight of liquid weight of wet sand −weight of dry sand

Moisture content X1E = =
weight of dry sand weight of dry sand

0.587−0.500
X1E at 0 min= = 0.1740
0.500

0.5809−0.500
X1E at 5min= = 0.1618
0.500

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 0.5725−0.500
X1E at 10min= = 0.1450
0.500

0.5631−0.500
X1E at 15min= = 0.1262
0.500

0.5525−0.500
X1E at 20min= = 0.1050
0.500

0.5405−0.500
X1E at 25min= = 0.0810
0.500

0.5273−0.500
X1E at 30min= = 0.0546
0.500

0.5123−0.500
X1E at 35min= = 0.0246
0.500

0.50003−0.5000
X1E at 40min= = 0.0006
0.500

Drying Rate:

Drying rate = S/A x ΔX/ΔT

S = weight of dry sand = 0.5kg

A = area =0.23

Drying rate at 0 min = 0.00

Drying rate at 5 mins = (0.5/23) x (0.174-0.162)/(5/60) = 0.3130 Kg.h-1m-2

Drying rate at 10 mins = (0.5/23) x (0.162-0.146)/(10/60) = 0.209 Kg.h-1m-2

Drying rate at 15 mins = (0.5/23) x (0.146-0.126)/(15/60) = 0.174 Kg.h-1m-2

Drying rate at 20 mins = (0.5/23) x (0.126-0.106)/(20/60) = 0.130 Kg.h-1m-2

Drying rate at 25 mins = (0.5/23) x (0.106-0.082)/(25/60) = 0.125 Kg.h-1m-2

Drying rate at 30 mins = (0.5/23) x (0.082-0.056)/(30/60) = 0.113 Kg.h-1m-2

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Drying rate at 35 mins = (0.5/23) x (0.056-0.026)/(35/60) = 0.112 Kg.h-1m-2

Drying rate at 40 mins = (0.5/23) x (0.026-0.000)/(40/60) = 0.085 Kg.h-1m-2

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