Complex Analysis

PYL553
Multiplication and division in Polar Form
• 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

• 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃

• 𝑓 𝜃 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 , 𝑓 ′ 𝜃 = 𝑟 −sin 𝜃 + 𝑖 cos 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑓(𝜃)

𝑑𝑓(𝜃)
• Thus we have the differential equation = 𝑖𝑓(𝜃)
𝑑𝜃
 𝑑𝑓(𝜃)
• = 𝑖 𝑑𝜃, ln 𝑓 𝜃 = 𝑖𝜃 + 𝐶
𝑓(𝜃)

• 𝜃 = 0 , 𝑓 0 = 1, then we have ln 1 = 𝑖 0 + 𝐶, 𝐶=0

• 𝑓 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃

• 𝑓 𝜃 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ,
• 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖 𝜃1 +𝜃2
= 𝑟3 cos 𝜃3 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃3 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟3 =
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃3 = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2

• 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2

• arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = arg 𝑧1 + arg 𝑧2

−1 𝑦 −1 𝑟3 sin 𝜃3
• arg 𝑧1 𝑧2 = tan = tan = 𝜃3 = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = arg 𝑧1 + arg 𝑧2
𝑥 𝑟3 cos 𝜃3
 𝑧1 𝑟1 𝑖 𝜃 −𝜃 𝑟1
• Division = 𝑒 1 2 = 𝑟4 cos 𝜃4 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃4 , 𝑟4 = 𝜃4 = 𝜃1 −
𝑧2 𝑟2 𝑟2
𝜃2

𝑧1 𝑟1 𝑧1
• = =
𝑧2 𝑟2 𝑧2

𝑧1 −1 sin 𝜃4
• arg = tan = 𝜃4 = 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = arg 𝑧1 − arg 𝑧2
𝑧2 cos 𝜃4
Uses of de Moivre’s theorem
𝑖𝜃 𝑛
• 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃

• Trigonometric identities

3
• cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

• = cos3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑖 3 sin 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 − sin3 𝜃

• cos 3𝜃 = cos3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 = cos3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 1 − cos2 𝜃 =
4 cos3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃

• sin 3𝜃 = 3 sin 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 − sin3 𝜃 = 3 sin 𝜃 − 4 sin3 𝜃

1
• For a n other system, we can write 𝑧𝑛 + = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
𝑧𝑛
 1
• 𝑧𝑛 + = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝑛 + cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 −𝑛
𝑧𝑛

• = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 + cos(−𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−𝑛𝜃)

• = 2cos 𝑛𝜃

1
• Similarly we can prove 𝑧𝑛 − = 2𝑖 sin(𝑛𝜃)
𝑧𝑛
 1
• 𝑛 = 1, 𝑧 + = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃
𝑧

1
• 𝑧 − = 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑧

3 1 1 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 1
• cos 𝜃 = 𝑧+ = 𝑧 + 3𝑧 + + = 𝑧 + 3 +
8 𝑧 8 𝑧 𝑧3 8 𝑧
3 1
𝑧 + =
8 𝑧
 1
• we know that 𝑧𝑛 + 𝑛 = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
𝑧

1 3
• cos3 𝜃 = cos 3𝜃 + cos 𝜃
4 4

• We can thus write down the relation for any larger values of 𝑛.
Find the nth root of unity
• 𝑧 2 = 1 has the familiar solution 𝑧 = ±1.

• 𝑧 𝑛 = 1 what will be solution

2𝑖𝑘𝜋
• 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑒 2𝑖𝑘𝜋 where 𝑘 is an integer. Thus we have 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑛

2𝑖𝜋 2𝑖 𝑛−1 𝜋
• 𝑧1,2,…𝑛 = 1, 𝑒 𝑛 ,⋯𝑒 𝑛
 2𝑖𝜋 4𝑖𝜋
• For example 𝑧 3 = 1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 𝑒 3 , 𝑧3 = 𝑒 3

6𝑖𝜋
• Also the next solution 𝑧4 = 𝑒 3 = 1 = 𝑧1 as there are only three
separate solution.