•Probability and Statistics for Engineers; Walpole, Myer

and Myer, 9th edition.

Visualize Set Operations with Venn
Diagrams

Disjoint sets Joint sets. Overlap

Demorgan’s law
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶
 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶

A∩𝐵 𝐴∩𝐶 𝐵∩𝐶

 𝑩 𝑪

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 − 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 − 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 + (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
A∩𝐵∩𝐶 = 𝐴∩𝐵 − 𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶

𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶 = 𝐴∪𝐵∪𝐶
= 𝑆 − (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
Sample Space

A set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is known

as sample space
Random Experiment
Experiment is a physical activity that performed repeatedly any number of
times and always gets different results. Here we call result, as “OUTCOME”.
So random experiment has following properties.
1. Repeated any number of times.
2. Always have at least two possible outcomes.
3. Outcomes are unpredictable.
Examples:
Tossing of a single coin
Rolling of a dice
Draw a single card from a deck of playing cards.
Event
 The sub set of sample space known as event of that sample space S. It is
denoted by any capital letter A,B,C,..,X, Y, Z.
 Examples:
1. Sample space of rolling a dice is
Let A be event
A: odd numbers occurs
2. Sample space of drawing of a single card from a deck of playing cards

Event X : black color cards

Mutually Exclusive Events
 Two events are said to be mutually exclusive if their
intersection is equal to means that they can't
happen together at the same time.
 Examples:
 Turning left and turning right are Mutually Exclusive (you
can't do both at the same time)
 Tossing a coin: Heads and Tails are Mutually Exclusive
 Cards: Kings and Aces are Mutually Exclusive
 Rolling a dice: even and odd numbers are Mutually
Exclusive
What is not Mutually Exclusive:
 Turning left and scratching your head can happen at the
same time
 Kings and Hearts, because you can have a King of Hearts!
 Less than 5 and odd numbers are Not Mutually exclusive
events for rolling of a dice
The sample space is
A: less than 5
B: odd numbers
Aces and Kings are Hearts and Kings are
Mutually Exclusive not Mutually Exclusive
(can't be both) (can be both)
Exhaustive events

 Events are said to be collectively exhaustive, when the union of mutually

exclusive events is the entire sample space S.
 A single coin tossing experiment, the union of A: head occurs
and B: tail occurs is the entire sample space
 Rolling of a dice experiment, the union of A: odd numbers B: Even
numbers is the entire sample space
 Drawing a single card from a deck of playing cards, the union of A:
Black cards B: Red cards is the entire sample space.
•A group of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events make a
PARTITIONING of a sample space.

Example: All 4 suits of deck of playing cards are mutually exclusive and
exhaustive events and make partitioning of entire sample space.
Equally Likely Events

 The events are said to be equally likely as both have an

equal chances of occurrence.
 Example:
 For single toss of a coin: Head has 50% chance of
occurrence and tail has also 50% of chance of
occurrence.
 For rolling of a dice: Each outcome has chance of
occurrence.
 For drawing a single card from a deck of playing cards:
every card has chance of occurrence.
COUNTING OF SAMPLE POINTS
1. Rule of Multiplication
“If first random experiment has possible outcomes
and second random experiment has possible
outcomes, then the combine outcomes of both
random experiments are ”
 For the double toss of a coin OR two coins toss once
the sample space will be calculated through
multiplication rule.
Total no. of sample points
For the thrice toss of a coin OR three coins toss once the sample space will be
calculated through multiplication rule. 2×2×2=8.

1. Tree Diagram
2. Table method
(H,H) (H,T) (T,H) (T,T)

H (H,H,H) (H,H,T) (H,T,H) (H,T,T)

T (T,H,H) (T,H,T) (T,T,H) (T,T,T)

3. Short Method
1 H H H

2 H H T

3 H T H

4 H T T

5 T H H

6 T H T

7 T T H

8 T T T
For the two dice rolling one time OR a dice rolled two times has 6×6 = 36 possible outcomes.

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)

2 (2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)

3 (3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)

4 (4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)

5 (5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)

6 (6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)

For four trials of coin OR four coin tossed once there are 2×2×2×2 = 16
possible outcomes.

1 H H H H
2 H H H T
3 H H T H
4 H H T T
5 H T H H
6 H T H T
7 H T T H
8 H T T T
9 T H H H
10 T H H T
11 T H T H
12 T H T T
13 T T H H
14 T T H T
15 T T T H
16 T T T T
RULE OF COMBINATION

 The number of combinations of n distinct objects

taken r at a time is
RULE OF PERMUTATION

 The number of permutations of n distinct objects

taken r at a time is
Page 42
Q. 2.4 Already Done
Q. 2.5

Q. 2.6

Q. 2.7
Same as 16 sample points for 4 tosses of a single coin.
Q.2.8

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
2 (2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
3 (3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
4 (4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
5 (5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
6 (6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
A: that the sum is greater than 8

B: 2 occurs on either die

C: a number greater than 4 comes up on the green die (First dice)

Q. 2.9

A : a number less than 3 occurs on the die

B : two tails occur

Q. 2.10
Same as 8 sample points for 3 coins tossing
1. If there are 9 cars in a race, in how many different ways can they place
first, second and third?
9 9! 9 × 8 × 7 × 6!
𝑃= = =9×8×7
(9 − 3)! 6!
3
2. There are 5 Competitors in 100m final. How many ways can gold,
silver, and bronze be awarded?
5 5! 5 × 4 × 3 × 2!
𝑃= = =5×4×3
(5 − 3)! 2!
3
3. Count the number of ways to get exactly 3 heads in 10 flips of a coin???

4. Combinations of k from a set of n

Give all combinations of 3 things out of {a, b, c, d}

Answer: {a,b,c}, {a,b,d}, {a,c,d}, {b,c,d}

Difference between Combination
and Permutation
Permutation Combination
abc abd acd bcd {a, b, c} {a, b, d}
acb adb adc bdc {a, c, d} {b, c, d}
bac bad cad cbd
bca bda cda cdb 4 4! 4 × 3!
cab dab dac dbc 𝐶= = =4
3! (4 − 3)! 3! × 1!
3
cba dba dca dcb
4 4! 4 × 3 × 2 × 1!
𝑃= =
(4 − 3)! 1!
3
= 4 × 3 × 2 = 24
1. Ali won’t wear green and red together; He think black or denim goes with anything;
Here is his wardrobe.

Shirts: 3Black, 3Red, 2Green; sweaters 1Black, 2Red, 1Green; pants 2Black,2Dark
Blue. How many different outfits can Ali wear?
Solution
answer: Suppose we choose shirts first. Depending on whether we choose red compatible or
green compatible shirts there are different numbers of sweaters we can choose next. So we
split the problem up before using the rule of product. A multiplication tree is an easy way to
present the answer.

Multiplying down the paths of the tree:

Number of outfits = (3 × 3 × 4) + (3 × 4 × 4) + (2 × 2 × 4) = 100
2.26 A California study concluded that following 7 simple health rules can extend a
man’s life by 11 years on the average and a woman’s life by 7 years. These 7 rules are
as follows: no smoking, get regular exercise, use alcohol only in moderation, get 7 to 8
hours of sleep, maintain proper weight, eat breakfast, and do not eat between meals. In
how many ways can a person
adopt 5 of these rules to follow

(a) if the person presently violates all 7 rules?

7
𝐶
5

(b) if the person never drinks and always eats breakfast?

5
𝐶
3