Maneuvering the

Microwave Signal
Microwave Communications | Module 4
 Session 1

Diversity System &

Related Topics
 At the end of this lesson,
the student is expected to:

• Discuss diversity system

and related topics.

Photo Credit: authorjeniferchase.com

Source: Electronic Devices 9th edition by Thomas Floyd

Effective Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP)
The amount of power that would have to
be emitted by an isotropic antenna to
produce the peak power density observed
in the direction of maximum antenna gain.

ERP = Pt + Gant + TTL

where:
Pt = RFpower output (dBm)
Gant = transmit antenna gain (dB)
TLL = total transmission line loss at
transmitter (taken from
specs,in dB)
Antenna Gain Formula

Gant = η (πd/λ)2

where:
η = antenna efficiency
(typical value =0.55)
d = diameter of antenna in meters
 Antenna Gain Formula
Gant = 20 log f (GHz) + 20 log d (m) +17.8
where:
f = frequency in GHz
d = diameter of antenna in meters

* The gain of an antenna increases or decreases proportional to

the square of its diameter. (If its diameter changes by a factor
of 2,its gain changes by a factor of 4 = 6 dB)
Isotropic Receive Level (IRL)

IRL = EIRP – FSL

where:
EIRP = Effective Isotropically
Radiated Power in dBm
FSL = free space loss in dB
Free Space Loss (FSL)
FSL=  4D  2
=  4fD  2

    C 
Let X =  4fD  2

 C 
FSL= 10 log X2 The free space propagation model assumes
a transmit antenna and a receive antenna to
= 20 log 4fD be located in an otherwise empty
C environment. Neither absorbing obstacles
nor reflecting surfaces are considered. In
particular, the influence of the earth surface
is assumed to be entirely absent.
 Received Signal Level (RSL) – unfaded

RSL= IRL+ Gant –TLL

RSL= Pt + Gant(Tx) – TLL(Tx)– FSL+ Gant(Rx) – TLL(Rx)

where:
IRL= in dBm
Gant(Rx) = receive antenna gain (dB)
TLL(Rx)= transmission line loss at
receiver
 Receiver Threshold (C/N)
the minimum wideband carrier power (Cmin)
at the input to a receiver that will provide a
usable baseband output; sometimes called
receiver sensitivity.
C/N = RSL (dbm) – Pn (dbm)
where:
Pn = thermal noise threshold of the receiving
system
 Thermal Noise Threshold (Pn)
Pn(db) = 174 + 10 log B+NF
where:
NF= receiver noise figure
B= Bandwidth(hertz)

Thermal noise is effectively white noise and extends

over a very wide spectrum. The noise power is
proportional to the bandwidth.
 Fading
• The time variation of received signal power due to
changes in transmission medium or paths is known
as fading.
• Fading depends on various factors as mentioned
above. In fixed scenario, fading depends on
atmospheric conditions such as rainfall, lightening etc.
• In mobile scenario, fading depends on obstacles over
the path which are varying with respect to time.
These obstacles create complex transmission effects
to the transmitted signal.
Fading
 Fading
Doppler spread is a measure of the spectral
broadening caused by the time rate of change
of the mobile radio channel, and is defined as
the range of frequencies over which the
received Doppler spectrum is essentially non-
zero
 Categories of Fading
• PATH LOSS
– is the reduction in power
density (attenuation) of an
electromagnetic wave as it
propagates through space.
• SHADOWING
– Shadowing is the effect
that the received signal
power fluctuates due to
objects obstructing the
propagation path between
transmitter and receiver.
 Categories of Fading
• FLAT FADING
– non-frequency dependent fading
occurring during atmospheric
variations like heavy rain and
ducting and aging or partial
failure of equipment.
• FREQUENCY SELECTIVE
FADING
– due to multipaths formed by
atmosphere, terrain
reflection, and diffraction.
 Countermeasures
• FLAT FADING
•  Link Overbuilding (Antenna,Improved receiver performance, power)
 Re-site or shorten distance between sites (multihops)
•  Path Diversity

• SELECTIVE FADING
 Space Diversity
 Frequency Diversity
 Equalizers

• EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY
 Hot –standby Arrangement
 Diversity Arrangement
 Diversity
• Providing separate path to transmit
redundant information
– Frequency diversity
• Uses two different frequencies to transmit the same
information.
– Space diversity
• Same frequency is used, but two receive antennas
separated vertically on the same tower receive the
information over two different physical paths
separated in space.
The method of transmission may be due to:

a. FREQUENCY
b. SPACE (including angle of arrival and
polarization)
c. PATH (signals arrive on geographically
separate paths)
d. TIME (a time delay of two identical signals
on parallel paths)
 Path Diversity
• Method of signal rerouting or simultaneous
transmission of same information on different
paths. Paths should be at least 10 kms apart.
 Space Diversity
• The receiver accepts signals from 2 or more
antennas that are vertically spaced apart by
many wavelength (200λ or more)

• Depending upon the design, the diversity

combiner either selects or adds the signal. If
signals are to be added, then they should be
brought in phase.

• The lower of the two antennas must be high

enough for reliable LOS communication.
 Space Diversity

Transmitter Receiver
 Space Diversity Main Features
• No additional frequency assignment is
required.
• Providespath redundancy but not
equipment redundancy.
• More expensive than frequency
diversity due to additional antennas and
waveguides.
 Space Diversity Formula
Antenna Separation Formula Improvement Factor
3R
FM

S= 1.2310 −23
 f  S 10
2 10
SD =
L D
where:
Usdp = Undp
S = separation (m) lSD
Where:
R = effective earth lSD= space diversity improvement
radius (m) factor (Ratio)
S = vertical separation bet 2 antennas
(m)
λ = wavelength (m) F = frequency (GHz)
D = Path length (m)
FM = fade margin, smaller vase (dB)
L = path length (m)
 Frequency Diversity
• modulates 2 different RF carrier
frequencies with the same IF
intelligence, then transmits both RF
signals to a given destination.
• the carrier frequencies are 2-3%
separated, since the frequency band
allocations are limited.
 Frequency Diversity

Transmitter Receiver
 Improvement Factor of
Frequency Diversity

0.8 Dfx 10(FM/10) Undp

lFD = f2D ; UFDP = lFD

Where:
lFD = improvement factor (ratio)
Df = Frequency Separation (Mhz) FM = Fade Margin
F = frequency (Ghz); (2≤ f ≤ 11)
D = Path length (km); (30≤ D ≤ 70)
 Time Unavailability
• Time availability (Av) is commonly in the
range from 0.99 to 0.99999 or 99% to
99.999% of the time.
• Unavailability (Unav)is just contrary to the
above definitionU. nav = 1− Av
Fade Margin for Rayleigh Fading
Time Availability (%) Fade Margin (dB)
90 8
99 18
99.9 28
99.99 38
99.999 48

Example:
A link with a minimum unfaded C/N specified as 20 dB.
What will be the C/N requirements to meet the objective
of 99.95% time availability? What is the total time in a year
when the C/N would be less than 20 dB?
 References
• Radio System Design for Telecommunication, Third
Edition
– Roger L. Freeman
– Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Microwave Transmission Networks
– Harvey Lehpamer
– Copyright © 2004 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
• Fundamentals of Microwave Communication
– Manny T. Rule
• Microwave Engineering Design Consideration
– Lenkurt
 • Frenzel, L.E. (2003). Principles of
electronic communication systems.
New York: McGraw-Hill/Giencoe
• Freeman, Roger (2007) Radio System
Design for Telecommunication, 3rd ed.
USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
• Lehpamer, Harvey (2004) Microwave
Transmission Networks. New York:
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
• Rule, Manny. Fundamentals of
Microwave Communication
• Lenkurt. Microwave Engineering
Photo Credit: pininterest.com

Design Consideration

Source: Electronic Devices 9th edition by Thomas Floyd

 Session 2

Waveguides and
Antennas
 At the end of this lesson,
the student is expected to:

• Discuss the role of

waveguides and
antennas in directing
microwave signals.
Photo Credit: authorjeniferchase.com

Source: Electronic Devices 9th edition by Thomas Floyd

 Waveguides

Microwave Tubes
Structure of Rectangular Waveguide
Model:

Infinite Perfect Conductor

 Rectangular Waveguides
In general, the term waveguide refers
to constructs that only support non-
TEM mode propagation. Such
constructs share an important trait:
they are unable to support wave
propagation below a certain
frequency, termed the cutoff frequency.
 Structure of Rectangular Waveguide
Modes: Model:
TEmn - voltage
TMmn - current
n
Example:
Dominant mode is
TE10 means m=1
and n=0. m
Standard Waveguides
 Condition for Wave Propagation
Model:

n
Cut-off vs Operating
C > 0
Fc < Fo m
 Cut-off Wavelength
Model:

m
 Cut-off Frequency
Model:

m
 Checking of Modes

Consider
TE10, TE01, TE11, TE21, TE12, TE22, …

Increasing wavelength →
 Checking of Modes

Evanescent Mode
TM10, TM01, TM11, TM21, TM12, TM22, …
TE10, TE01, TE11, TE21, TE12, TE22, …
 Definition

Evanescent modes are modes below

the cutoff frequency. They cannot
propagate down the waveguide for any
distance, dying away exponentially.
 Checking of Modes

Evanescent Mode
TM10, TM01, TM11, TM21, TM12, TM22, …
TE10, TE01, TE11, TE21, TE12, TE22, …
Check these three first.

Checking should proceed this way in TE →

e.g. if TE01 isn’t possible, then TE11 also and so
on…
Intrinsic Wave Impedance
Intrinsic Wave Impedance
Phase and Group Velocity
Phase and Group Velocity
PROBLEM SOLVING
The dimensions of a waveguide are 2.5 x 1
cm2. The frequency is 8.6 GHz. Find the
following:
a) Possible Mode
b) Cut off Frequency
c) Guide Wavelength
PROBLEM SOLVING
A rectangular waveguide is filled with a
dielectric material of relative permittivity
Equals 4. It has the inside dimensions of 3 x
1.2 cm2. Find the cut-off frequency for the
dominant mode.
PROBLEM SOLVING
The cut-off frequency of the dominant mode
of rectangular waveguide having aspect ratio
more than 2 is 10 GHz. What are the inner
wall dimensions?
 Microwave Antennas

Microwave Tubes
 Microwave Antennas
• Because of the line-of-sight transmission of
microwave signals, highly directive
antennas are preferred because they do
not waste the radiated energy and because
they provide an increase in gain, which
helps offset noise at microwave
frequencies.
 Microwave Antennas
Low-Frequency Antennas
– At low microwave frequencies, less than 2 GHz,
standard antennas are commonly used,
including the dipole and its variations.
– The corner reflector is a fat, wide-bandwidth,
half-wave dipole fed with low-loss coaxial
cable.
– The overall gain of a corner reflector antenna is
10 to 15 dB.
 Microwave Antennas
Low-Frequency Antennas

Examples of Corner Reflector

(taken from Google)
 Microwave Antennas

Figure 16-42: A corner reflector used with a dipole for low microwave frequencies.
 Microwave Antennas
Horn Antenna
– Microwave antennas must be some extension of or compatible
with a waveguide.
– Waveguide are not good radiators because they provide a poor
impedance match with free space. This results in standing waves
and reflected power.
– This mismatch can be offset by flaring the end of the waveguide
to create a horn antenna.
– Horn antennas have excellent gain and directivity.
– The gain and directivity of a horn are a direct function of its
dimensions; the most important dimensions are length,
aperture area, and flare angle.
 Microwave Antennas

Figure 16-43: Basic horn antenna.

 Microwave Antennas

Horn antenna types. (a) pyramidal, (b) sectoral, (c) conical, (d) horn with a
parabolic generatrix (taken from Google)
 Microwave Antennas
Horn Antenna
– Beamwidth – the angle formed by extending lines from
the center of the antenna response curve to the 3-dB
down points.
• B = 80λ/w
Where: w = horn width
λ = wavelength of operating frequency
– Gain
• G= 4πKA/λ2
Where: A = aperture of horn, m2
λ = wavelength, m
K = constant (usually 0.5 to 0.6)
 Microwave Antennas
Horn Antenna

Antenna’s beamwidth
Horn Antenna
– Bandwidth
- Bandwidth is an important consideration at
microwave frequencies because of the spectrum
transmitted on the microwave carrier is usually very
wide.
 Microwave Antennas
Example:
A horn antenna is operating at a frequency of 10 GHz. If
the pyramidal horn is 10 cm high and 12 cm wide, the
beamwidth is?

w= 12 cm = 0.12 m
λ = c/f = 3x108 / 10x109
= 0.03 m

B= 80λ/w = 80(0.03)/0.12
= 20˚
 Microwave Antennas
Example:
Taking the previous example, compute for the power
gain of the antenna.

A = height x width = 10 x 12 = 120 cm2

= 0.012 m2

G= 4λ(0.5)(0.012) / (0.03)2
= 83.7
G = 19.23 dB
 Microwave Antennas
Parabolic Antennas
– A parabolic reflector is a large dish-shaped
structure made of metal or screen mesh.
– The energy radiated by the horn is pointed at the
reflector, which focuses the radiated energy into a
narrow beam and reflects it toward its destination.
– Beam widths of only a few degrees are typical with
parabolic reflectors.
– Narrow beam widths also represent extremely
high gains.
 Microwave Antennas

Figure 16-48: Cross-sectional view of a parabolic dish antenna.

Parabolic Antenna

– Beamwidth
• B = 70λ/D
Where: D = diameter of the dish
λ = wavelength of operating frequency

– Gain
• G= 6(D/λ)2
Parabolic Antennas: Feed Methods
– A popular method of feeding a parabolic antenna is
an arrangement known as a Cassegrain feed.
– The horn antenna is positioned at the center of the
parabolic reflector.
– At the focal point is another small reflector with
either a parabolic or a hyperbolic shape.
– The electromagnetic radiation from the horn strikes
the small reflector, which then reflects the energy
toward the large dish which radiates the signal in
parallel beams.
 Microwave Antennas

Figure 16-51: Cassegrain feed.

 Microwave Antennas
Example:
A parabolic reflector antenna has a diameter of 5 ft.
Calculate:
a. the lowest possible operating frequency
b. the gain at 15 GHz
c. the beamwidth at 15 GHz

(The lowest operating frequency occurs where the dish

diameter is λ)
 Microwave Antennas
Sol’n:
a. λ = c/f
1.524 = 3x108/f
f = 196.8 MHz

b. λ = c/f
λ = 3x108/15x109
= 0.02m
 Microwave Antennas
Sol’n:
G = 6(D/λ)2
= 6(1.524/0.02)2
= 34,838.6

c. B = 70/(D/λ)
= 70/(1.524/0.02)
= 0.92˚
 Microwave Antennas
Helical Antennas
– A helical antenna, as its name suggests, is a wire helix.
– A center insulating support is used to hold heavy wire
or tubing formed into a circular coil or helix.
– The diameter of the helix is typically one-third
wavelength, and the spacing between turns is
approximately one-quarter wavelength.
– The gain of a helical antenna is typically in the 12- to
20-dB range and beam widths vary from
approximately 12° to 45°.
– Helical antennas are favored in many applications
because of their simplicity and low cost.
 Microwave Antennas
Helical Antennas

Pictures taken from Google

 Microwave Antennas

Figure 16-52: The helical antenna.

 Microwave Antennas
Bicone Antennas
– One of the most widely used omnidirectional
microwave antennas is the bicone.
– The signals are fed into bicone antennas
through a circular waveguide ending in a flared
cone.
– The upper cone acts as a reflector, causing the
signal to be radiated equally in all directions
with a very narrow vertical beam width.
 Microwave Antennas

Figure 16-53: The omnidirectional bicone antenna.

 Microwave Antennas
Slot Antennas
– A slot antenna is a radiator made by cutting a
one-half wavelength slot in a conducting sheet
of metal or into the side or top of a waveguide.
– The slot antenna has the same characteristics
as a standard dipole antenna, as long as the
metal sheet is very large compared to λ at the
operating frequency.
– Slot antennas are widely used on high-speed
aircraft where the antenna can be integrated
into the metallic skin of the aircraft.
 Microwave Antennas

Figure 16-54: Slot antennas on a waveguide. (a) Radiating slots. (b) Nonradiating
slots.
 Microwave Antennas

Examples of slot antennas on a waveguide (pictures taken from Google)

Dielectric (Lens) Antennas
– Dielectric or lens antennas use a special
dielectric material to collimate or focus the
microwaves from a source into a narrow beam.
– Lens antennas are usually made of polystyrene
or some other plastic, although other types of
dielectric can be used.
– Their main use is in the millimeter range above
40 GHz.
 Microwave Antennas

Figure 16-57: Lens antenna operations. (a) Dielectric lens. (b) Zoned lens.
Patch Antennas
– Patch antennas are made with microstrip on PCBs.
– The antenna is a circular or rectangular area of
copper separated from the ground plane on the
bottom of the board by the PCB’s insulating material.
– Patch antennas are small, inexpensive, and easy to
construct.
– Their bandwidth is directly related to the thickness
of the PCB material.
– Their radiation pattern is circular in the direction
opposite to that of the ground plane.
 Microwave Antennas
Phased Arrays
– A phased array is an antenna system made up of a
large group of similar antennas on a common plane.
– Patch antennas on a common PCB can be used, or
separate antennas like dipoles can be mounted
together in a plane.
– The basic purpose of an array is to improve gain and
directivity.
– Arrays also offer better control of directivity, since
individual antennas in an array can be turned off or
on, or driven through different phase shifters.
– Most phased arrays are used in radar systems, but
they are finding applications in some cell phone
systems and in satellites.
 Microwave Antennas

Figure 16-59: An 8 × 8 phase array using patch antennas. (Feed lines are not
shown.)
 Microwave Antennas
Printed-Circuit Antennas
– Because antennas are so small at microwave
frequencies, they can be conveniently made
right on a printed-circuit board that also holds
the transmitter and/or receiver ICs and related
circuits.
– No separate antenna structure, feed line, or
connectors are needed.
 Microwave Antennas
Intelligent Antenna Technology
– Intelligent antennas or smart antennas are
antennas that work in conjunction with
electronic decision-making circuits to modify
antenna performance to fit changing
situations.
– They adapt to the signals being received and
the environment in which they transmit.
 Microwave Antennas
Intelligent Antenna Technology
– Also called adaptive antennas, these new
designs greatly improve transmission and
reception in multipath environments and can
also multiply the number of users of a wireless
system.
– Some popular adaptive antennas today use
diversity, multiple-input multiple-output, and
automatic beam forming.
Adaptive Beam Forming
– Adaptive antennas are systems that
automatically adjust their characteristics to the
environment.
– They use beam-forming and beam-pointing
techniques to zero in on signals to be received
and to ensure transmission under noisy
conditions.
– Beam-forming antennas use multiple antennas
such as phase arrays.
 Microwave Antennas
Adaptive Beam Forming
– There are two kinds of adaptive antennas:
switched beam arrays and adaptive arrays.
– Both switched beam arrays and adaptive arrays
are being employed in some cell phone
systems and in newer wireless LANs.
– They are particularly beneficial to cell phone
systems because they can boost the system
capacity.
Microwave Applications
Figure 16-64: Major applications
of microwave radio.
 Microwave Applications
Radar
– There are two basic types of radar systems: pulsed
and continuous-wave (CW).
– The pulsed type is the most commonly used radar
system.
– Signals are transmitted in short bursts or pulses.
– The time between transmitted pulses is known as
the pulse repetition time (PRT).
– In continuous-wave (CW) radar, a constant-
amplitude continuous microwave sine wave is
transmitted.
 Microwave Applications
Radar: UWB
– The newest form of radar is called ultrawideband
(UWB) radar.
– It is a form of pulsed radar that radiates a stream
of very short pulses several hundred picoseconds
long.
– The very narrow pulses give this radar extreme
precision and resolution of small objects and
details.
– The low power used restricts operation to short
distances.
 Microwave Applications
Radar: UWB
– The circuitry used is simple, so it is possible to
make inexpensive, single-chip radars.
– These are used in short-range collision detection
systems in airplanes and soon will be in
automobiles for automatic braking based upon
distance from the vehicle ahead.
– Another application of UWB radar is personnel
detection on the battlefield. These radars can
penetrate walls to detect the presence of human
beings.
 • Frenzel, L.E. (2003). Principles of
electronic communication systems.
New York: McGraw-Hill/Giencoe
• Freeman, Roger (2007) Radio System
Design for Telecommunication, 3rd ed.
USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
• Lehpamer, Harvey (2004) Microwave
Transmission Networks. New York:
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
• Rule, Manny. Fundamentals of
Microwave Communication
• Lenkurt. Microwave Engineering
Photo Credit: pininterest.com

Design Consideration

Source: Electronic Devices 9th edition by Thomas Floyd

 Session 3

Microwave Tubes
and Solid-state
Devices
 At the end of this lesson,
the student is expected to:

• Determine the
microwave tubes and
solid state devices that
are used in microwave
communications.
Photo Credit: authorjeniferchase.com

Source: Electronic Devices 9th edition by Thomas Floyd

 Microwave Diodes
APPRECIATING THEIR VITAL
ROLE IN MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATION

Microwave Tubes
• V.T. or Thermionic Valve are
devices used for controlling a
large current with a small
voltage to produce
amplification, oscillation,
switching, and other
operations.
• Vacuum tubes are used in
microwave transmitters
requiring high output power.

Introduction to Programming
Special microwave tubes
such as the klystron, the
magnetron, and the
traveling-wave tube are
widely used for microwave .

Introduction to Programming
• A klystron is a microwave
vacuum tube using cavity
resonators to produce velocity
modulation of an electron
beam that produces
amplification.
• It is a vacuum tube that can
The klystron is a device for
amplifying microwave
frequency signals that
achieve high levels of power
gain by applying vacuum tube
principles and the concept of
“electron bunching”

be used either as a generator

or as an amplifier of power, at
microwave frequencies.

Microwave Communications
➢ As power output tubes
1. in UHF TV transmitters
2. in troposphere scatter transmitters
3. satellite communication ground station
4. radar transmitters
➢ As power oscillator
- For frequencies 5 – 50 GHz
- if used as a klystron oscillator
➢The reflex klystron has
been the most used source
of microwave power in
laboratory applications.

Introduction to Programming
Repeller
Space

eE
eR
eL
 VE < V R < V L

Microwave Communications
➢The feedback necessary for electrical oscillations
is developed by reflecting the electron beam, the
velocity modulated electron beam does not actually
reach the repeller plate, but is repelled back by the
negative voltage.
➢The point at which the electron beam is turned
back can be varied by adjusting the repeller voltage.
➢Klystrons are no longer widely used in most
microwave equipment.
➢Gunn diodes have replaced the smaller
reflex klystrons in signal-generating
applications because they are smaller and
lower in cost.
➢The larger multicavity klystrons are being
replaced by various semiconductor
oscillators.
A widely used microwave tube
is the magnetron, a
combination of a simple diode
vacuum tube with built-in
cavity resonators and an
extremely powerful magnet.
Cathode 180O Phase Apart

Anode Plate

Anode Cavity

RF Input
Cathode

E
Anode Plate e-

Anode Cavity

RF Input
 e-

B
Fm The Higher the
e- Magnetic Field, the
Less the no. of
Electrons Passing
B Through
Magnetrons are capable of
developing high levels of
microwave power.
When operated in a pulsed
mode, magnetrons can
generate several megawatts
of power.
A typical application for a
continuous-wave
magnetron is for heating
purposes in microwave
ovens.
It is important that there is food in
the oven when it is operated so
that these waves are absorbed,
rather than reflecting into the
waveguide where the intensity of
standing waves can cause arcing.
The arcing, if allowed to occur for
long periods, will destroy the
magnetron.
In microwave-excited lighting
systems, such as Sulphur
Lamps, a magnetron provides
the microwave field that is
passed through a waveguide to
the lighting cavity containing
the light-emitting substance
(e.g. Sulfur, metal halides etc.)
One of the most versatile
microwave RF power
amplifiers is the traveling-
wave tube (TWT), which
can generate hundreds
and even thousands of
watts of microwave
power.
The main advantage of the
TWT is an extremely wide
bandwidth.
Traveling-wave tubes can be
made to amplify signals in a
range from UHF to hundreds
of gigahertz.
A common application of
TWTs is as power amplifiers in
satellite transponders.
 Microwave Diodes
APPRECIATING THEIR VITAL
ROLE IN MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATION

Microwave Tubes
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes

Small Signal Diodes

– Diodes used for signal detection and mixing are
the most common microwave semiconductor
devices.
– Two types of widely used microwave diodes
are:
• Point-contact diode
• Schottky barrier or hot-carrier diode
 Microwave
Semiconductor Diodes
Small Signal Diodes: Point-Contact Diode
– The oldest microwave semiconductor device is the
point-contact diode, also called a crystal diode.
– A point-contact diode is a piece of semiconductor
material and a fine wire that makes contact with the
semiconductor material.
– Point-contact diodes are ideal for small-signal
applications.
– They are widely used in microwave mixers and
detectors and in microwave power measurement
equipment.
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes

An actual point contact diode

Figure 16-35: A point-contact diode.

Small Signal Diodes: Hot Carrier Diodes
– For the most part, point-contact diodes have been replaced by Schottky
diodes, sometimes referred to as hot carrier diodes.
– Most Schottky diodes are made with N-typesilicon on which has
deposited a thin metal layer.
– Like the point-contact diode, the Schottky diode is extremely small and
has a tiny junction capacitance.
– Schottky diodes are widely used in balanced modulators and
mixers.
– They are also used as fast switches at microwave frequencies.
 An actual Schottky diode
(taken from google)

Figure 16-36: Hot carrier or Schottky diode.

Frequency-Multiplier Diodes
– Microwave diodes designed primarily for
frequency-multiplier servic
• Varactor diodes
• Step-recovery diodes

A step-recovery diode
A varactor diode (taken from Google)
Frequency-Multiplier Diodes: Varactor Diodes
– A varactor diode is basically a voltage variable capacitor.
– When a reverse bias is applied to the diode, it acts like a
capacitor.
– A varactor is primarily used in microwave circuits as a
frequency multiplier.
– Varactors are used in applications in which it is difficult
to generate microwavesignals.
– Varactor diodes are available for producing relatively high
power outputs at frequencies up to 100 GHz.
Characteristic Graph of Varactors
Frequency-Multiplier Diodes: Step-Recovery Diodes
– A step-recovery diode or snap-off varactor is widelyused in microwave
frequency-multiplier circuits. (extreme short pulses)
– A step-recovery diode is a PN-junction diode made with gallium
arsenide or silicon.
– When it is forward-biased, it conducts as any diode, but a
charge is stored in the depletion layer.
– When reverse bias is applied, the charge keeps the diode on
momentarily and then turns offabruptly.
– This snap-off produces a high intensity reverse-current
pulse that is rich in harmonics.
Characteristic Graph of Step
Recovery Diode
 Oscillator Diodes

– Three types of diodes other than the tunnel

diode that can oscillate due to negative
resistance characteristics are:
• Gunn diode
• IMPATTdiode
• TRAPATTdiode
Oscillator Diodes: Gunn Diodes

– Gunn diodes, also called transferred-electron

devices (TEDs), are not diodes in the usualsense
because they do not havejunctions.
– A Gunn diode is a thin piece of N-type gallium
arsenide (GaAs) or indium phosphide (InP)
semiconductor which forms a special resistor when
voltage is applied to it.
– The Gunn diode exhibits a negative-resistance
characteristic.
– Gunn diodes oscillate at frequencies up to 150GHz.
Characteristic GUNN Diodes
 Microwave
Semiconductor Diodes
Oscillator Diodes: IMPATT and TRAPATT
Diodes
– IMPATT diodes are available with power ratings
up to 25 W to frequencies as high as 300 GHz.
– IMPATT are preferred over Gunn diodes if
higher power is required.
PIN Diodes
– A PIN diode is a special PN-junction diode with anI (intrinsic)
layer between the Pand the Nsections.
– The Pand N layers are usually silicon, although GaAs is
sometimes used and the I layer is a very lightly doped N-type
semiconductor.
– PIN diodes are used as switches in microwave circuits.
– PIN diodes are widely used to switch sections of quarter-
or half-wavelength transmission linesto provide varying
phase shifts in acircuit.
A Perfect Resistor at High Frequencies
(Varistor; Never switches off)
 MICROWAVE TRANSISTORS
APPRECIATING THEIR VITAL
ROLE IN MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATION

Microwave Tubes
 Microwave Transistors
The primary differences between standard lower
frequency transistors and microwave types are internal
geometry and packaging.
– To reduce internal inductances and capacitances of
transistor elements, special chip configurations known as
geometries are used.
– Geometries permit the transistor to operate at higher
power levels and at the same time minimize distributed and
stray inductances and capacitances.
 Microwave Transistors
– The GaAs MESFET, a type of JFET using a Schottky
barrier junction, can operate at frequencies above 5 GHz.
– A high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) is a variant
of the MESFET and extends the range beyond 20 GHz by
adding an extra layer of semiconductor material such as
AlGaAs.
– A popular device known as a hetero-junction bipolar
transistor (HBT) is making even higherfrequency
amplification possible in discrete form and in integrated
circuits. It can operate up to 200 GHz.
 Small Signal Amplifiers
A low-noise transistor with a gain of about 10
to 25 dB is typically used as a microwave
amplifier.
– Most microwave amplifiers are designed to
have input and output impedances of 50 Ω.
– The transistor is biased into the linear region
for class A operation.
– Ferrite beads (FB) are used in the collector
supply lead for further decoupling.
 Small Signal Amplifiers
– A common monolithic microwave integrated circuit
(MMIC) amplifier is one that incorporates two or more
stages of FET or bipolar transistors made on a common
chip to form a multistage amplifier.
– The chip also incorporates resistors for biasing and small
bypass capacitors.
– Physically, these devices look like transistors.
– Another form of MMIC is the hybrid circuit, which
combines an amplifier IC connected to microstrip circuits
and discrete components.
 Power Amplifiers
– A common monolithic microwave integrated circuit
(MMIC) amplifier is one that incorporates two or more
stages of FET or bipolar transistors made on a common
chip to form a multistage amplifier.
– The chip also incorporates resistors for biasing and small
bypass capacitors.
– Physically, these devices look like transistors.
– Another form of MMIC is the hybrid circuit, which
combines an amplifier IC connected to microstrip circuits
and discrete components.
 Small Signal Amplifiers
– A typical class A microwave power amplifier is designed
with microstrip lines used for impedance matching and
tuning.
– Input and output impedances are 50 Ω.
– Typical power-supply voltages are 12, 24, and 28 volts.
– Most power amplifiers obtain their bias from constant-
current sources.
– A single-stage FET power amplifier can achieve a
power output of 100 W in the high UHF and low
microwave region.
MICROWAVE SOLID STATE DEVICES
EFFICIENCY
APPRECIATING THEIR VITAL
ROLE IN MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATION

Microwave Tubes
 Solid State Devices Efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how well a device
converts one energy source to another. What
doesn't get converted to goes into heat; heat is
almost universally a bad by-product of energy
conversion.
 Solid State Devices Efficiency
In microwave engineering, we are interested in
converting DC power to RF power. The higher
the power amp efficiency, the longer the cell
phone can operate. Some Class-E power
amplifiers have been known to exceed 80%
efficiency.
 Solid State Devices Efficiency
Maximum efficiency of a microwave device is a
function of frequency, temperature, input drive
level, load impedance, bias point, device
geometry, and intrinsic device characteristics. It
is truly a multidimensional problem! You can
determine the maximum efficiency under
different conditions using load pull.
 Solid State Devices Efficiency
Note that laws of thermodynamics won't allow
100% efficiency, no matter how you calculate it.

Some switching voltage regulators can convert

one voltage to another with an amazing 90%
efficiency.
 Five Measures of Efficiency
Drain efficiency is gets its name from FET
devices, where the primary terminal where DC
power is supplied is the drain. Drain efficiency
is the ratio of output RF power to input DC
power:
 Five Measures of Efficiency
Power added efficiency is similar to drain
efficiency, but it takes into account the RF
power that is added to the device at its input,
in the numerator. PAE is the most-accepted
figure-of-merit to use to compare single
devices.
 Five Measures of Efficiency
In a theoretical sense, an amplifier with infinite gain
will have power added efficiency equal to drain
efficiency. For a real amplifier, PAE will always be less
than drain efficiency, but once you get to 30 dB gain
or so, the two quantities become very close in value
because input power will be less than 0.1% of output
power (30 dB gain is 1000 in linear scale).You can
express PAE in terms of drain efficiency, you will get:
 Five Measures of Efficiency
For an amplifier with 30 dB gain, PAE and drain
efficiency differ by just 0.1 percent (999/1000).

The maximum possible power-added efficiency

of a device always decreases with frequency.
This is because the natural tendency for
maximum gain of an active device to decrease
with frequency.
 Five Measures of Efficiency
Total efficiency, sometimes called overall efficiency, gives
a more-complete picture of the ratio of output power to
both types of input power (DC and RF):

Total efficiency is the measure that makes the most sense

from a thermodynamic point of view. But PAE is still the
most popular measure in the microwave community.
 Five Measures of Efficiency
Amplifier efficiency is the ratio of RF output power to
DC input power, and is the best for a multi-stage amplifier.
You can assume this is a "peak" measurement if you are
considering a pulsed amplifier. In practice, for an amplifier
with high gain: amplifier efficiency, PAE and total efficiency
will be close enough to be equal. Amplifier efficiency is the
accepted measurement of an amplifier product.
 Five Measures of Efficiency
By wall plug efficiency, we mean if you compared
average RF output power to exact measured power that is
consumed by the product from its AC wall plug, ignoring
the effect of RF input power.
Benchmarks
 • Frenzel, L.E. (2003). Principles of
electronic communication systems.
New York: McGraw-Hill/Giencoe
• Freeman, Roger (2007) Radio System
Design for Telecommunication, 3rd ed.
USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
• Lehpamer, Harvey (2004) Microwave
Transmission Networks. New York:
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
• Rule, Manny. Fundamentals of
Microwave Communication
• Lenkurt. Microwave Engineering
Photo Credit: pininterest.com

Design Consideration

Source: Electronic Devices 9th edition by Thomas Floyd