10 Lecture

Discrete Mathematics
Lecture 10 - Planar Graphs and Colorings

(Last Lecture)
Nurlan Ismailov
nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz
Astana IT University
June 8, 2020
Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

(Astana IT University)
Lecture 10 - Planar Graphs and June
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(Last Lecture)
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Planar Graphs
The Three Houses -Three Utilities posed in Lecture 8 (Chapter 9) asks

whether it is possible to draw the complete bipartite graph K3,3 without any
crossovers of edges.
The graph K3,3 representing three houses and three utilities.
In the language of graph theory, the problem asks if K3,3 is planar.
Definition
A graph is planar if it can be drawn in the plane in such a way that no two
edges cross.

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In this lecture we find it convenient to refer to a picture of a graph in which
there are no crossovers of edges as a plane graph.
Thus, a planar graph is one that can be drawn as a plane graph.
For instance, there are five places where edges in the graph G cross;
v1 v5
v2 v4
v3

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Nevertheless, G is planar
because it can be drawn as a plane,
as shown in picture.
The next picture shows G with all

edges drawn as straight
line segments.
In fact, this is possible for

any planar graphs and so we lose no
generality if planar graphs are drawn
as plane graphs with straight edges.

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Region
A plane graph divides the plane into various connected regions, one of which is
called exterior region. Every region, including the exterior, is bounded by
edges.
The graph in the

picture divides
the plane into six regions,
R6 being the exterior region.
The boundary of R2 ,
for example consists of the
edges v1 v3 , v3 v4 and v4 v1 .
The boundary of R6 is
v2 v4 , v4 v5 , and v5 v2 .

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connected planar G ⇒ |vertices|-|edges|+|regions|=2
Theorem (Euler, 1752)

Let G be a connected plane graph with sets of vertices V , edges E and regions
R. Then
|V | − |E| + |R| = 2.
Proof. We use induction on |E|. If |E| = 0, then |V | = |R| = 1 (Why?) and

the formula is true. Now assume the formula holds for connected plane graphs
with |E| − 1 edges, where |E| ≥ 1, and that G is a connected plane graph with
|E| edges, |V | vertices, and |R| regions. We must show that
|V | − |E| + |R| = 2. If G contains no cycles, then G is a tree (Chapter 12), and
so |E| = |V | − 1 by Theorem 12.1.6. Since |R| = 1, we have
|V | − |E| + |R| = |V | − (|V | − 1) + 1 = 2,
as desired. Suppose, on the other hand, that G does contain a cycle C and that
e is an edge of C. The subgraph G\{e} is a plane graph and connected, and
the region bounded by C disappears when e is removed. Thus G\{e} contains
|R| − 1 regions, all |V | vertices of G, and |E| − 1 edges. By the induction
hypothesis, |V | − (|E| − 1) + (|R| − 1) = 2; that is, |V | − |E| + |R| = 2.
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This is not necessarily true if “connected” is omitted from its statement.
Example
In the graph, |V | − |E| + |R| = 6 − 6 + 3 = 3.

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Return to the Three Houses - Three Utilities problem
We are now ready to solve the Three Houses - Three Utilities problem. It
turns out not to be possible to connect three houses to three utilities without
crossovers of connection lines.
Corollary
K3,3 is not planar.
Proof. We provide a proof by contradiction. The graph K3,3 has six vertices
and nine edges. If it is planar, it can be drawn as a plane graph with |R|
regions. Since |V | − |E| + |R| = 2, we have |R| = 5.
Now count the number of edges on the boundary of each region and sum over
all regions. Suppose the sum is N . Since K3,3 is bipartite, it contains no
triangles, so the boundary of each region contains at least four edges. Thus
N ≥ 4|R| = 20.
On the other hand, in the calculation of N , each edge was counted at most
twice, so
N ≤ 2|E| = 18.
This contradiction establishes the corollary.
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When is G planar?
The Polish mathematician Kazimierz Kuratowski (1896-1980) discovered the

crucial role played by K3,3 and K5 in determining whether a graph is planar.
First, since these graphs are not planar (why is K5 not planar?), no graph
contains either of them as a subgraph can be planar.
Second, any graph obtained from either K3,3 or K5 simply adding more
vertices to edges cannot be planar either.
Definition
Two graphs are homeomorphic if and only if each can be obtained from the
same graph adding vertices (necessarily of degree 2) to edges.

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Examples
1.
G1 G2 G
Two homeomorphic graphs obtained from G adding vertices to edges.
2.
G1 G2 G3
G1 is homeomorphic to G2 , but not to G3 .
Lecture 10 - Planar Graphs andJune
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A Criterion to be Planar
The following theorem characterizes planar graphs in a remarkably simple

way. The proof in one direction is straightforward and was given earlier. A
graph that contains K5 and K3,3 cannot be made planar by adding vertices to
edges. The proof of the converse is more complicated and will be omitted.
Theorem (Kuratowski)
A graph is planar if and only if it has no subgraph homeomorphic to K5 and
K3,3 .

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Example
The graph G in picture

is not planar. By deleting
two edges, we obtain
a subgraph S that is K3,3
except for one vertex (the
tiny one) added to an edge.
Since S is homeomorphic
to K3,3 , G is not planar
by Kuratowski’s Theorem.

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One more example
The graph on the left in

picture is not planar because
the subgraph shown on the
right is homeomorphic to K5 .
Notice, for example, that A
is adjacent to C and D, and,
except for immediate vertices
of degree 2, also to B and E.

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Coloring Graphs: The Four-Color Theorem
One of the most exciting mathematical developments of the twentieth century
was the proof, in 1976, of the Four-Color Theorem, which is easy to state and
understand, but whose proof had remained unsolved since 1852 when it was
first posed to his brother by Francis Guthrie. Guthrie had discovered that he
could color a map of the countries of England with only four colors in such
a way that each country had exactly one color and bordering countries had
different colors. He guessed that it was possible to color the countries have
different of any map with just four colors in such a way that bordering
countries have different colors.
It has long been known that five colors are enough (Theorem by A. Kempe
and P. Heawood), but for well over 100 years, whether one could make do with
just four colors was not known.
It turns out that four colors are indeed enough, but the proof, by Kenneth
Appel and Wolfgang Haken, occupies almost 140 pages of the Illinois Journal
of Mathematics and will not be presented here. It was the first major theorem
to be proved using a computer (with assistance of J. Koch and 1200 hours of
computer time).
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Examples of a four-colored map
United Kingdom
(not drawn here Northern Ireland)

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USA

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Russia

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World Map

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Kazakhstan
Unfortunately,
I could not find a map of Kazakhstan colored with at most four colors.
I would be very grateful if you could do it and send to me.

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A map and associated planar graph
Our goal here is to show how graph theory can be used to attack a coloring
problem.
In the textbook you can find a proof of the statement that any map can be
5-colored. (Chapter 13, Section 2, Theorem 13.2.4)
Our starting point is the observation that with any map we may associate a
planar graph whose vertices correspond to countries and where an edge joins
two vertices of the corresponding countries share a common border.

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Example
There are nine countries in the
map depicted in the figure above,
so the associated planar graph
has nine vertices. Since countries 5
and 6 share a border, vertices 5 and
6 are joined by an edge, and so on.
The point is that coloring

the countries of the map so that
countries with a common border
receive different colors is equivalent
to coloring the vertices of the
associated graph so that adjacent
vertices have different colors.
For example, the following
assignment of four colors to countries
(or vertices) in figure colors the map (and the graph) in the proper sense:
1-red; 2-blue; 3-green; 4-red; 5-green; 6-blue; 7-green; 8-red; 9-yellow.
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χ(G)
We formalize the notions we have been discussing.
Definition
A coloring of a graph is an assignment of colors to the vertices so that
adjacent vertices have different colors.
An n-coloring is a coloring with n colors.
The chromatic number of a graph G, denoted χ(G), is the minimum value
of n for which an n-coloring of G exists.

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Example
The
graph above has been colored with
three colors. Thus, its chromatic
number is at most 3. Since
it contains several triangles (the
vertices of which must be colored
differently), at least three colors are
required. Its chromatic number is 3.
The graph below

has been colored with four colors, so
for this graph G, χ(G) ≤ 4. Since G
contains K4 as a subgraph (consider
the graph determined by the vertices
v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 ) and since K4 requires
four colors, G cannot be colored with
less than four colors. For this graph then, χ(G) = 4

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Question
Suppose χ(G) = 1 for some graph G. What do you know about?
Answer: If G has an edge, its end vertices must be colored differently, so

χ(G) ≥ 2. Thus, χ(G) = 1 if and only if G has no edges.
Question
χ(Kn ) =?
Answer: χ(Kn ) = n, because any two vertices of Kn are adjacent.
Question
χ(Km,n ) =?
Answer: χ(Km,n ) = 2, coloring the vertices of each bipartition set the same
color produces a 2-coloring of Km,n .

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χ(G) ≤ 1 + 4(G)
Theorem (The Four-Color Theorem)
For any planar graph G, χ(G) ≤ 4.
Theorem
Let 4(G) be the maximum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph G. Then
χ(G) ≤ 1 + 4(G).
Proof. The proof is by induction on |V |, the number of vertices of the graph.

When |V | = 1, 4(G) = 0 and χ(G) = 1, so the result clearly holds. Now let k
be an integer, k ≥ 1, and assume that the result holds for all graphs with
|V | = k vertices. Suppose G is a graph k + 1 vertices. Let v be any vertex of
G, and let G0 = G\{v} be the subgraph with v (and all edges incident with it)
deleted. Note that 4(G0 ) ≤ 4(G). Now G0 can be colored with χ(G0 ) colors.
Since G0 has k vertices, we can use the induction hypothesis to conclude that
χ(G0 ) ≤ 1 + 4(G0 ). Thus, χ(G0 ) ≤ 1 + 4(G), so G0 can be colored with at
most 1 + 4(G) colors. Since there are at most 4(G) vertices adjacent to v, one
of the available 1 + 4(G) colors remains for v. Thus, G can be colored with at
most 1 + 4(G) colors.
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Examination Scheduling Problem
We conclude the lecture with an application of the idea of chromatic number
to a problem familiar to most university registrars, the scheduling of exams.
Task
Suppose that in one particular semester there are students taking each of the
following combinations of courses.
Mathematics, English, Biology, Chemistry
Mathematics, English, Computer Science, Geography
Biology, Psychology, Geography, Spanish
Biology, Computer Science, History, French
English, Psychology, History, Computer Science
Psychology, Chemistry, Computer Science, French
Psychology, Geography, History, Spanish
What is the minimum number of examination periods required for exams in
the ten courses specified so that students taking any of the given combinations
of courses have no conflicts? Find a possible schedule that uses this minimum
number of periods.
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Solution
To picture the situation, we draw a

graph with ten vertices labeled M, E, B, . . .
corresponding to Mathematics, English,
Biology, and so on, and join two vertices
with an edge if exams in the corresponding
subjects must not be scheduled together.
The minimal number of examination

periods is evidently the chromatic number
of this graph. What is this? Since the graph
contains K5 (with vertices M, E, B, G, CS),
at least five different colors are needed. (The exams in the subject that these
vertices represent must be scheduled at different times.) Five colors are not
enough, however, since P and H are adjacent to each other and to each of
E, B, G and CS. The chromatic number of the graph is, in fact, 6. In the
picture we show a 6-coloring.

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The corresponding exam schedule is the following.
Period 1 Mathematics, Psychology
Period 2 English, Spanish, French
Period 3 Biology
Period 4 Chemistry, Georaphy
Period 5 Computer Science
Period 6 History

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Questions for Self-Study
Show that K5 is not planar.
Is the Peterson graph planar?
For which n is Kn planar?
For which m and n is Km,n planar?
Let G1 and G2 be cycles with 38 and 107 edges, respectively. What is

χ(G1 )? What is χ(G2 ). Explain.
If χ(G) = 3, then G contains a triangle. Is it true or false? Explain.
If χ(G) = 4, then G contains a K4 . Is it true or false? Explain.

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The End of Lecture 10

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Discrete Mathematics

Lecture 10 - Planar Graphs and Colorings

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

The Three Houses -Three Utilities posed in Lecture 8 (Chapter 9) asks

The graph K3,3 representing three houses and three utilities.

In the language of graph theory, the problem asks if K3,3 is planar.

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Thus, a planar graph is one that can be drawn as a plane graph.

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

The next picture shows G with all

In fact, this is possible for

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

The graph in the

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Theorem (Euler, 1752)

Proof. We use induction on |E|. If |E| = 0, then |V | = |R| = 1 (Why?) and

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

The Polish mathematician Kazimierz Kuratowski (1896-1980) discovered the

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

The following theorem characterizes planar graphs in a remarkably simple

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

The graph G in picture

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

The graph on the left in

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

I would be very grateful if you could do it and send to me.

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

The point is that coloring

We formalize the notions we have been discussing.

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

The graph below

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Answer: If G has an edge, its end vertices must be colored differently, so

Answer: χ(Kn ) = n, because any two vertices of Kn are adjacent.

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Proof. The proof is by induction on |V |, the number of vertices of the graph.

To picture the situation, we draw a

The minimal number of examination

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Period 1 Mathematics, Psychology

Period 2 English, Spanish, French

Period 4 Chemistry, Georaphy

Period 5 Computer Science

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Show that K5 is not planar.

Is the Peterson graph planar?

For which n is Kn planar?

For which m and n is Km,n planar?

Let G1 and G2 be cycles with 38 and 107 edges, respectively. What is

If χ(G) = 3, then G contains a triangle. Is it true or false? Explain.

If χ(G) = 4, then G contains a K4 . Is it true or false? Explain.

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

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