1.

·Aloofness, appeasement and resistance were the three weapons used by the Delhi Sultans to face
the Mongol challenge'. Explain briefly.
Answer: The Mongol:
The Mongols were the brave, fearless, uncivilized, cruel tribes from Central Asia. They invaded India
during the Sultanate period. They invaded India a number of times from 1221 to 1327. They took over
many parts of Pakistan and Punjab and occupied them for many decades. Changiz Khan led the
invasions into India and defeated the King of Khuarzim near the Indus river. The Mongols used to invade
India whenever there was a weak ruler in Delhi. In 1241 they destroyed Lahore. In
1245, they attacked Sindh and beseeched the fort of Uch.
They were led by Mangu, the grandson of Changiz Khan. However, they were defeated by the troops
under the leadership of Balban. They invaded India again in 1257 AD during the rule of Nasir-ud-din.
They were led by Nuyin Sari. At that time Balban was the Prime Minister. He filled the forts with
armed soldiers and thus checked the invasion of the Mongols. Halaku, a grandson of Changiz Khan,
sent a representative to the Sultan's court. This gesture of friendship helped to maintain peace. There
was no invasion during his reign.
The Mongols invaded India twice, once in 1279 and again in 1285 when Balban had become the
Sultan. He made a comprehensive plan and adopted a systematic frontier policy to stop their invasions.
The country enjoyed peace and order for a long time under him. But it was not possible for Balban to
leave Delhi and conquer far off places in India due to the Mongol invasions. During Jala-ud-din Khilji's
rule there were repeated invasions of the Mongols. They penetrated into the interior parts of India
under Abdullah in 1292. But they were defeated. The Sultan made a settlement near Delhi for the
Mongols who wanted to settle in India. They invaded India again when Muhammad Tughlaq shifted his
capital from Delhi to Devagiri, After 1330 the Mongol invasions stopped.
Weapons used by the Delhi Sultans to face the Mongol challenge:
1. Aloofness: Iltutmish followed this policy. Mongol threat as early as A.D. 1221 when, after
destroying the Khwarizmi empire, Chengiz Khan reached the Indian frontiers. In 1221, Chingez loitered
around the Indus for three months, after defeating the Khwarizmi prince, Jalaluddin Mangbarani after
pursuing him into India from Samarkand and defeating him at the battle of Indus. Jalaluddin crossed Indus
and entered India (cis-Indus region). The prince had formed an alliance with the Khokhars who dominated
the tract upto the Salt Ranges. The Mongol commander Bala chased Jalaluddin throughout the Punjab
region and attacked outlying towns like Bhera and Multan and had even sacked the outskirts of Lahore.
Jalaluddin regrouped and sought an alliance, or even an asylum, with Illtutmish but was turned down
saying that the climate was not suitable for him. Minhaj Siraj mentions that Iltutmish led an expedition
against Mangbarni but the latter avoided any confrontation and finally left the Indian soil in A.D. 1224.
Ata-Malik Juvayni (1226-1283) in his Tarikh-i Jahan Gusha opined what factors compelled IIltutmish to
follow the policy of 'aloofness': Iltutmish smelt danger from Mangbarni who might "gain an ascendancy
over him and involve him in ruin." Iltutmish was also aware of the weaknesses ofthe Sultanate.
Chengiz Khan is reported to have sent his envoy to Iltutmish's court. Before departing from the area,
Chingez sent envoys to Iltutmish, the sultan at Delhi, that he (Chingez) had given up the project of
sending his army to Hindustan and returning to China by way of Gilgit or Assam. It suggests that Chingez
had contemplated the invasion of north India, but gave up the idea, either because of Iltutmish's refusal
to help prince Jalaluddin, or because of a rebellion in Turkistan, which needed the
attention of Chingez. So long as Chengiz Khan was alive (d. A.D. 1227), Iltutmish did not adopt an
expansionist policy in the north-west region.
2. Appeasement: Shift from Iltutmish's policy of 'aloofness' to 'appeasement' was the result of the
extension of the sultanate frontier up to Lahore and Multan which exposed the Sultanate directly to the
Mongol incursions with no buffer state left between them. Raziya's discouraging response to anti-
Mongol alliance, proposed by Hasan Qarlugh of Bamyan is indicator of her appeasement policy. This
policy of non-aggression was due primarily to: The partitioning of the Chengirs empire among his sons
which weakened their power and ALso on account of the Mongol pre-occupation in West-Asia. Between
1240-66, the Mongols for the first time embarked upon the policy of annexation of India and the golden
phase of mutual 'non-aggressionpact' with Delhi ended.
Reason:The main reason was the change in the situation in Central Asia. The Mongol Khan of Transoxiana
found it difficult to face the might of the Persian Khanate and, thus, was left with no alternative except to
try his luck in India. In 1241, Mongol under Tair Bahadur invaded Lahore and completely destroyed the
city. The Turkish governor was ill-prepared to stand a siege, and was further hampered because many of
the inhabitants were merchants who regularly traded in the Mongol territories, and were not prepared
to aid and help the governor for fear of Mongol reprisals.
Also, there was little hope of any help coming from Delhi where there was utter confusion following the
death of Razia. Hence, the governor abandoned the city. After capturing the city the Mongols
encountered stiff resistance from the citizens and many Mongols including Tair Bahadur were killed.
The Mongols in vengeance killed or enslaved all the citizens of Lahore, and devastated the city. Then
they suddenly retreated because the Mongol Qa-an, Ogtai, had died. Although Lahore was reoccupied
by Delhi, for the next twenty years Lahore remained in a ruined condition, being sacked on several
occasions either by the Mongols or by their Khokhar allies. It was followed by two successive invasions
in A.D. 1245-46. Although Balban wanted to adopt a bold policy, and clear the area upto the Koh-i-Jud
from the Mongols, along with the Khokhars who were siding with them, little could be done due to the
factionalism in the Turkish nobility.
Hence, the frontier commanders of Multan and Sindh were left largely to their own devises to cope
with the Mongols. In consequence, some of them came to terms with the Mongols, even setting
themselves up as independent rulers under Mongol overlordship. In spite of the best efforts of
Balban (who became naib) during the reign of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud, the Sultanate frontier
during AD. 1244-66 stood at Beas.
3. Resistance: This distinct change in Delhi Sultan's policy can be seen from Balban's reign onwards.
By the time Balban ascended the throne in 1266, Halaku had died, thereby ending goodwill between
the Mongols and the ruler of Delhi. The situation on the ground had not, however, changed. Although
Balban's cousin, Sher Khan, who was the warden of the marches, holding the iqtas of Lahore, Sunam,
Dipalpur etc. acted as a shield against the Mongols. By and large, Balban remained in Delhi and his
energies concentrated mainly in keeping away the Mongols, at least from the Beas. Barani mentions,
when the two nobles Tamir Khan and Adil Khan suggested the conquest of Malwa and Gujarat and advised
him to pursue an expansionist policy Balban replied:
"When the Mongols have occupied all lands of !slam. devastated Lahore and made it a point to invade
our country once in every year. If I move out of the capital the Mongols are sure to avail themselves of
the opportunity by sacking Delhi and ravaging the Doab. Making peace and consolidating our power in
our own kingdom is far better than invading foreign territories while our own kingdom is insecure"

Mongols were able frequently to cross the Beas. At the outset, Balban adopted a forward policy. After
clearing the roads in the doab, he marched his army towards Koh-i-Jud. He ravaged the mountainous
tract and its neighbouring areas, and captured
large number of horses, leading to a sharp decline in the price of horses in Delhi. Balban used both
'force and diplomacy' against the Mongols. He took some measures to strengthen his line of defence.
Forts at Bhatinda, Sunam and Samana were reinforced to check any Mongol advance beyond Beas.
In 1270, he ordered the fort of Lahore to be rebuilt, and appointed architects to rebuild the city.
However, soon afterwards, Balban had Sher Khan, whom he suspected of harbouring dreams of
independence, to be poisoned. He then entrusted the defence ofthe frontier tracts to his eldest son,
Prince Muhammad.
Prince Muhammad was an able and energetic prince, and it appears that during the remaining years of
Balban's reign, while the Mongol atatcks continued, his defensive arrangements at Muttan and Lahore,
with the river Beas as the line of military defence, continued to hold. Barani says that the Mongols no
longer dared to attack across the Beas, and Mongol forces could not face the forces of Prince Muhammad
from Multan, Bughra Khan from Samana, and Malik BarbakBakatarse from Delhi.
The impact of the Mongol invasions on the Delhi Sultan:
i. Mongol attacks on the Delhi Sultanate increased during the reign of Alauddin Khaiji and in the early
years of Muhammad Tughluq's rule. Hence, a vast standing army was established under these two rulers
to confront Mongol invasions. Alauddin constructed a new garrison town named Siri for his soldiers.
ii. Mongol was a group of people who were the resident of the Mongolia region of the ancient China.
iii. The Mongols were famous because they attacked and tried to conquer almost every country in the
ancient Eurasia. iv. They also attacked India, during the sultanate period.
v. The Mongol attacks caused a major harm to the Sultanate kingdom which became a vital
reason for the upcoming immersion of the sultanate era in our country.

2. Critically examine the growth of Sufi movement in India.

Answer: Sufi movement in India:
The Sufi movement was a socio-religious movement of fourteenth to sixteenth century. The exponents of
this movement were unorthodox Muslim saints who had a deep study of vedantic philosophy and
Buddhism of India. They had gone through various religious text of India and had come in contact with
great sages and seers of India. They could see the Indian religion from very near and realized its inner
values. Accordingly they developed Islamic Philosophy which at last gave birth to the Sufi Movement.

The Sufi movement therefore was the result of the Hindu influence on Islam. This movement influenced
both the Muslims and Hindus and thus, provided a common platform for the two.Though the Sufis were
devout Muslims, yet they differed from the orthodox Muslims. While the former believed in inner
purity, the latter believed in external conduct. The union of the human soul with God through love and
devotion was the essence of the teachings of the Sufi Saints. The method of their realizing God was the
renunciation ofthe World and Worldly pleasures. They lived a secluded life.

They were called Sufis as they wore garments of Wool (suf) as their budge of poverty. Thus the name "Sufi'
is derived from the word Suf. They consider love to be the only means of reaching God. Historian Tara
Chand says, "Sufism indeed was a religion of intense devotion, love was its passion; poetry, song and
dance, its worship and passing away in God its ideal". The Sufis did not attach importance to namaz, hajj
and celibacy. That is why they were misunderstood by orthodox muslims. They regarded Singing and
dancing as methods of inducing a state of ecstasy which brought one nearer torealisation of God. There
were some leading Sufi saints like Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti, Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, Nizam-ud-din
Auliya etc.

Summary on Sufi Movement in India:

Synthesises variety of ideas and practices from Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism. It
aimed at service of mankind through spiritual self development Eager for Hindu-Muslim unity and
cultural synthesis Opposed to orthodoxy preached faith and devotion to the God. Opposes the
materialistic life but not in favour of complete renunciation. Organised in different orders (Silsilas)
The Sufi orders were divided into two: Ba-shara those who followed the Islamic law; and Be-shara those
who were not bound by Islamic law.

List of Sufi order, Founder and Principle:

 Origin of Sufism:
It is generally believed that Sufism is derived from two Arabie words i.e. Saf and Suf. The word Saf means a
carpet. Since the Sufis meditated upon God on a carpet, Sufism took its birth ie. pure people who
meditated on a carpet. The word 'Sufi derives its name from another Arabie word "Suf which means
wool. The Muslim saints who wore garments of coarse wool began to be called Sufi saints. The first
epoch of Sufism is said to have begun in the seventh century A.D. Sufism entered
India in the 12th century with Muslim invaders and became popular in the 13th century.

Main Features of Sufism:

i. Sufism derives is inspiration from Islam. While the orthodox Muslims depend upon external conduct
and blind observance ofreligious rituals, the Sufi saints seek inner purity.
ii. According to Sufi saints, God is the beloved of the lover ('Mashook") ie. the devotee and the devotee is
eager to meet his beloved (God).
iii. The Sufis think that love and devotion are the only means of reaching God.
iv. Along with Prophet Muhammad, they also attach great importance to their 'Murshid' or 'Pir' (Guru).
v. Devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz)
vi. Sufism does not believe in caste system.
vii. Sufism emphasizes upon leading a simple life. viii. Sufi saints preached in Arabic, Persian and
ix. The Sufis were divided into 12 orders each under a mystic Sufi saint. Prominent Sufi Saints.

3. Briefly discuss the role and functions of Brahmans in Vijayanagara empire. Answer:
The Vijayanagar empire, 1336--1646:
Founded in 1336 in the wake of the rebellions against Tughluq rule in the Deccan, the Hindu
Vijayanagar empire lasted for more than two centuries as the dominant power in south India. Its
history and fortunes were shaped by the increasing militarization of peninsular polities after the
Muslim invasions and the commercialization that made south India a major participant in the trade
network linking Europe and East Asia. Urbanization and monetization of the economy were the two
other significant developments of the period that brought all the peninsular kingdoms into highly
competitive political and military activities in the race for supremacy.

Role and functions of Brahmans inVijayanagara empire:

The temple also served as a bank, an educational centre, a place of justice and provided place for
important meetings. Temples provided boarding and lodging facilities to the ascetics, Brahmins,
students, guests and pilgrims. As a result temple developed into a large socio-religious economic and
cultural institution.The empire's legacy includes many monuments
spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. Different temple building
traditions in South and Central India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. This synthesis
inspired architectural innovation in Hindu temples' construction. Efficient administration and vigorous
overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.
The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu,
Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatie music evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire
created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a
unifying factor.

The temple also served as a bank, an educational centre, a place of justice and provided place for
important meetings. Temples provided boarding and lodging facilities to the ascetics, Brahmins,
students, guests and pilgrims. As a result temple developed into a large socio-religious economic and
cultural institution.
Temples provided boarding and lodging facilities to the ascetics, Brahmins, students, guests and
pilgrims. As a result temple developed into a large socio-religious economic and cultural institution. ...
Different temple building traditions in South and Central India came together in the Vijayanagara
Architecture style. These two institutions played a notable role in the religious and cultural life ofthe
people.
Regular performance of the rituals in the temples was ensured by grant of tax- free lands to the temples of
grant of taxes and tolls etc., that were otherwise due to the state, or to persons who were successful
bidders in the auctions of these tools. The rituals in the temples increased. The Kalyanotsavas of Gods
were popular, and much business was transacted at the time of such temple festivals.
The temple, created employment to many people. Architects, sculptors, astrologers, priests, potters,
goldsmiths, scholars in Vedic, epic and sectarian learning, and blacksmiths, musicians, dancers
instrumentalists all found a place in the temple establishments. They were allotted a piece of land
belonging to the temples, as remuneration for their service. The affairs of the temple were managed by
the Sthanikas or trustees, who must have wielded much influence. They could appoint and dismiss
temple servants. They got the temple lands cultivated, and could dispose of the yield in a suitable manner.
The cash donations made to the temple must have been given as loans for the needy. Some of the
temples undertook humanitarian works like the maintenance of a hospital. Thus, the temple had a role
in the socio- cultural spheres, in addition to the propagation ofreligion.

The Mathas's duty was to preach the sectarian learning and spread its message to the people. It was a
place where the monks of that sect lived. A number of mathas were powerful during the Vijayanagar
period: Sringeri matha, Kanchi Kamakoti pitha, Pushpagiri matha, Vyasaraya matha, etc. They received the
munificence ofthe State for their maintenance

4. Write a note on Mughal mansab system.

Answer: Mansab System:
The mansabdari system, introduced by Akbar, is a standout feature of the Mughal administration. Under
this system, every officer of the Mughal empire was given a rank or 'mansab'. The lowest rank in the
system was 10 whereas the highest was
5000 for the nobles. It was a grading system used by the Mughals to decide rank, salary and military
responsibilities. The ranks were divided into two, namely zat and sawar. Zat fixed the personal status of a
person and the salary due to him.

The sawar rank implied the number of cavalrymen or sawar a mansabdar was required to maintain. For
every ten cavalrymen, the mansabdar had to maintain twenty horses.The mansabdars got their
salaries in terms of revenue assignments called jagirs. It was not a resident assignment and the revenue
was often collected by themansabdar's servants on his behalf while he himself served in some other part of
the country.

Genesis of Mansabdari System:

The origins of theMansabdari system, however, can be traced back to Changez Khan. Changez Khan
organized his army on a decimal basis, the lowest unit of his army was ten, and the highest ten thousand
(toman) whose commander was known as
'Khan. Then, it was first introduced by Babur in North India. But it was Akbar, who institutionalized it in
Mughal military set up and civil administration after reforming and introduction of two new concepts
namely 'Zat and 'Sawar.'

Nature of Mansabdari System:

The mansabdars constituted the ruling section in the imperial structure. The Mansabdars were said to
be the pillars of the Mughal administration; the entire nobility, in fact belonged to mansabs; among
them one or the other held a mansab. Mansabdari system was nothing but a system of nobles or
mansabdars under which a mansabdar or noble was granted the rights to hold a jaguar which meant
revenue assignments (not the land itself) for services rendered by them, but the authority
bestowed upon them was not unbridled but with the direct control ofthese nobles in the hands of the king.

Mechanism of Mansabdari System:

As above-mentioned mansabdars were paid either in cash (naqd) or in the form of assignments of areas
of land (jagir) out of which they had the entitlement to collect the land revenue and all other taxes
through an authority appointed by the emperor. The revenue that was generated through their jagir
was handed over to them and the same was deducted from their salary. The mansabdar paid the salary
of cavalrymen that he maintained out of his salary. Those who received pay in cash were known as
naqdi and those paid through assignments ofjagirs were calledjagirdars.

Structure ofMansadbdari System:

The mansab or rank was designated by dual representation - one by personal rank (called zat) and the
other by cavalry rank (called sawar). Every mansabdar was given the rank of both zat and sawar and a
mansabdar was paid rupees two per horse. To elaborate it further, a mansabdar was given rupees one
thousand additional allowance if he had received the rank of five hundred sawars. For instance, Raja
Man Singh was not a minister and still enjoyed a higher rank than Abul Fazal who was a minister in the
court of Emperor.

Classification of Mansabdari System:

Broadly, there were three categories among the mansabdars .Those holding ranks below 500 zat were
known as mansabdars, those holding ranks of more than 500 zat that, but below 2,500 zat were named
amirs and fall in the second category. In the administration, the third category was of amir-i-umda or
amir-i-azam or omrahs -those mansabdars who holding the ranks of
2,500 zat and more. The lowest rank holder was provided with 10 mansabs. Mansingh,the first
Mansabdar of 7000 zats and

Bhagwan Das with 5000 zats ,enjoyed the privileged positions in the Mansabdari system of the empire.
It is noteworthy that most of the Mansabdars were foreigners or were of Central Asian, Turk, Persian and
Afghan origin, though there were also a small number of Indians who also got appointments as
mansabdars. During Mughal Akbar's reign the mansabs (ranks) ranged from 10 to 5,000 troops. Later on,
the highest number of mansabs was raised from 10,000 to 12,000; thus there was no fixed number of
mansabdars.

5. Mention various agricultural techniques used during the 13-15th centuries in India. Answer:
Various agricultural techniques used during the 13-15th centuries in India:

The most important agricultural advances took place in the countries north of the Alps, in spite of the
largepopulation changes and warfare that accompanied the great migrations and the later onslaughts of
Northmen and Saracens. Agriculture had, of course, been practiced regularly in Gaul and Britain and
sporadically elsewhere in Europe both before and during the Roman epoch. The climate and soils and,
perhaps, the social organization compelled different arrangements of land division and the use of more-
complex tools as more and more farmland was converted from forest, marsh, and heath to meet the
needs of a rising population.

1. Open Field System: The precise origin of the open-field arrangement, which involves long strips of
arable land separated from each other by a furrow, balk (ridge of land left after plowing), or mere
(boundary), is obscure. The earliest examples of this system date from roughly 800, the year Charlemagne
was crowned emperor of the West. Usually these strips of land, normally about I acre (0.4 hectare) in
size, were laid out in two or three large fields. Each farmer in the village worked a number of these
acres; the units forming his holding were scattered among those of other men. The open-field system
continued as more land was reclaimed and lasted for many centurieslonger, of course, in some places
than in others. It has been suggested that the length of each strip was determined by the distance a draft
animal, usually an ox, could haul a plow before stopping for a rest.
A subsequent theory holds that in some places the division of fields, which may have originally been
rectangular or square, among a number of heirs led to the creation of long, narrow acres. In theory
each person's holding totaled 30 acres (12 hectares), comprising strips equally divided between the
three arable fields. With the passage of time, wide variations in the size of holdings came about; many
became very small.

2. Plows and Plowing: Besides the different arrangement of the plowland, there were other changes,
some of them important.Though Pliny the Elder claimed a wheeled plow was used in Cisalpine Gaul about
the time of Christ, there is a good deal of doubt about that. A wheeled asymmetrical plow was certainly
in use in some parts of western Europe by the late 10th century. Illuminated manuscripts and
somewhat later calendars show a plow with two wheels fitted with a rudimentary moldboard
and a coulter. This plow could invert the soil and turn a true furrow, thus making a better seedbed. Its use
left high ridges on the land, traces of which can still be seen in some places.
3. Hand Tools: Modifications, slight but important, had been introduced into the design of hand tools.
A more effective ax made forest clearance easier and faster. The jointed flail supplanted the straight
stick. The scythe was more frequently in use
for mowing grass, reaping barley, and performing similar tasks. Wind power was applied to the
grinding of grain by the earliest windmills. All these changes and adaptations helped expand the
cultivated area and supply food for the growing population.
4. New lands and crops: Not only were forests cleared and heavy land cultivated, but, in the
Netherlands, reclamation from marshland and from the sea was extended. Terps, artificially made
patches of higher land on which houses and barns could be built, were made at a very early date in the
midst of the marshes. Ditches to drain the fens were dug in the 10th century. Polders, land reclaimed
from the sea, are first recorded in the 12th century. In Spain the Moors introduced new crops and a new
breed of sheep, the Merino, that was to make Spanish wool famous throughout Europe.
New crops included sugarcane, rice, cotton, and some subtropical fruits, especially citrus.

Grapevines and olive groves flourished in the south, as did the vines the Romans had introduced to the
valleys of the Moselle and Rhine rivers. In the 12th century Venice became a major cotton-
manufacturing city, processing cotton from the Mediterranean area into cloth for sale in central Europe.
Germany also became a cotton-manufacturing centre in the Middle Ages. Widespread expansion of
farmed land occurred throughout western Europe between the 10th century and the later
years of the 13th. German and Dutch settlers were encouraged to take up holdings eastward toward the
Baltic countries and south to the Carpathians.

6. Arabic and Persian history writing traditions.

Answer:Arabic and Persian History:
The study of Arabic and Persian historiog-raphy brings to light a unique feature about these. The early
historiographies were written in pure Arabie. Later Arabic and Persian were used interchangeably with
tran-sition to Persian historiographies in Mughal Period. Alberuni was the first prominent muslim
indologist. His Tarikh ul Hind, an authentic source of information about the socio-religious condition of In-
dia, was written in Arabic. Taj-ul-Maosir of Hasan Nizauii provides first his-torical narrative which untage
the history of Sultanat. Its medium of expression is a unique mixture ofArabic and Persian.

Later many books were written in Persian and Arabic. This includes. Tabaqut-i-Nasiri of Minhajus Siraj;
Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddir. Barani, Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi of Shamsi Siraj Atit,
the famous historian of Tughlaq period etc. Indian pictography which has been recognised as an Islamic
heritage reached the zeneth of growth and development during the Mughal period. The Mughal
emperors were great patrons of education and learning.
There were cities which had predominantly com-mercial and manufacturing character. For example
Patna and Ahmadabad.

There were pilgrim centers where some trade and craft activities also flourished. Cities such as Banaras,
Mathura, Kanchi fall in this category. There were centers which flourished because of distinctive
manufacturing technique or skill or local commodity. Bayana because of Indigo, Patan in Gujrat for
dyeing, Khairabad in Awadh for textiles. Other aspect to study the cities is the type of town planning.
Forts, mansions, mosques, gardens, bazar and other public building were built in city. Bernier gives a
description of planning of Shahjehanabad.

7. Theories pertaining to the emergence of regional powers: Why regional states could not become Pan-
Indian? Answer:
Why regional states could not become Pan-Indian:
India has been unified under many emperors and governments in history. Ancient texts mention
India under emperor Bharata and Akhand Bharat, these regions roughly form the entities of modern-day
greater India. The Mauryan Empire was the first to unite all of India, and South Asia (including much of
Afghanistan). In addition, much of India has also been unified under a central government by empires,
such as the Gupta Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, Pala Empire, Mughal Empire, Vijayanagara Empire,
Maratha Empire, British Indian Empire, etc.

Conception of Pan-South Asianism:

India's concept of nationhood is based not merely on territorial extent of its sovereignty.
Nationalistic sentiments and expression encompass that India's ancient history, as the birthplace of the
Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic Civilization, as well as four major world religions - Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Indian nationalists see India stretching along these lines across the
Indian Subcontinent.
Ages of War and Invasion:
The Mughal Empire at its greatest extent, in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. The extent of
Maratha Empire (yellow), without its vassals. India today celebrates many kings and queens for
combating foreign invasion and domination,[l such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire, Rani Laxmibai of
Jhansi, Kittur Chennamma, Maharana Pratap of Rajputana, Prithviraj Chauhan and Tipu Sultan. The
kings of Ancient India, such as Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka of the Magadha Empire,
are also remembered for their military genius, notable conquests and remarkable religious tolerance.

History of Mysore State:

After the decline of Vijayanagar Empire, Mysore became independent state under the Hindu Wodeyar
Dynasty in AD 1565. In 1761, Hyder Ali overthrew the regaining dynasty in Mysore and established his
own control over that state that was succeeded by Tipu Sultan in 1782.

History of Rajputs: Rajput Provinces of India:

The principal Rajput States or Provinces were Mewar (Udaipur) Marwar (Jodhpur) and Amber (Jaipur)
who were alienated from the Mughal Empire due to the religious and administrative policies of Mughal
Emperor Aurangzeb.

Arrival of the British & Establishment of British East India Company:

Arrival of the British and the establishment of East India Company was the outcome of the Portuguese
traders who earn enormous profit by selling their merchandise in India.The East India Company was
formed 1599 through the royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600 AD authorizing it to
trade in the East.

Arrival of the French and establishment of French East India Company:

The French East India Company was formed in 1664 AD during the reign of King Louis XIV to trade with
India. In 1668 AD the French established their first factory at Surat and in 1669 AD established another
French factory at Masaulipatam.

Establishment of the Dutch Dominion:

The people of Holland (present Netherlands) are called the Dutch. Next to the Portuguese, the Dutch set
their feet in India. In 1602, the United East India Company of the Netherlands was formed and given
permission by the Dutch government to trade in the East Indies including India.

Establishment of the Portugal Dominion:

Portuguese were the first European who discovered a direct sea route to India. Portuguese sailor
Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut an important sea port located on the South-West India on May 20, 1498
AD.

8. Provincial administration under the Mughals.

Answer: Provincial Administration of Mughal Empire:
The Empire under the Mughals was divided into provinces which were known as Subhas. In the beginning
Akbar's reign total number of subhas were 12 later on at the time of his death it were 15During
Shah Jahan s time there were 19 subhas.During the Aurangzeb's reign Mughal Empire had 21 subhas.
Some of the important officials were: Subedar or
Sipalibalar- He was the governor, his function were the maintenance of law and order, enforcement of
imperial decrees and administration of criminal justice in the subha.He was appointed by the Emperor.
Diwan. He was in charge of revenue administration of the province. Bakshi-Discharged the duties as Mir
Bakshi at the central level. Qazi, sadr, Muhtasib were other official in the provinces.
Diwan: The Diwan was the second important official in the province after Subedar. His position was to
keep check on the working of subedar. The Diwan-i- Ashraf selected him. It was his duty to carry out the
orders of the Imperial Diwan. He was to collect revenue, try revenue cases and improve agriculture. He
had control over the finances of the province and no payment could be made without his sanction. He
was required to cooperate with the subedar in the administration of the province. If there were
differences between subedar and Diwan the matter was referred to the Emperor.

Faujdar: Faujdars were appointed by the central government and his main duty was to help subedar.
They were put in charge of important sub divisions of the province. Their appointment and dismissal was
in the hands of subedar. They were the commanders of the provincial troops. They helped the subedar
to maintain law and order in the province and punish the rebellious elements.

Sadar: Sadar was appointed by the central government to supervise the rent-free lands granted for
religious and charitable purposes. He had a separate office of his own. He was more independent than
the Diwan. He could grant lands and allowances on his own initiative. Qazis and Amils worked under him.

Amil: Amil was a revenue collector and had many duties to perform. He was required to deal with the
rebels even if it led to the land remaining uncultivated. It was his duty to see the quality of land
improved and wasteland was brought under cultivation. He was to supervise the work of revenue
collection. Bakshi was the paymaster of the provincial forces .He worked under Mir Bakshi.

Bitikchi:Bitikchi acted as a check on the Amil and enjoyed the same status as that of the Amil.He prepared
abstracts of revenue every season and was required to send an annual report to the Emperor. He had to
supervise the work of Qanungo.
Potdar or Khizandar: His duty was to receive money from the cultivators and keep the same in the
treasury. Whenever a payment was made to him he issued receipts and kept their account. He was not
to make any payment without a voucher signed by the Diwan.

Kotwal:The duties of the Kotwal included magisterial powers in some cases. He was responsible for the
maintenance of law and order in the city. He examined weights and measures and made of list of
property of those who had no heirs and will. He employed spies from the residents to keep a check on the
dissenters and rebels.

9. Methods of revenue assessment under the Mughals. Answer:

Methods of revenue assessment under the Mughals:
1. Ghalla Bakhshi (Crop-sharing): In some areas it was called bhaoli and batai. The Ain-i Akbri notes three
types of crop sharing:
i. Division of crop at the threshing floor after the grain was obtained. This was done in the presence
of both the parties in accordance with agreement.
ii. Khet batai: The share was decided when the crop was still standing in the fields, and a division ofthe
field was marked.
iii. Lang batai: The crop was cut and stacked in heaps without separating grain and a division of crop in
this form was made.

2. Kankut/Dambandi: The word kankut is derived from the words kan and kat. Kan denotes grain
while kat means to estimate or appraisal. Similarly, dam means grain while bandi is fixing or detemining
anything. It was a system where the grain yield (or productivity) was estimated. In kankut, at first, the
field was measured either by means of a rope or by pacing. After this, the per bigha productivity from
good, middling and bad lands was estimated and the revenue demand was fixed accordingly.
3. Zabti: In Mughal India, it was the most important method of assersment. The origin of this practice is
traced to Sher Shah.
During Akbar'r reign, the system was revised a number of times before it took the final shape. Sher Shah
had established a rai or per bigha yield for lands which were under continuous cultivation (polaj), or those
land which very rarely allowed to lie fallow (parauti). The rai was based on three rates, representing good,
middling and low yields and one third of the sum of these was appropriated as land revenue. Akbar
adopted Sher Shah's rai. Akbar introduced his so-called karori experiment and appointed karoris all aver
North India in 1574-75. The entire jagir was converted into khalisani) measurement of land was
essential.

10. Role of women in the political sphere of the Delhi Sultanate.

Answer:Role of women in the political sphere of the Delhi Sultanate:
India is a male dominated society. Religion, social norms, legal structures, cultural values and mores
of the region have, through historical times, encouraged and fostered patriarchy in numerous ways.
However, Patriarchy has never been a 2 monolithic or a static institution. It is one of the most dynamic
systems across the world, flexible yet persistent. It however does not alter its basic principle of accepted
supremacy ofmen over women.

The dynamism of patriarchy also stems from the fact that women are as much central to its preservation
as men. The ideology of patriarchy stemming from religious and social acceptance makes women a willing
party in subverting the role of women members within a society. The consciousness regarding the gender
imbalance and subversion of women at large has been a recent one, a product of the modern period.
In earlier times male superiority and their domination in all aspects of collective and family life was
almost uncontested. In this respect the medieval period was no different. Politics or the authority to rule
was considered an exclusively male domain. Men in premodern India considered it below their dignity to
be ruled by women. Indian society contested this prejudice on rare occasions. Women were not
completely ousted from political participation. Intelligent and accomplished women tried to influence
political decision making from behind the veil.
The medieval period in India was different from earlier times. The introduction of Islam changed the
political structure of India in significant ways. It is difficult to state here as to in what way Islam changed
womens political participation in Indian society, but one can certainly see an opening up in this respect.
There is of course a contradiction here. On the one hand Islam imposed the veiling of women while on the
other it allowed for women's participation in political activity seen in the case ofRaziya Sultan and Nur
Jahan, Maham Anaga, etc.

Raziya Sultan:
The foundation of the Mamluk dynasty was laid by Qutb-ud-Aibak but strengthened by Iltutmush. He
ruled from 1210-1230.Iltutmush had three sons and one daughter. The eldest son was Nasir-ud-din
Mahmud who Iltutmush had nominated as his heir but who died suddenly while he was governing
Bengal. His other sons were incapable of shouldering the responsibility of ruling the kingdom and Iltutmush
knew this. He thus began considering his daughter Raziya for the role of a king. She was naturally capable
and well educated. To test her abilities Iltutmush gave her the charge of administering Delhi when he
went on his Gwalior campaign.
Raziya discharged her duties efficiently and received laurels from her father. Immediately, Iltutmush
declared her his heir and coins with the namesof Iltutmush and Raziya were stuck to commemorate this
event (Habib & Nizami, 230-231). However, despite the public proclamation of her succession by the king
himself, her accession to the throne was not easy. Immediately after Iltutmush's death, one of his son's
Ruknuddin Firuz was raised to the throne by the powerful section of the provincial officers.