MIDDLE ADULTHOOD: SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL ADJUSTMENT

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD: PHYSICAL CHANGES AND SOCIAL

ADJUSTMENT

Introduction

Middle adulthood (or midlife) refers to the period of the lifespan between young

adulthood and old age. This period lasts from 20 to 40 years depending on how these stages,

ages, and tasks are culturally defined. The most common age definition is from 40 to 65, but

there can be a range of up to 10 years (ages 30-75) on either side of these numbers. The mid-

thirties or the forties through the late 60s can be our guide. Research on this period of life is

relatively new and many aspects of midlife are still being explored. This may be the least studied

period of the lifespan. And this is a varied group. We can see considerable differences in

individuals within this developmental stage. This is a relatively new period of life.

 Developmental challenges:

Lachman (2004) provides a comprehensive overview of the challenges facing midlife

adults. These include:

1. Losing parents and experiencing associated grief.

2. Launching children into their own lives.

3. Adjusting to home life without children (often referred to as the empty nest).

4. Dealing with adult children who return to live at home

5. Becoming grandparents.

6. Preparing for late adulthood.

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7. Acting as caregivers for aging spouses.

 Crisis:

Erikson stated that the primary psychosocial task of middle adult‐ hood—ages 45 to 65—

is to develop generativity, or the desire to expand one's influence and commitment to family,

society, and future generations. In other words, the middle adult is concerned with forming and

guiding the next generation. The middle adult who fails to develop generativity experiences

stagnation, or self‐absorption, with its associated self‐indulgence and invalidism.

Perhaps middle adulthood is best known for its infamous midlife crisis. A midlife crisis

includes the time of reevaluation that leads to questioning long‐held beliefs and values. It may

also result in a person divorcing his or her spouse, changing jobs, or moving from the city to the

suburbs. Typically beginning in the early‐ or mid‐40s, the crisis often occurs in response to a

sense of mortality, as middle adults realize that their youth is limited and that they have not

accomplished all of their desired goals in life. Of course, not everyone experiences stress or

upset during middle age; instead they may simply undergo a midlife transition, or change, rather

than the emotional upheaval of a midlife crisis. Other middle adults prefer to reframe their

experience by thinking of themselves as being in the prime of their lives rather than in their

declining years.

During the male midlife crisis, men may try to reassert their masculinity by engaging in

more youthful male behaviors, such as dressing in trendy clothes, taking up activities like scuba

diving, motorcycling, or skydiving.

During the female midlife crisis, women may try to reassert their femininity by dressing

in youthful styles, having cosmetic surgery, or becoming more socially active. Some middle
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adult women try to look as young as their young adult children by dying their hair and wearing

more youthful clothing. Such actions may be a response to feelings of isolation, loneliness,

inferiority, uselessness, nonassertion, or unattractiveness.

Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood

 Physical transitions: the gradual change in the body’s capabilities

Middle adulthood is the time when most people become increasingly aware of the

gradual changes in their bodies that mark the aging process. Some of the aging that people

experience is the result of senescence, or naturally occurring declines related to age. Other,

changes, however, are the result of lifestyle choices, such as diet, exercise, smoking and alcohol

or drug use. People’s lifestyle choices can have a major impact on their physical, and even

cognitive, fitness during middle age.

People’s emotional reactions to the physical changes of middle adulthood depend in part

on their self-concepts. For those whose self-image is tied closely to their physical attributes, such

as highly athletic men and women or those who are physically quite attractive, middle adulthood

can be particularly difficult. Those middle-aged adults, however, whose views of themselves are

not so closely tied to physical attributes, generally report no less satisfaction with their body

images than younger adults.

 Height, Weight and Strength: The Benchmarks of Change

Most people reach their maximum height during their 20s and remain relatively close to

that height until around age 55. After age 55, bones become less dense and ultimately women

lose 2 inches and men lose 1 inch in height. Women are more prone to declining height due to
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Osteoporosis, a condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin. Diet (high in

calcium) and exercise can reduce the risk of osteoporosis.

Both men and women continue to gain weight in middle adulthood. Even those who have

been relatively slim all their lives may begin to put on weight. Because height is not increasing,

and actually may be declining, the amount of body fat increases. The weight gain usually doesn’t

have to happen. Lifestyle choices play a major role. Exercise and weight control can slow down

the fat and weight gain.

Changes in height and weight are also accompanied by declines in strength. Throughout

middle adulthood, strength gradually decreases. By the time they are 60, people have lost, on

average, about 10 percent of their maximum strength. Again, lifestyle choices can make a

difference (e.g. Exercise).

 The Senses: The Sights and Sounds of Middle Age

VISION: Starting at age 40, visual acuity- the ability to discern fine spatial detail in both

close and distant objects - begins to decline. The shape of the eye’s lens changes, and its

elasticity deteriorates, which makes it harder to focus images sharply onto the retina. The lenses

become less transparent, which reduces the amount of light entering.

A nearly universal change in eyesight during middle adulthood is the loss of near vision,

called Presbyopia.

Other changes in vision also begin in middle adulthood. There are declines in depth

perception, distance perception and the ability to view the world in three dimensions and

elasticity in the lens also means that people have impaired night vision.
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Although changes in vision are most often brought about by the gradual processes of

normal aging, in some cases disease is involved. A disease called Glaucoma, a condition where

pressure in the fluid of the eye increases, either because the fluid cannot drain properly or

because too much fluid is produced. Around 1 to 2 percent of people over the age of 40 are

afflicted by the disease.

• HEARING: like vision, hearing undergoes a gradual decline in acuity starting in

middle adulthood.

Some of the hearing losses of middle adulthood result from environmental factors. For

instance, people whose professions keep them near loud noises, such as airplane mechanics are

construction workers, are more apt to suffer hearing loss. The rest are caused by aging, which

brings a loss of hair cells in the inner ear. Also, the ear drum becomes less elastic with age,

reducing sensitivity to sound.

The ability to hear high-pitched, high-frequency sounds usually degrades first, a problem

called Presbycusis. About 12 percent of people between ages45 and 65 suffer from presbycusis.

There is also a gender difference, men are more prone to hearing loss than women. People who

have hearing difficulties may also have problems identifying the direction and origin of a sound,

a process called sound localization.

 Sexuality in Middle Adulthood

Sexuality remain an important part of life for most middle-aged people. Although, the

Frequency of sexual intercourse decreases with age, Sexual activities remain a vital part of most

middle-aged adults’ lives.

The Climacteric
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One biologically based change that occurs during midlife is the climacteric. During

midlife, men may experience a reduction in their ability to reproduce. Women, however, lose

their ability to reproduce once they reach menopause.

The Female Climacteric and Menopause:

Starting at around age 45, women enter a period known as the climacteric that lasts for

some15 to 20 years. The female climacteric marks the transition from being able to bear children

to being unable to do so.

The most notable sign of the female climacteric is menopause. Menopause is the

cessation of menstruation. Menopause is important for several reasons. For one thing, it marks

the point where traditional pregnancy is no longer possible. In addition, production of female sex

hormones begins to drop, producing a variety of hormone-related age changes.

The changes in hormone production may produce a variety of symptoms.

1. Hot flashes: in which a woman senses an unexpected feeling of heat, begin

to sweat. Some women experience hot flashes several times a day while others never

experience.

2. Headaches

3. Feeling of dizziness

4. Heart palpitations

5. Aching joints

The male climacteric:

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Men experience some changes during middle age that are collectively referred to as the

male climacteric. The male climacteric is the period of physical and psychological change in the

reproductive system occurs during late middle age, typically in a man’s 50s.

Because the changes happen gradually, it is hard to pinpoint the exact period of the male

climacteric.

• Enlargement of the prostate gland (10%)

• Difficulty starting to urinate and frequent need to urinate during night

• Men can father children through middle age.

1. Gould’s theory(1978)

Roger Gould's (1978) theory charts inner stages of consciousness in which the adult gives

up various illusions and myths held over from childhood. Gould sees this process as freeing

oneself from childhood restraints and establishing a sense of personal identity. To Gould,

adulthood is a time of "dismantling the protective devices that gave us an illusion of safety as

children." Confronting the myths of childhood results in transformations that lead to

increasingly higher levels of consciousness.

Gould's transformations (1978) occur in a series of sequential, age related stages, as

follows:

 Leaving the Parents' World (16-22)

 Getting into the Adult World (22-28)

 Questioning and Reexamination (28-34)

 Midlife Decade (35-45)

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 Reconciliation and Mellowing (43-50)

 Stability and Acceptance (50 and over)

The four major false assumptions adults must resolve during their adult lifetime are:

 "We'll always live with our parents and be their child."

 "They'll always be there to help when we can't do something on our own."

 "Life is simple and controllable."

 "There is no real death or evil in the world."

2. Havinghurst Theory(1972)

One of earliest writers on adult development, Havighurst identified roles and expectations

and linked them to adult development. Havighurst’s stages and ages have largely been refined by

more current research, but two important concepts he proposed are fundamental assumptions that

underlie all of the schools of thought in developmental theory.

First, he defined a "developmental task" as that "which arises at or about a certain period

in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to

success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the

society, and difficulty with later tasks”. Havighurst (1972) also coined the termed "teachable

moments," in which people are ready to learn and apply information because of their life

situation.

Robert Havighurst lists seven major tasks in the middle years:

1. accepting and adjusting to physiological changes, such as menopause

2. reaching and maintaining satisfaction in one's occupation

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3. adjusting to and possibly caring for aging parents

4. helping teenage children to become responsible adults

5. achieving adult social and civic responsibility

6. relating to one's spouse as a person

7. developing leisure‐time activities

3. Vaillant's Adaptation to Life theory

George Vaillant's longitudinal research followed well-educated men and women past age

50, into the time when they were taking on major responsibility for the functioning of society the

most successful and best adjusted entered a calmer, quieter time of life; and their attention turned

to the survival of the positive aspects of their culture in societies around the world, older adults

are the guardians of traditions, laws, and cultural values; serving as the stabilizing force that

holds overly rapid change in check.

Keeping meaning versus rigidity

Occurs between the ages of 45 and 55. Adults seek to extract meaning from their lives by

accepting strengths and weaknesses of others. Those who are rigid become increasingly isolated

from others.

4. Jung’s Finding Balance in Life

Jung emphasized that middle adulthood is a time to reclaim repressed parts of the self,

including a move towards gender androgyny that combats previously performed stereotypical

behavior. This has been described as more of an “expansion” of gender roles as opposed to a

wholesale gender “crossover.” Jung also identities middle adulthood as a time when
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introspective reflection and exploration of the self takes precedence over external demands such

as starting a career or a family.

5. Life Span Theory (Hutchison, 2015)

Based on the idea that development is an ongoing process based on transactions between

persons and environments. This theory focuses on middle adulthood as a time when, generally,

there is a tie in net gains and losses. For example, there may be a gain in self-esteem and

emotional maturity, while there is a loss in biological functioning. This theory emphasizes the

importance of historical context in shaping what those gains and losses look like and are

interpreted as.

Social Adjustment in Middle Adulthood

Social adjustment in middle adulthood: is an effort made by an individual to cope with

standards, values and needs of a society in order to be accepted. It can be defined as a

psychological process. It involves coping with new standard and value. In the technical language

of psychology “getting along with the members of society as best one can” is called adjustment.

Basically the term 'social emotional adjustment', covers the positive or negative

interactions between the social and individual characteristics during the individual's

interaction with the environment (Reber 1985. Dictionary of psychology.

Psychologists often make use of the term adjustment to describe various types of

social and interpersonal relations in society. Therefore, adjustment can be referred to as

the reaction to the demands and pressures of a social setting imposed upon the individual.

Social adjustment is an attempt made by an individual to address the standards, values

and desires of a society so as to be accepted. It is often referred as a psychological

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method. It involves dealing with new standards and values. In the scientific language

used in psychology, ‘getting along with the members of society as best as one can’ is

termed as adjustment.

Psychosocial changes in middle adulthood:

To better understand psych-social change in Middle Adulthood, theorist have

emphasized on understanding the domains of Social intelligence and Social Competence.

1) Social Intelligence

Gardener defined Social Intelligence as the capability to notice and differentiate

an individual person in accordance with their mood, temperament, inspiration and

intentions. In the light of the definition that the factors like mood, temperament, motives

and inspiration play dynamic role in shaping one behavior and the way they interact with

others. In Middle Adulthood an individual pertains the age of maturity and become

socially intelligent to understand a person with in the given circumstances.

2) Social Competence

The second domain is Social Competence. Biermann defined as the ability to

communicate adaptive reactions to different interpersonal demands and to adopt social

behavior in away benefiting oneself and in accordance with social norms and morals. The

five major competencies that provide basis for social development are as follows:

a) Self-Awareness

It refers to the ability of individual to understand one self. Based on the self -

confidence, self- awareness is the honest assessment of own personality.

b) Social awareness
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Social awareness refers to understanding others believes, understandings and

reactions in a particular situation. It is capability of thinking, understanding and

interacting effectively.

c) Self -management

It is refer to handling of emotions and reactions in a situation. it is the ability to

facilitate oneself and other to accomplish goals in a critical and frustrated condition.

d) Relationship skills

It is referred to maintain sound and healthy relations with others. Based on

effective communication, co-operation, and coordination and controlling oneself in

pressurized situation, Relationship skills are established.

e) Decision making

This is the last competency which is based on appropriate consideration of all

relevant attributes and expected consequences of decision. It is related with valuing

others and standing by with one’s decision.

Social Changes in Middle Adulthood:

Perhaps the major marker of adulthood is the ability to create an effective and

independent life. Whereas children and adolescents are generally supported by parents,

adults must make their own living and must start their own families. Furthermore, the

needs of adults are different from those of younger persons.

Even though the timing of the major life events that occur in early and middle

adulthood varies substantially among individuals, the events nevertheless tend to follow a

general sequence, known as a social clock. The social clock refers to the culturally

preferred “right time” for major life events, such as moving out of the childhood house,
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getting married, and having children. People who do not appear to be following the social

clock (e.g., young adults who still live with their parents, individuals who never marry,

and couples who choose not to have children) may be seen as unusual or deviant, and

they may be stigmatized by others (DePaulo, 2006; Rook, Catalano, & Dooley, 1989)

EXPERIENCES:

Certain experiences tend to occur in middle adulthood, including:

• Relationships

• The empty nest

• Menopause (for women)

• Aging

1) Relationships:

As in young adulthood, the two primary long‐term relationships characteristic of

middle adulthood are cohabitation and marriage. Cohabiters—unmarried people living

together in a sexual relationship—often state their reason for cohabiting as either a trial

for marriage or an alternative to marriage. The notion that cohabitation increases eventual

marital satisfaction is without clear supporting evidence. Even so, middle adults often

approach cohabitation from a more mature, experienced perspective than their younger

counterparts. They may, for example, be divorced and not interested in remarriage.

By middle age, more than 90 percent of adults will have married at least once.

People generally affirm that their marriages are happiest during the early years, but not as

happy during the middle years. Marital satisfaction then increases again in the later years,

once finances have stabilized and parenting responsibilities have ended. Couples who
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stay together until after the last child has left home will probably remain married for at

least another 20 years.

a) Divorce

1) Middle adults are not immune to problems in relationships.

2) About 50 percent of all marriages in United States end in divorce, with the

median duration of these marriages being about 7 years.

3) Those marriages that do last are not always happy ones, however.

4) Unfortunately, some marriages ultimately dissolve, even when the spouses try

to ensure that things work out.

5) The reasons for dissolving a relationship are many and varied, just as

relationships themselves differ in their make‐up and dynamics.

6) In some cases, the couple cannot handle an extended crisis.

7) In other cases, the spouses change and grow in different directions.

8) In still others, the spouses are completely incompatible from the very start. 9)

9) 9) However, long‐term relationships rarely end because of difficulties with just

one of the partners.

10) Both parties are usually responsible for the factors that may lead to a

relationship's end, such as conflicts, problems, growing out of love, or empty‐

nest issues that arise after the last child leaves his or her parent's home.

b) Relationships that last

What is a sure predictor of a loving relationship's potential for growing or

wilting? Long‐term relationships share several factors, including both partners regarding
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the relationship as a long‐term commitment; both verbally and physically expressing

appreciation, admiration, and love; both offering emotional support to each other;

and both considering the other as a best friend.

Essential to preserving a quality relationship is the couple's decision to practice

effective communication.

0) Communication is the means by which intimacy is established and

nurtured within a relationship; it helps partners better relate to and

understand each other.

1) Communication helps them feel close, connected, and loved. And it

creates an atmosphere of mutual cooperation for active decision making

and problem solving.

2) To communicate realistically is to have a satisfying and healthy

relationship, regardless of the relationship's level of development.

c) Friends

In all age groups, friends are a healthy alternative to family and acquaintances.

Friends offer support, direction, guidance, and a change of pace from usual routines.

Many young adults manage to maintain at least some friendships in spite of the time

constraints caused by family, school, and work; however, finding time to maintain

friendships becomes more difficult for middle adults. During this period, life

responsibilities are at an all‐time high, so having extra time for socializing is usually

rare. For this reason, middle adults may have less friends than their newlywed and

retired counterparts. Yet where quantity of friendships may be lacking, quality

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predominates. Some of the closest ties between friends are formed and nourished

during middle adulthood.

d) Relationship with parents

Most middle adults characterize the relationship with their parents as

affectionate. Indeed, a strong bond is often present between related middle and older

adults.

Although the majority of middle adults do not live with their parents, contacts are

usually frequent and positive.

And perhaps for the first time, middle adults are able to see their parents as the

fallible human beings that they are.

One issue facing middle adults is that of caring for their aging parents.

In some cases, adults, who expected to spend their middle‐age years traveling and

enjoying their own children and grandchildren, instead find themselves taking care of

their ailing parents. Some parents are completely independent of their adult children's

support, while others are partially independent of their children; and still others are

completely dependent. Children of dependent parents may assist them financially (paying

their bills), physically (bringing them into their homes and caring for them), and

emotionally (as a source of human contact as the parents' social circle diminishes).

Daughters and daughters‐in‐law are the most common caretakers of aging parents

and in‐laws.

The middle adult's reaction to the death of one or both parents is normally

intense and painful, as it is for individuals of all stages of the life span. For the

middle adult, the death of a parent ends a lifelong relationship. Additionally, it may
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be wake‐up call to live life to its fullest and to mend broken relationships while loved

ones are still alive. Finally, a parent's death is a reminder of one's own mortality.

2) The empty nest:

Some people in middle adulthood experience empty nest syndrome when their

children leave home, resulting in depression and grief. People want their children to grow

up and lead independent lives. Yet parents often feel lonely, sad, and filled with grief

when their children depart. Grief, depression, a loss of purpose and a sense of sadness

may be experienced when children enter their own relationships or when they start their

college careers. Women normally suffer more than do men and feelings of sadness may

be more pronounced among women were full-time mothers. Middle aged parents are

generally satisfied with their maturing children and the careers they choose to lead a life.

It is the time of their life when they become very optimistic about their children’s future

and develop a sense of relief. They directly associate the success and failure of their

children with them and taking enormous pride on children’s accomplishments. Empty

nest syndrome is not a clinical disorder or diagnosis. It is a transitional period in life that

highlights loneliness and loss. Parents want to encourage their children to grow into

independent adults. However, the experience is often bittersweet or emotionally

challenging. The individual may feel:

• Sadness

• Loss

• Depression

• Loneliness

• Distress
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• A loss of purpose and meaning in life

3) Menopause

Menopause is the gradual, permanent cessation of menstruation and usually

begins between ages forty-five and fifty-five. Though many women suffer uncomfortable

physical symptoms during menopause, such as hot flashes, emotional reactions to

menopause are far from universal: many women have strong emotional reactions, while

just as many others may not. Though men don’t experience menopause, they do

experience a gradual decline in testosterone production and sperm count as they age.

4) Aging

Middle adulthood, or middle age, is the time of life between ages 40 and 65.

During this time, people experience many physical changes that signal that the person is

aging, including gray hair and hair loss, wrinkles and age spots, vision and hearing loss,

and weight gain, commonly called the middle age spread.

Theories

Traditionally, middle adulthood has been regarded as a period of reflection and change.

In the popular imagination (and academic press) there has been reference to a “mid-life crisis.”

There is an emerging view that this may have been an overstatement—certainly, the evidence on

which it is based has been seriously questioned. However, there is some support for the view that

people do undertake a sort of emotional audit, re-evaluate their priorities, and emerge with a

slightly different orientation to emotional regulation and personal interaction in this time period

• Psychosocial Development in Midlife

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Blanchflower & Oswald (2008) found that reported levels of unhappiness and depressive

symptoms peak in the early 50s for men in the U.S., and interestingly, the late 30s for women.

In Western Europe, minimum happiness is reported around the mid-40s for both men and

women, albeit with some significant national differences. 

Stone, Schneider and Bradoch (2017), reported a precipitous drop in perceived stress in

men in the U.S. from their early 50s. There is now a view that “older people” (50+) may be

“happier” than younger people, despite some cognitive and functional losses. This is often

referred to as “the paradox of aging.” Positive attitudes to the continuance of cognitive and

behavioral activities, interpersonal engagement, and their vitalizing effect on human neural

plasticity, may lead not only to more life, but to an extended period of both self-satisfaction and

continued communal engagement.

• The Stage-Crisis View and the Midlife Crisis

In 1977, Daniel Levinson published an extremely influential article that would be seminal

in establishing the idea of a profound crisis which lies at the heart of middle adulthood.

Levinson based his findings about a midlife crisis on biographical interviews with a

limited sample of 40 men (no women!), and an entirely American sample at that. Despite these

severe methodological limitations, his findings proved immensely influential. Levinson (1986)

identified five main stages or “seasons” of a man’s life as follows:

1. Pre-adulthood: Ages 0-22 (with 17 – 22 being the Early Adult Transition

2. Early Adulthood: Ages 17-45 (with 40 – 45 being the Midlife Transition

3. Middle Adulthood: Ages 40-65 (with 60-65 being the Late Adult

Transition
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4. Late Adulthood: Ages 60-85

5. Late-Late Adulthood: Ages 85+

Levinson’s theory is known as the stage-crisis view. He argued that each stage overlaps,

consisting of two distinct phases

1. A stable phase.

2. A transitional phase.

A transition stage occurs when two eras overlap and assists in facilitating a smooth

transition from one part of life to the next. The latter phase can involve questioning and change,

and Levinson believed that 40-45 was a period of profound change, which could only culminate

in a reappraisal, or perhaps reaffirmation, of goals, commitments and previous choices i.e. a time

for taking stock and recalibrating what was important in life. Crucially, Levinson would argue

that a much wider range of factors, involving, primarily, work and family, would affect this

taking stock i.e. what he had achieved, what he had not; what he thought important, but had

brought only a limited satisfaction.

 Socio-Emotional Selectivity Theory (SST)

SST is a theory which emphasizes a time perspective rather than chronological age.

When people perceive their future as open ended, they tend to focus on future-oriented

development or knowledge-related goals. When they feel that time is running out, and the

opportunity to reap rewards from future-oriented goals’ realization is dwindling, their focus

tends to shift towards present-oriented and emotion or pleasure-related goals.

Research on this theory often compares age groups (e.g., young adulthood vs. old

adulthood), but the shift in goal priorities is a gradual process that begins in early adulthood.
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Importantly, the theory contends that the cause of these goal shifts is not age itself, i.e., not the

passage of time itself, but rather an age-associated shift in time perspective.

The theory also focuses on the types of goals that individuals are motivated to achieve.

Knowledge-related goals aim at knowledge acquisition, career planning, the development of new

social relationships and other endeavours that will pay off in the future. Emotion-related goals

are aimed at emotion regulation, the pursuit of emotionally gratifying interactions with social

partners, and other pursuits whose benefits which can be realized in the present.

This shift in emphasis, from long term goals to short term emotional satisfaction, may

help explain the previously noted “paradox of aging.” That is, that despite noticeable

physiological declines, and some notable self-reports of reduced life-satisfaction around this

time, post- 50 there seems to be a significant increase in reported subjective well-being.

SST does not champion social isolation, which is harmful to human health, but shows

that increased selectivity in human relationships, rather than abstinence, leads to more positive

affect. Perhaps “midlife crisis and recovery” may be a more apt description of the 40-65 period

of the lifespan.

 Selection, Optimization, Compensation (SOC)

Another perspective on aging was identified by German developmental psychologists

Paul and Margret Baltes.

The Baltes’ model for successful aging argues that across the lifespan, people face

various opportunities or challenges such as, jobs, educational opportunities, and illnesses.

According to the SOC model, a person may select particular goals or experiences, or

circumstances might impose themselves on them. Either way, the selection process includes
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shifting or modifying goals based on choice or circumstance in response to those circumstances.

The change in direction may occur at the subconscious level.

This model emphasizes that setting goals and directing efforts towards a specific purpose

is beneficial to healthy aging. Optimization is about making the best use of the resources we

have in pursuing goals. Compensation, as its name suggests, is about using alternative strategies

in attaining those goals.

The SOC model covers a number of functional domains—motivation, emotion, and

cognition. We might become more adept at playing the SOC game as time moves on, as we work

to compensate and adjust for changing abilities across the lifespan.