Non traditional machining processes

1
High-Energy-Beam Machining
• Laser-beam machining (LBM)
• Electron-beam machining (EBM)
• Ion-beam machining (IBM)
• Plasma-beam machining (PBM)

2
 Laser beam machining (LBM)
▪ Laser beam machining (LBM) is one of the most widely used thermal energy based
non-contact type advance machining process which can be applied for almost whole
range of materials.
▪ Laser beam machining is a technology that uses a laser beam which is a narrow beam
of intense monochromatic light to cut required shapes of profile or pattern in almost
all types of materials. 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
▪ That means from foam to the hardest diamond can be cut using this laser beam
machining.
▪ Some of the examples of cutting this with this process include metals, ceramics, food
products, leather, etc.
▪ In this process the output of a high power laser beam is directed in a CNC
programmed manner towards the material required to be cut.
▪ The high amount of heat thus generated either melts or burns or vaporizes away the
material at the focused zone.

Somashekara M A
 Laser beam machining (LBM)
▪ The process can be used to make precise holes in thin sheets, materials and variety of
fields.
▪ The fields where laser beam has been successfully used are cloth and plastic cutting,
marking, welding, drilling, cleaning and surface treatment.
▪ As laser interacts with the material the energy of the photon is absorbed by the work
material leading to rapid substantial rise
𝐴 =in𝜋𝑟
local
2 temperature.
▪ This in turn results in melting and vaporization of the work material and finally, the
material gets removed.
▪ It is suitable for geometrically complex profile cutting and making miniature holes in
sheet metal. Among various type of lasers used for machining in industries, CO2 and
Nd:YAG lasers are most established.

Somashekara M A
 Laser beam machining (LBM)
▪ A laser comprises three principal components, namely, the lasing medium, means of
exciting the lasing medium into its amplifying state (lasing energy source), and optical
delivery/feed back system.
▪ Additional provisions of cooling the mirrors, guiding the beam and manipulating the
target are also important. The laser medium may be a solid (e.g. Nd:YAG or
neodymium doped yttrium–aluminium–garnet),
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 liquid (dye) or gas (e.g. CO2, He, Ne)

Somashekara M A
 How laser is being produced?
▪ Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
▪ When an atom absorbs a quantum of energy from an external source which is usually a
light source, the orbital electron of an atom jumps to a higher energy level.
▪ The electron later drop to it is original low energy orbit and emits the absorbed energy.
▪ If the electron which is already at high energy level absorbs the second quantum of
energy, it emits two quanta of energy and𝐴after
= 𝜋𝑟 2emitting the energy it returns back to its
original orbit.

Somashekara M A
 How laser is being produced?
▪ The energy that is radiated has the same wave length
as the stimulating energy.
▪ The laser material when placed in an optical cavity
and exposed to light, it keeps storing the energy.
▪ Light is nothing but a form of energy that excites the
elements of the material which is 𝐴called = 𝜋𝑟 2 lasing
material.
▪ The energy initially builds up in the lasing material
which is also called lasent. The energy then finally,
gets emitted in the form of a highly amplified light
beam.

Somashekara M A
 How laser is being produced?
▪ The energy that is radiated has the same wave length
as the stimulating energy.
▪ The laser material when placed in an optical cavity
and exposed to light, it keeps storing the energy.
▪ Light is nothing but a form of energy that excites the
elements of the material which is 𝐴called = 𝜋𝑟 2 lasing
material.
▪ The energy initially builds up in the lasing material
which is also called lasent. The energy then finally,
gets emitted in the form of a highly amplified light
beam.

Somashekara M A
▪ The elements of the lasing material is in the ground state usually before the excitation is employed
to it.
▪ Then when excited the outer orbital electrons, the electrons gains energy and it is moved to a
further energy level state that is called excited state which has got higher energy, but then this
state is an unstable state and it comes down, it always tries to comes down to the lower energy
state.
▪ And therefore, this jumps to the next energy level2which can be a meta stable state and then to the
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟
again ground state.
▪ However, while in the excited state they have got higher energy and therefore, while coming back
to ground state they will have lower energy and this difference in energy is radiated at a particular
frequency and this is called the laser emission.
▪ These high energy electrons will come back to its low energy original orbits by emitting the
additional energy in the form of some radiation that is called laser or photon. And they will have
identical frequency and will be highly coherent.
▪ Different media used to stimulate the photons generate different wavelengths, but each type of
laser has specific wavelength
Somashekara M A
▪ In the case of carbon dioxide atoms which is a gas as we
all know and which is also a very good lasent material.
▪ And these carbon dioxide atoms, small atoms are excited
by some external energy sources say for example, flash
light which will be responsible for increasing the energy
= 𝜋𝑟 2
level of these CO2 atoms or carbon dioxide 𝐴atoms.
▪ Then these excited atoms at higher energy level will try to
come back to its original low energy state and thereby
while coming back to its original level it emits some
radiation. These radiations are successively reflected by a
particular mechanism of reflectors which thus amplifies
the radiated emission to a particular level.

Somashekara M A
▪ And then it is allowed to pass through a special
mechanism of partially reflecting mirror which will allow
some of the laser being reflected inside this cavity to
outside to be collected as laser beam. This beam will be
tapped and will be taken for doing some other work.
= 𝜋𝑟 2is being
▪ This is what exactly the principle, how a𝐴laser
produced.

Somashekara M A
 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

Somashekara M A
 Classification of Laser beam
Laser beams can be classified in two ways,
▪ Continuous mode and pulse mode.
▪ Continuous mode; this mode is generally preferred while cutting straight and mildly
contoured paths, cutting is the fastest.
▪ Pulse mode. This pulse mode is preferred for cutting thin materials as it enables tight
corners and intricate details to be cut without
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 excessive burning.
▪ Continuous beam looks like that means the
meaning is it will have continuously at the same
energy output.
▪ Whereas in pulse mode there will
be a spike or discrete energy pulses as output,
means for few microseconds

Continuous mode and pulse mode

Somashekara M A
 Gas lasers
▪ The generally used gas lasers are,
carbon dioxide laser,
helium neon laser and
argon laser etc.
▪ Wavelength of 10.6 micrometer and they can provide power up to 100 kilowatt.
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
▪ They are preferred in most of the industrial applications where high power is
required.
▪ The carbon dioxide laser is more powerful among all lasers and is primarily used for
cutting and for filing. It is capable of cutting up to 25 millimeter thick carbon sheets.

Somashekara M A
 Solid state lasers
▪ The solid state lasers are obtained in different forms like ruby lasers.
▪ Ruby (chromium alumina alloy ) wavelength of 0.7 micrometer.
▪ neodymium glass lasers which has got the wave length of 1.64 micrometer.
▪ Nd YAG lasers also called neodymium yttrium aluminum garnet laser and wavelength
of 1.06 micrometer.
2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟
▪ Nd YAG laser is another very popular layer in industrial applications. This Nd YAG
lasers have wavelengths of 1064 nano meters and it can provide powers up to 5
kilowatts.

Somashekara M A
 Material removal rate
▪ The focal point of the laser is intentionally focused onto the surface of the workpiece
for providing the heat in a concentric manner.
▪ Due to the striking of laser beam heat is generated at the work piece surface, as a
result the material vaporizes instantly producing a kerf in the material.
▪ The movement of the machine axis is through the computer control which helps to
achieve the required profiles on the work𝐴 =piece.
𝜋𝑟 2
▪ Heat affected zone is minimal in laser as compared
to flame cutting.

Schematic of laser cutting unit

Somashekara M A
 Material removal rate
▪ The focal point of the laser is intentionally focused onto the surface of the workpiece
for providing the heat in a concentric manner.
▪ Due to the striking of laser beam heat is generated at the work piece surface, as a
result the material vaporizes instantly producing a kerf in the material.
▪ The movement of the machine axis is through the computer control which helps to
achieve the required profiles on the work𝐴 =piece.
𝜋𝑟 2
▪ Heat affected zone is minimal in laser as compared
to flame cutting.
▪ This is another schematic of how the laser is being
produced. Spiral red element is responsible for the
additional energy which is in the form of a flash lamp.

Schematic of laser cutting unit

Somashekara M A
▪ To clear the molten metal that has not yet vaporized or clogged on the surface of the
workpiece, an assist gas is used.
▪ The use of different assist gases with different work materials is given in table
Material Gases
Mild steel Oxygen
2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟
Stainless steel Oxygen or nitrogen leaves an oxide
free edge that can improve
weldability
Aluminum Nitrogen

Titanium Argon (an inert gas because of its

reactivity)
Nonmetals Air or inert gas

Somashekara M A
Advantages of LBM
▪ Laser beam machining has the ability to cut almost all materials which is very
significant irrespective of its physical property or the hardness.
▪ No limit to cutting paths as the laser point can be moved in any path by suitable
computer numerical control technology.
▪ No cutting lubricants are required as we 𝐴=have
𝜋𝑟 2already talked about.
▪ There is no physical contact between the tool and the work piece.
▪ The contact is through electromagnetic radiation or the beam of light.
Limitation,
▪ Laser processes involve high capital investments and high operation costs
▪ Laser holes are taper to some extent
▪ It cannot drill blind holes to precise
▪ Reflected laser lights can lead to safety hazards

Somashekara M A
 Electron-beam machining
2
(EBM)
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟

Somashekara M A
 Electron-beam machining (EBM)
▪ This machining process works on basic principle
of conversion of kinetic energy of electron into
heat energy.
▪ When a high speed electron impinges on a work
piece, they convert its kinetic energy into heat
energy. 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
▪ This heat energy used to vaporize material at
contact surface.
▪ This process is carried out in vacuum otherwise
the electron will collide with air particle and
loses its energy before impinging on work
material.
▪ Thus the workpiece to be machined is located
under the electron beam and is kept under
vacuum.
Somashekara M A
 Electron-beam machining (EBM)
▪ Electron beam gun are to generate free electrons at the cathode
(tungsten or tantalum), accelerate them to a sufficiently high
velocity and to focus them over a small spot size.
▪ Such cathode filaments are heated, often inductively, to a
temperature of around 2500C.
▪ Such heating leads to thermo-ionic emission of electrons, which
= 𝜋𝑟 2 the
is further enhanced by maintaining very low vacuum𝐴within
chamber of the electron beam gun.
▪ Just after the cathode, there is an annular bias grid. A high
negative bias is applied to this grid so that the electrons
generated by this cathode do not diverge and approach the next
element, the annular anode, in the form of a beam.
▪ The annular anode now attracts the electron beam and
gradually gets accelerated. As they leave the anode section,
the electrons may achieve a velocity as high as half the
velocity of light.

Somashekara M A
▪ After the anode, the electron beam passes through a series of
magnetic lenses and apertures.
▪ The magnetic lenses shape the beam and try to reduce the
divergence.
▪ Apertures on the other hand allow only the convergent electrons
to pass and capture the divergent low energy electrons from the
fringes. 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
▪ This way, the aperture and the magnetic lenses improve the
quality of the electron beam.
▪ Then the electron beam passes through the final section of the
electromagnetic lens and deflection coil.
▪ The electromagnetic lens focuses the electron beam to a desired
spot. The deflection coil can manoeuvre the electron beam, though
by small amount, to improve shape of the machined holes.
▪ The high intense electron beam impinges on the work piece where
kinetic energy of electrons convert into thermal energy.

Somashekara M A
▪ The entire process occurs in a
vacuum chamber because a
collision between an electron and
an air molecule causes the electrons
to veer off course.
▪ LBM doesn’t need vacuum because 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
the size and mass of a photon is
numerous times smaller than the
size of an electron.

Somashekara M A
Pros,
▪ It can be used for produce very small size hole in any shape.
▪ It can machining any material irrespective its hardness and other mechanical properties.
▪ It provides good surface finish. No any surface finishing process is require after EBM.
▪ Highly reacting material can be machine easily because machining is done under vacuum.
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
Cons,
▪ High capital cost.
▪ High skill operator required.
▪ Low material removal rate.
▪ Regular maintenance is required
▪ Material removal rate is very low compare to other conventional process.
▪ It is difficult to produce perfect vacuum.

Somashekara M A
 Ion beam Machining (IBM)
▪ Ion Beam Machining (IBM): molecular
manufacturing process based on the sputtering off
phenomenon.
▪ Material removal takes place in the form of removal
of atom or molecule from the surface of the work-
piece.
▪ In IBM a stream of charged atoms (ions) of an inert
2
gas, such as argon, is accelerated in a vacuum by 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟
high energies and directed toward a solid
workpiece.
▪ The beam removes atoms from the workpiece by
transferring energy and momentum to atoms on the
surface of the object.
▪ When an atom strikes a cluster of atoms on the
workpiece, it dislodges between 0.1 and 10 atoms
from the workpiece material.

Somashekara M A
 Ion beam Machining (IBM)
▪ IBM permits the accurate machining of virtually any material and is
used in the semiconductor industry and in the manufacture of
aspheric lenses.
▪ The processes can be applied to the manufacturing of ultra-fine
precision parts of electronic and mechanical devices.
Applications,
▪ Fabrication of variety of sensors 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
▪ Nano-technology
▪ Nano-machining/ultramachining

Somashekara M A
 Ion beam Machining (IBM)

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

Somashekara M A
 Plasma Beam Machining (PBM)
▪ At room temperature, gases generally are made up
of molecules, usually consisting of 2or more atoms.
▪ If gas temperature is heated to around 2000C, the
molecules will dissociate into separate atoms.
▪ If the temperature is further raised to around
3000C, electrons from some atoms will be 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
displaced.
▪ Atoms are ionised (electrically charged). In this
condition, the gas is termed a plasma.
▪ As the gas comes in contact with the plasma, there
is a collision between the atoms of a gas and
electrons of an electric arc and as a result, we get
an ionised gas. That, means we get the plasma state
that we wanted for Plasma Arc machining

Somashekara M A
 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

Somashekara M A
 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

Variation in energy density with spot diameter of thermal beam processes

Somashekara M A
 Thank you
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

Somashekara M A