Lesson 1: FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE & PERMUTATION OF OBJECTS

Fundamental Counting Principle (FCP) Example

1. A new fast-food restaurant has opened and they offer snack combos for Php 199. With the
combo meal you get 1 sandwich, 1 side and 1 drink. The choices are given below. How many
different combo meals can you choose? :
Sandwiches: Chicken, Bacon, Grilled Cheese
Sides: Chips, French Fries, Fruit Cup
Drinks: Fruit juice, Water
3 × 3 × 2 = 18 combo meals

2. At a convenient store, they have 3 different flavors of ice cream (buko, chocolate, ube) and
you can choose one topping of 2 toppings (marshmallows, nuts). How many choices do you
have?
3 × 2 = 6 choices

3. A license plate has 3 letters followed by 3 numbers. How many different license plates are
there?
26 × 26 × 26 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 17,576,000 license plates

26 letters 0 to 9 = 10
in the numbers
alphabet
Factorial Notation – if n is positive integer, n factorial denoted by n! is a product of allpositive
integers less than or equal to n. It is defined by n! = n(n-1)(n-2)…(2)(1)
*Special case: 0! = 1
Example
1. 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
2. 7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5040
8! 8 x7 x6 x 5 x4 x3 x2 x1
3. = =8 x 7=56
6! 6 x5 x 4 x 3x 2 x1
4. 4! ∙ 5! = (4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1)(5 ∙ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) = 24 ⋅120 = 2880

Permutation - is an arrangement of all or part of a set of objects, with regard to the order of
the arrangement.
Examples: Placing winners in a running race, Voting the President, VP and Secretary from a
class, Possible choices you have in creating your password
a) Permutations of objects taken all at a time – P(n,n) = n! or nPn = n!
Examples:
1. 5P5 = 5! = 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 120
2. 7P7 = 7! = 7 ∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 5040
 3. P (4,4) = 4! = 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 24
4. A family of 3 plans to sit in the same row at a movie theater. How many ways can the
family be seated in 3 seats?
= P (3,3) = 3! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6 ways
5. Arranging the letters of the word ART
= P (3,3) = 3! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6 ways
n!
b) Permutation of n different objects taken r at a time – P (n,r) = or nPr =
( n−r ) !
n!
( n−r ) !
Examples:
5! 5x 4 x 3 x2 x1
a) 5P3 = = =60
( 5−3 ) ! 2 x1
7! 7 x6 x5 x 4 x 3x 2 x1
b) 7P4 = = =840
( 7−4 ) ! 3x 2 x1
4! 4 x 3x 2 x1
c) P (4,2) = = =12
( 4−2 ) ! 2 x1
d) A debating team consists of 4 speakers.
a. In how many ways can all 4 speakers be arranged in a row for a photoshoot?
= P (4,4) = 4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24 ways
b. How many ways can the captain and vice-captain of the team be chosen?
4! 4 x 3x 2 x1
= P (4,2) = = =12 ways or 4 x 3 = 12
( 4−2 ) ! 2 x1
e) A Math club has 20 members. In how many ways can a president, vice-president, and a
secretary be chosen?
20 ! 20 x 19 x 18 x 17 !
= P (20,3) = = =6840 ways or 20 x 19 x 18 = 6840
( 20−3 ) ! 17

A. PERMUTATION WHEN REPETITION IS ALLOWED - nPr=nr

1. In how many ways are there to arrange the letters ABCD if repetition is allowed?
Given: 4 letters (All are taken and repetition is allowed)
Solution: 4 P 4=4 4 = 256 ways
4 P 4=4 ∙ 4 ∙ 4 ∙ 4 = 256 ways
B. PERMUTATION WHEN REPETITION IS NOT ALLOWED
a. Permutation of All Objects Taken All at a Time - nPn=n!
1. In how many ways are there to place four different colored tiles in a row?
Given: 4 colored tiles (All are taken and repetition is not allowed)
Solution: 4 P 4=4 ! = 24 ways
 4 P 4=4 ∙ 3 ∙2 ∙ 1 = 24 ways
n!
b. Permutation of All Objects Taken r at a Time - nPr=
(n−r ) !
1. In how many ways can 7 different books can be arranged on a shelf if there is space enough
for 4 books?
Given: 7 different books (4 are taken and repetition is not allowed)
7! 7! 7 ∙6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3!
Solution: 7 P 4= = 7 P 4= = 7 P 4= = 840 ways
(7−4 )! 3! 3!

Permutations with repetitions

n!
Distinguishable permutation - P=
r1 ! r2 ! … rk !
1. How many eight-letter patterns can be formed from the letters of the word PARABOLA?
There are 8 letters in the word PARABOLA: there are 3 A’s
Solution : 𝑛! /𝑝! = 8!/3! = 6720
n!
Permutations with Repetitions =
p! q!
1. In how many ways can 6 yellow flags and 3 blue flags be arranged one above another on a
single rope on a flagstaff?
9! 9x 8 x7 x 6 x5 x 4 x3 x 2x 1
= =84 ways
6 ! 3! 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 x 3 x 2 x 1
2. How many different 7-digit phone numbers can you have with the digits 7, 3, 5, 2, 7, 3 and 2
7! 7 x6 x5 x 4 x 3x 2 x1
= =630 ways
2! 2 ! 2 ! 2x 1x 2x 1x 2x 1

Circular permutations - P= ( n−1 ) !

1. Four bowls of food are placed on a circular, revolving tray in the center of the table. How
many ways can the bowls be arranged?
Solution: (4 – 1)! = 3! = 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 6 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
2. In how many different ways can five people be seated at a circular table?
Solution: (5 – 1)! = 4! = 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
3. Find the number of different ways that a family of 6 can be seated around a circular table
with 6 chairs.
Solution: (6 – 1)! = 5! = 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3∙ 2 ∙1 = 120 ways
Lesson 2: COMBINATION - is a mathematical technique that determines the number of
possible arrangements in a collection of items where the order of the selection is not
important.
n!
Formula = C (n,r) =
( n−r ) ! r !
1. Choosing 3 fruits in the fruit stand out of 10 different fruits.
2. Opening an email password.
3. Winning in a contest.
4. Forming plates numbers of vehicles.
5. Entering the PIN (Personal Identification Card) of your ATM.
6. Selecting 5 questions to answer out of 10 questions.
7. Choosing household chores to do after answering the module.
8. Drawing a set of 6 numbers in a lottery containing numbers 1 to 45.
Combination vs Permutation = In permutations the order of the selected items is important.
For example, suppose you are arranging the numbers 1, 2 and 3. In permutation, the
arrangement 123 and 321 are different in value. But, in a combination, the arrangements 123
and 321 are the same because the order does not matter.

Example:
8! 8! 8 x7 x6 x 5! 8 x7 x6
a. 8C5 = = = = = 56
( 8−5 ) ! 5 ! ( 3) ! 5 ! ( 3 ) ! 5! 6
6! 6! 6 x5 x 4 x3! 6 x5 x 4
b. C (6,3) = = = = = 20
( 6−3 ) ! 3 ! ( 3) ! 3 ! ( 3) ! 3 ! 3 x 2x 1
9! 9! 9x 8 x7
( 9−7 ) ! 7 ! ( 2) ! 7 ! ( 2 ) ! 7 ! 72 12
c. 9C7/ 6C4 = = == = =
6! 6! 6 x 5 x 4 30 5
( 6−4 ) ! 4 ! ( 2 ) ! 4 ! ( 2)! 4 !
d. On a circle there are 12 points selected. How many triangles are there with edges in these
points?
12! 12 ! 12 x 11 x 10 x 9 ! 12 x 11 x 10
Solution: C (12,3) = = = = = 220
( 12−3 ) ! 3 ! ( 9 ) ! 3! ( 9) ! 3 ! 3 x 2x 1
e. From 5 Geometry books and 6 Algebra books, in how many ways can one select 2 Geometry
and 2 Algebra books to buy if all the said books are equally important?
Solution: Geometry Book Solution: Algebra Book
5! 5! 5x 4 x 3! 5x 4 6! 6!
C (5,2) = = = = = 10 C (5,2) = = =
( 5−2 ) ! 2 ! ( 3 ) ! 2! ( 3 ) ! 2! 2 x1 ( 6−2 ) ! 2 ! (4 )!2 !
6 x5 x 4! 6 x5
= = 15
(4 )!2 ! 2 x1

Solution: C (5,2) x C (6,2) = 10 x 15 = 150 ways

Lesson 3: ILLUSTRATING AN EXPERIMENT, OUTCOME, SAMPLE SPACE AND EVENTS
Experiment - is an activity involving chance that can have different results. It is a process
that, when performed, results in exactly one of many observations.
Examples: Rolling a die, Flipping a coin, Choosing a ball from a box, Drawing a ball in a lottery
Outcomes - are the results of experiments
Examples: After rolling a die , the possible results are 1,2,3,4,5,6, Flipping a coin, the possible
results are head and tail, Tossing two coins, the possible results are HH, HT, TH, TT
Sample Space - is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment and is denoted by S.
Examples: S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, S = {H, T}, S = {HT, HH,TH, TT}, S= {1,2,3,4,5,6,…,42
Event - is a set of some elements or outcomes of an experiment. It is a subset of a sample
space.
Examples: In rolling a die, choose an even number E={2,4,6}, Tossing a coin E={H}
a) Simple event / Elementary event - An event with single sample point in a sample space.
- The number of times it can occur in an experiment is only 1
b) Compound event - An event with two or more sample points in a sample space.
Example: Two coins are tossed Sample space= {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Simple Event = Both are head={H,H} Compound Event = At least one head= {HT,TH,HH}

Union and Intersection of Events

Union of Events - the set of all sample points in the sample space that are in A or in B or
both. The union of events A and B is denoted as 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵. In other words, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the event that
either event A or event B occurs, or both events occur.

Intersection of events - is the set of all sample points in the sample space that are in A and
B. The intersection of events A and B is denoted as 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵. In other words, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the event
that both events A and B occur.

Complement of an event - is the set of all outcomes that are NOT in the event. For example,
the complement of an event A is the set of all outcomes which are not in A.

Example 1: Consider a die and a coin are tossed. Let A be the event that a tail comes out and B
the event that a 5 comes out. Illustrate A ∪ B and A ∩ B
Solution: The sample space, S = {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}
A = {T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}
B = {T5, H5}
A ∪ B = {T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, H5, T6}
A ∩ B = {T5}
Example 2: The beverage that the people prefer to drink in the morning are shown in the Venn
diagram below
a. How many people drink tea in the morning?
30 + 25 = 55.
b. How many people drink coffee in the morning?
25 + 68 = 93
c. How many people drink only tea in the morning?
30
d. How many people drink only coffee in the morning?
68
e. How many people drink both coffee and tea?
25
f. How many people drink coffee or tea?
30 + 25 + 68 = 123
g. How many people do not drink coffee or tea?
27
h. How many people took the survey?

Mutually Exclusive Events (disjoint events) - if both events cannot occur at the same time.
These events have no common elements.
Example: Consider the set of all even positive integers, and the set of all odd positive integers:
Set A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16…}
Set B = {1, 3, 5, 7 ,9, 11, 13, 15…}
*Mutually exclusive since none of the elements of Set A are in Set B, and vice versa.

Probability of Mutually Exclusive Events

= If two events are considered disjoint events, then the probability of both events occurring at
the same time will be P (A and B) = 0
= If A and B are two mutually exclusive events, the probability of A or B occurring is their

respective probabilities added together. P (A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)

Examples:
1. A bag contains 4 blue marbles, 8 green marbles and 6 red marbles. Carlo draws one ball at
random. What is the probability that the marble is either red or green?
𝑃(red or green) = 𝑃(red) + 𝑃(green)
𝑃(red or green) = 6/18 +8/18
𝑃(red or green) = 14/18 or 7/9
∴The probability that the drawn marble is either red or green is 7/9.
2. A card is drawn at random from a standard deck of 52 cards. What is the probability of
drawing an ace, a 10 or a king?
𝑃(ace or 10 or king) = 𝑃(ace) + 𝑃(10) + 𝑃(king)
𝑃(ace or 10 or king) = 4/52 + 4/52 + 4/52
𝑃(ace or 10 or king) = 12/52 or 3/13
∴The probability of drawing an ace, a 10 or a king is 3/13

Non-Mutually Exclusive Events - Two sets are non-mutually exclusive if they share common
elements.
Example: Consider the set of all numbers from 1 to 10, and the set of all even numbers from 1
to 16:
Set A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}
Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
*non-mutually exclusive since they share the common elements of 2,4,6 and 8.

Probability of Non-Mutually Exclusive Events

= If the events A and B are not mutually exclusive, the probability of getting A or B that is P (A
∪ B) formula is given as follows: P (A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P (A and B)

Examples:
1. A die is rolled once. What is the probability of an even number or a factor of 6 turning up?
A die has six faces numbered 1 – 6, so, 𝑛(𝑆)= 6
∴The probability of getting an even number or a factor of 6 is 5/6.
2. If there is 30% chance of rain on Saturday, 70% chance of rain on Sunday, and 21% chance
of rain on Saturday and Sunday, what is the probability that it will rain on either Saturday or
Sunday?
Let: A = {chance of rain on Saturday} B = {chance of rain on Sunday}
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)= {Saturday and Sunday}
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)= 𝑃(𝐴)+ 𝑃(𝐵)− 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)= 0.30 + 0.70 − 0.21
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 0.79 =79%
∴There is 79% chance that it will rain on either Saturday or Sunday
3. Each of the numbers 1 – 30 is written on a slip of paper, rolled and put in a box and mixed
thoroughly. One number is picked up at random. Find the probability that the picked number
is even or a multiple of 5?
Let: 𝑛(𝑆)=30
A = {even number} = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10,12,14,16,18,20,22,24,26,28,30}; 𝑛(𝐴)=15
B = {multiple of 5} = {5, 10,15,20,25,30 };
𝑛(𝐵)= 6
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {10,20,30}; 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)= 3
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)= 𝑃(𝐴)+ 𝑃(𝐵)− 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)= 15/30 +6/30 −3/30
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 18/30 or 3/5
∴The probability that the number picked is even or multiple of 5 is 3/5.

Lesson 4: INDEPENDENT EVENTS

Independent Events - if the occurrence of one of the events does not affect the occurrence of
the other event.
Examples:
1. turning up a 6 followed by a 2 in rolling a fair die twice.
2. stopping at 5 and at 3 by spinning a fair spinner twice with 8 congruent sectors numbered 1
– 8.
3. a tail showing up in tossing a fair coin once and a four turning up in rolling a fair die once.
4. drawing a King of hearts and a Queen of hearts from a standard deck of cards if replacement
of the first card is done

Probability of Independent Events

If A and B are independent events, then P (A and B) = P (A) x P (B) or P (A ∩ 𝐵) = P (A) x P (B)
Example: A drawstring bag contains 3 green marbles and 1 yellow marble. Ben draws a marble
then returns it in the bag and then draw another marble. What is the probability that the first
marble is green and the second marble is yellow?
3 1
P (A) x P (B) = x
4 4
3
P (A) x P (B) =
16

Dependent Events - The result of one event affects the result of the other event
Example: A drawstring bag contains 3 green marbles and 1 yellow marble. Ben draws a marble
then and then draws another marble. What is the probability that the first marble is green and
the second marble is yellow?
3 1
P (A) x P (B) = x
4 3
1
P (A) x P (B) =
3