Microbiology

Lecture 3: Fungi and Algae

During the Great Irish Famine of the mid–nineteenth century, well MOLDS AND FLESHY FUNGI
over 1 million people died or were displaced because of the
devastating effects of Phytophthora infestans  The fungal thallus (body) consists of long filaments of
cells joined together called hyphae; a filamentous mass
Phytophthora infestans of hyphae which is visible to the unaided eye is a
mycelium.
 An alga that infects potato crops  vegetative hypha - portion of a hypha that obtains
One-third of the world’s population, more than 2 billion people, nutrients
suffer from parasitic diseases. Malaria kills 1 million people,  reproductive or aerial hypha - portion concerned with
mostly children, annually. reproduction; often bear reproductive spores; projects
above the surface of the medium on which the fungus is
FUNGI growing
YEAST
Kingdom Fungi  Nonfilamentous, unicellular fungi, spherical or oval
 widely distributed in nature; they are frequently found
Nutritional Type Chemoheterotroph
as a white powdery coating on fruits and leaves
Multicellularity All, except yeasts  Budding yeasts divide asymmetrically
• Saccharomyces, divide unevenly.
Unicellular, filamentous, • Pseudohypha → short chain of cells from
Cellular Arrangement
fleshy undetached yeast buds
• Candida albicans attaches to human epithelial
Food Acquisition Method Absorptive
cells as a yeast, requires pseudohyphae to
Characteristic Features Sexual and asexual spores invade deeper tissues.
 Fission yeasts divide symmetrically
Embryo Formation None • Schizosaccharomyces divide evenly to produce
two new cells.
TWO FORMS OF GROWTH: FUNGAL DIMORPHISM
• fungi can grow either as a mold or as a yeast
• Pathogenic dimorphic fungi are yeastlike at 37°C and
moldlike at 25°C
• The moldlike forms produce vegetative and aerial
hyphae; the yeastlike forms reproduce by budding
• Fungal dimorphism. Dimorphism in the fungus Mucor
indicus depends on CO2 concentration. On the agar
surface, Mucor exhibits yeastlike growth, but in the agar
where CO2 from metabolism has accumulated, it is
moldlike.

FUNGAL LIFE CYCLE

Identifying yeasts and bacteria requires biochemical tests.

However, multicellular fungi are identified on the basis of physical
appearance, including colony characteristics and reproductive
spores.

MOLDS AND FLESHY FUNGI: VEGETATIVE GROWTH

 Septa – found in molds; hyphae containing cross-walls

that divide them into distinct, uninucleate cell-like units
→ septate hyphae.
 Coenocytic hyphae - hyphae contain no septa and
appear as long, continuous cell with many nuclei
• Asexual spores are formed by the hyphae of one
 Hyphae grow by elongating at the tips.
organism. When these spores germinate, they become
organisms that are genetically identical to the parent.
• Sexual spores result from the fusion of nuclei from two
opposite mating strains of the same species of fungus.

 Filamentous fungi can reproduce asexually by

fragmentation of their hyphae. In addition, both sexual
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Microbiology
Lecture 3: Fungi and Algae
and asexual reproduction in fungi occurs by the • Such spores are produced by Rhizopus
formation of spores. In fact, fungi are usually identified
by spore type. Fungal spores, however, are quite THREE PHASES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
different from bacterial endospores. 1. Plasmogamy: Haploid donor cell nucleus (+) penetrates
 Bacterial endospores allow a bacterial cell to survive cytoplasm of recipient cell (–)
adverse environnemental. A single vegetative bacterial 2. Karyogamy: + and – nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote
cell forms one endospore, which eventually germinates nucleus
to produce a single vegetative bacterial cell. This process 3. Meiosis: Diploid nucleus produces haploid nuclei (sexual
isn’t reproduction because it doesn’t increase the total spores), some of which may be genetic recombinant
number of bacterial cells. But after a mold forms a
spore, the spore detaches from the parent and SEXUAL SPORES
germinates into a new mold. Unlike the bacterial
endospore, this is a true reproductive spore; a second Zygosporangium
organism grows from the spore. Although fungal spores • a sporangium in which zygospores are produced.
can survive for extended periods in dry or hot
environments, most do not exhibit the extreme Ascospore
tolerance and longevity of bacterial endospores.
 Spores are formed from aerial hyphae in a number of • Formed in a sac (ascus).
different ways, depending on the species. Fungal spores • A sexually produced fungal spore formed within an
can be either asexual or sexual. ascus of ascomycetes

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: TWO TYPES OF ASEXUAL SPORES→ Basidiospore

CONIDIOSPORES & SPORANGIOSPORE
• Formed externally on a pedestal (basidium)
Asexual spores are produced by an individual fungus through
mitosis and subsequent cell division; there is no fusion of the NUTRITIONAL ADAPTATION
nuclei of cells. Two types of asexual spores are produced by fungi 1. Fungi usually grow better in an environment with a pH of
Conidia (conidium) or conidiospores about 5, which is too acidic for the growth of most common
bacteria.
• a unicellular or multicellular spore that is not enclosed in 2. Almost all molds are aerobic. Most yeasts are facultative
a sac anaerobes.
• Conidia are produced in a chain at the end of a 3. Most fungi are more resistant to osmotic pressure than
conidiophore. bacteria; most can therefore grow in relatively high sugar
• Such spores are produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus or salt concentrations.
4. Fungi can grow on substances with a very low moisture
Arthroconidia content, generally too low to support the growth of
• Conidia formed by the fragmentation of a septate hypha bacteria.
into single, slightly thickened cells. 5. Fungi require somewhat less nitrogen than bacteria for an
equivalent amount of growth.
• One species that produces such spores is Coccidioides 6. Fungi are often capable of metabolizing complex
immitis carbohydrates, such as lignin (a component of wood), that
most bacteria can’t use for nutrients.
Blastoconidia

• formed from the buds of its parent cell. MEDICALLY IMPORTANT PHYLA OF FUNGI
• Such spores are found in some yeasts, such as Candida
albicans and Cryptococcus. Zygomycota

Chlamydoconidia • Also called Conjugation fungi

• thick-walled spore formed by rounding and enlargement • Saprophytic molds that have coenocytic hyphae
within a hyphal segment. • Produce sporangiospores and zygospores
• A fungus that produces chlamydoconidia is the yeast • Rhizopus, Murcor (opportunistic, systemic mycoses)
Candida albicans.
SPORANGIOSPORE

• formed within a sporangium, or sac, at the end of an

aerial hypha called a sporangiophore

• The sporangium can contain hundreds of

sporangiospores.

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Microbiology
Lecture 3: Fungi and Algae
Microsporidia
• lack mitochondria and microtubules
• obligate intracellular parasites
• Sexual reproduction probably occurs within the host
• cause chronic diarrhea and keratoconjunctivitis in AIDS
patien
Some ascomycetes have lost the ability to reproduce sexually.
These asexual fungi are called anamorphs
ASCOMYCOTA
 Sac fungi: include molds with septate hyphae and some
yeasts
 Asexual spores → conidia produced in long chains from
the conidiophore
Conidia - dust, and these spores freely detach from the chain at
the slightest disturbance and float in the air like dust.
 Ascospores
• produced in a saclike structure called an ascus
• Aspergillus (opportunistic, systemic mycosis)
• Blastomyces dermatitidis, Histoplasma capsulatum
(systemic mycoses)
• Microsporum, Trichophyton (cutaneous mycoses)
Basidiomycota: club fungi, possess septate hyphae
 Basidiospores are formed externally on a base pedestal
called a basidium
 Some produce asexual conidiospores
 Cryptococcus neoformans (systemic mycosis)
 phylum includes fungi that produce mushrooms.
 Teleomorphic fungi or teleomorphs: produce sexual
and asexual spores
 Anamophic fungi: produce asexual spores only
• rRNA sequencing places most in Ascomycota; a few
are Basidiomycota
• Penicillium: anamorph that arose from a mutation
in a teleomorph
• Sporothrix (subcutaneous mycosis)
• Stachybotrys, Coccidioides, Pneumocystis (systemic
mycoses)
• Candida albicans (cutaneous mycoses)
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF FUNGI
• Aspergillus niger: citric acid for foods & beverages
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Bread, wine, HBV vaccine
• Trichoderma: Cellulase
• Taxomyces: Taxol
• Entomophaga: Biocontrol of pest
• Coniothyrium minitans: Biocontrol of fungi
• Paecilomyces: Kills termites
• Mold spoilage of fruits, grains, and vegetables is more
common than bacterial spoilage of these products.
• Many fungi cause diseases in plants
• Cryphonectria parasitica: cause Chestnut blight
• Ceratocystis ulmi: cause Dutch elm disease
• Chestnut Blight – a fungal disease which has virtually
eliminated the American chestnut
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Microbiology
Lecture 3: Fungi and Algae

FUNGAL DISEASES/INFECTIONS (MYCOSES)

Mycoses are generally chronic (long-lasting) infections because
fungi grow slowly which are classified into five groups according
to the degree of tissue involvement and mode of entry into the
host;

1. Systemic mycoses: Deep within body

• affect many tissues and organs

• caused by fungi that live in the soil
• spores are transmitted by inhalation
• Ex. histoplasmosis and coccidioidomycosis
2. Subcutaneous mycoses: Beneath the skin
• caused by saprophytic fungi that live in soil and on
vegetation
• Sporotrichosis -acquired by gardeners and farmers
3. Cutaneous mycoses: Fungi that infect only the epidermis,
hair, and nails are called dermatophytes
• Infection is transmitted from human-human or from
animal-human by direct contact or by contact with
infected hairs and epidermal cells
• secrete keratinase, an enzyme that degrades keratin, a
protein found in hair, skin, and nails, and their infections
are called dermatomycoses or cutaneous mycoses.
• as from barber shop clippers or shower room floors
4. Superficial mycoses: are localized on hair shafts and
LICHENS
superficial skin cells.
• Mutualistic combination of an alga (or cyanobacterium)
• These infections are prevalent in tropical climates and fungus
5. Opportunistic mycoses: Caused by normal microbiota or • Alga produces and secretes carbohydrates; fungus
environmental fungi provides holdfast
• become pathogenic in a host → debilitated or • Approximately 13,500 species of lichens occupy quite
traumatized → under treatment with broad-spectrum diverse habitats.
antibiotics • Can inhabit areas in which neither fungi nor algae could
• immune system is suppressed by drugs or by an immune survive alone
disorder, or who has lung disease • The first life forms to colonize newly exposed soil or rock
• Pneumocystis: most common life-threatening infection
MORPHOLOGIC CATEGORIES OF LICHENS
in AIDS patients
• Stachybotrys found growing on water-damaged walls of 1. Crustose lichens grow flush or encrusted onto the
homes substratum.
• Rhizopus and Mucor → Mucormycosis → patients who
2. Foliose lichens are more leaflike.
have diabetes mellitus, have leukemia, or are
undergoing treatment with immunosuppressive drugs. 3. Fruticose lichens have fingerlike projections.

MYCOBIOME: Members of the yeast genus Candida are the most

common fungi that live as normal microbiota in the mouth,
intestine, and vagina. The most diverse population of fungi is
found in the mouth, where 101 species have been identified.

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Microbiology
Lecture 3: Fungi and Algae
LICHEN THALLUS

• The lichen’s thallus, or body, forms when fungal hyphae grow
around algal cells to become the medulla.
• Fungal hyphae project below the lichen body to form
rhizines, or holdfasts.
• Fungal hyphae also form a cortex, or protective covering,
over the algal layer and sometimes under it as well. After
incorporation into a lichen thallus, the alga continues to
grow, and the growing hyphae can incorporate new algal
cells.
ALGAE
- Algae are familiar as the large brown kelp in coastal waters,
the green scum in a puddle, and the green stains on soil or on
rocks. A few algae are responsible for food poisonings.
- “Algae” is not a taxonomic group; it is a way to describe
photoautotrophs that lack the roots and stems of plants.
Historically they were considered plants, but they lack the
embryos of true plants.

Kingdom Protist

Photoautotroph;
Nutritional Type
Photosynthetic

Multicellularity Some

Unicellular, colonial,
Cellular Arrangement
filamentous, tissues

Food Acquisition Method Diffusion

Characteristic Features Pigments

Embryo Formation None

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF LICHENS NUTRITION OF ALGAE

 Dyes → clothing • Algae is a common name that includes several phyla.

• Most algae are photosynthetic.
 Antimicrobial agent in China (Usnea)→ Usnic acid • Oomycotes, or fungal-like algae, are chemoheterotrophs.

 Litmus → Erythrolitmin (dye), indicate changes in pH → CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE

extracted from liches

 Some lichens or their acids can cause allergic contact

dermatitis in humans.

 Presence or absence of species that are quite sensitive

to pollutants can be used to ascertain air quality.

 Major food for tundra herbivores such as caribou and

reindeer.

KINGDOM PROTIST

Divided into three groups

1. Plant-like protist – have chloroplasts, live in moist, sunny

environment

2. Fungus-like protist – saprophytes, may be unicellular or

multicellular

3. Animal-like protist – Heterotrophs, most are unicellular,

free-living or parasite

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Microbiology
Lecture 3: Fungi and Algae

ALGAL HABITATS SELECTED PHYLA OF ALGAE

Vegetative Structures

• Algae are relatively simple eukaryotic photoautotrophs that

lack the tissues (roots, stem, and leaves) of plants. The
identification of unicellular and filamentous algae requires
microscopic examination.

• Most algae are found in the ocean. Their locations depend on

the availability of appropriate nutrients, wavelengths of light,
and surfaces on which they can grow

• they frequently exist in marine and freshwater environments

as plankton. Multicellular green, brown, and red algae
require a suitable attachment site, adequate water for
support, and light of the appropriate wavelengths.

LIFE CYCLE

• Algae reproduce asexually by cell division and

fragmentation. Many algae reproduce sexually.

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Microbiology
Lecture 3: Fungi and Algae
• Thallus - The body of a multicellular alga. The cells
covering the thallus can carry out photosynthesis. The
thallus lacks the conductive tissue (xylem and phloem)
characteristic of vascular plants. Algae absorb nutrients
from the water over their entire surface.
• Holdfasts - Branch of thalli of the larger multicellular
algae, those commonly called seaweeds
• Stemlike and often hollow stipes, and leaflike blades
• pneumatocyst - Some algae are also buoyed by a
floating, gas-filled bladder
PHAEOPHYTA
• Macroscopic; some reach lengths of 50m
• Cellulose and alginic acid cell walls
• Multicellular
• Chlorophyll a and c, xanthophylls
• Store carbohydrates
• Harvested for algin
• Laminaria japonica →induce vaginal dilation before
surgical entry into the uterus through the vagina.
• Macrocystis porifera, a brown alga. The hollow stipe and
gas-filled pneumatocysts hold the thallus upright,
ensuring that sufficient sunlight is received for growth.
• Most brown algae are found in coastal waters.
• Brown algae have a phenomenal growth rate.
• Some grow at rates exceeding 20 cm per day and
therefore can be harvested regularly.
RHODOPHYTA (Red Algae)
• Most red algae have delicately branched thalli and can
live at greater ocean depths than other algae
• The thalli of a few red algae form crustlike coatings on
rocks and shells.
• Cellulose cell walls
• Most are multicellular
• Chlorophyll a and d, phycobiliproteins
• Store glucose polymer
• Branched thalli
• Grow deeper in the ocean Harvested for agar and
carrageenan → Irish moss
• Gracilaria sp., grow in the Pacific Ocean → humans for
food → some can produce a lethal toxin
• Microcladia, a red alga. The delicately branched red
algae get their color from phycobiliprotein accessory
pigments.
CHLOROPHYTA (Green Algae)
• Cellulose cell walls
• Most are microscopic
• Unicellular or multicellular
• Chlorophyll a and b
• Store glucose polymer
• Gave rise to plants
• Some filamentous kinds form grass green scum in ponds.
BACILLARIOPHYTA (Diatoms)
• Pectin and silica cell walls
• Unicellular or filamentous with complex cell walls that
consist of pectin and a layer of silica
• The distinctive patterns of the walls are a useful tool in
diatom identification. Diatoms store energy captured
through photosynthesis in the form of oil.
• Chlorophyll a and c, carotene, xanthophylls
• Store oil
• Fossilized diatoms formed oil
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Microbiology
Lecture 3: Fungi and Algae
• Produce domoic acid→ toxin concentrated in the mussels dinoflagellates →carbohydrates (glycerol) & essential
→ diarrhea & memory loss proteins (phagocytosis).

DINOFLAGELLATA (Plankton)

 Dinoflagellates

• Plankton (free floating)

• Cellulose in plasma membrane
• Unicellular
• Chlorophyll a and c, carotene, xanthins
• Store starch
• Some are symbionts in marine animals
• Neurotoxins cause paralytic shellfish poisoning→ Karenia
brevis
• Their rigid structure is due to cellulose embedded in the
plasma membrane.
• Alexandrium produce neurotoxins (called saxitoxins) that
cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).
o Give the ocean deep red color
• Mollusks should not be harvested for consumption during a
red tide.

• Ciguatera - disease occurs when the dinoflagellate

Gambierdiscus toxicus passes up the food chain and is
concentrated in large fish; endemic (constantly present) in
the south Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. An
emerging disease associated with heterotrophic Pfiesteria
• Pfiesteria is responsible for periodic massive fish deaths
along the Atlantic Coast.

OOMYCOTA (Water Molds)

• Cellulose cell walls; Multicellular; Chemoheterotrophic
• Produce oomycete spores → zoospores → have two flagella
• Decomposers and plant parasites
• Phytophthora infestans responsible for Irish potato blight
in mid-1800s
• P. cinnamoni infects Eucalyptus tree
• P. ramorum causes “sudden oak death” & redwood trees

ROLES OF ALGAE IN NATURE

• Algae are the primary producers in aquatic food chains.

• Planktonic algae produce most of the molecular oxygen in
the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Petroleum is the fossil remains of planktonic algae.
• Unicellular algae are symbionts in such animals as Tridacna
(giant clam) →evolved special organs that host

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