Thermal Noise of Resistors As mentioned previously, the ambient thermal energy leads to random

agitation of charge carriers in resistors and hence noise. The noise can be modeled by a series voltage
source with a PSD of V2 n 5 4kTR1 [Thevenin equivalent, Fig. 2.34(a)] or a parallel current source with a
PSD of I2 n 5 V2 n /R1 5 4kT/R1 [Norton equivalent, Fig. 2.34(b)]. The choice of the model sometimes
simplifies the analysis. The polarity of the sources is unimportant (but must be kept the same
throughout the calculations of a given circuit).