Elektronika

2) Explain, what is sampling, quantization and encoding? Give explanation on 8

bit ADC.
Sampling

Recording an analog signal at evenly spaced instants in time creates samples.

Sampling is the process of recording an analog signal at regular discrete moments of

time. The sampling rate fs is the number of samples per second. The time interval
between samples is called the sampling interval Ts=1/fs.

Quantization

The sample values can potentially take on a continuous range of values. In order to
complete analog to digital conversion, each sample value is mapped to a discrete level
(represented by a sequence of bits) in a process called quantization. In a B-bit
quantizer, each quantization level is represented with B bits, so that the number of
levels equals 2^B.

Encoder

An encoder, in general, is a logic circuit that allows for the conversion of input
information in a given code. It generally has more input variables than output
variables.Encoding is the process of converting the quantized signals into a digital
representation. This encoding is performed by giving each quantization level a unique
label. For instance, if four bits are used, the lowest level may be (in binary) 0000, and
the next highest level 0001, etc.

explanation of 8 bit ADC

The short answer is it represents the resolution of the analog to digital converter
(ADC). An ADC solves the problem of getting a digital device (something that only
deals in 0's and 1's) to understand an arbitrary analog voltage. The 8 bits represent a
binary number between 0 and 255, which are 256 unique numbers.

3)Describe main principles of signal conversion. Explain BCD code

representation.
Signal conversion is a fundamendal process to condition measurement signal or
output signal from one device to another device for further processing.Binary to
decimal conversion - 0101 --> 0*2³+1*2²+0*2¹+1*2⁰=5
Decimal to Binady conversion - 125--> 125/2 62/2 31/2 15/2 7/2 3/2 1/2 -
01111101

BCD code is a code used to represent each digit of a decimal number as a 4 bit
binary. For example,the decimal number 260 corresponds to the BDC number
0010 0110 0000. 2--> 0010, 6--> 0110, 0-->0000

5) Why need diode device? Show ideal model of diode and explain I-V
characteristic curve
5ci sualin 1ci suali:Why need diode device?

Diodes that are used predominantly for the purpose of (rectifying alternating
voltages)
are called rectifier diodes; they operate alternately in the forward and reverse
region.
Diodes designed for the operation in the breakthrough region are called Zener
diodes and
are used for (voltage stabilization). The variable capacitance diodes are another
important
type. They are operated in the reverse region and, due to the particularly strong
response of
the junction capacitance to voltage variations, are used for (tuning the frequency
in resonant
circuits).
/////////moterizede yazdiqlarim qisa cavabdir.(menim fikrimce)

///bu hisse internetdendi///

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in
one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking it in the
opposite direction (the reverse direction)
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5ci sualin 2ci suali:Show ideal model of diode

5ci sualin 3cu suali:explain I-V characteristic curve.

A typical versus Vd relationship for a silicon diode is shown on Figure 4. The

current
increases exponentially with the voltage. A small change in the voltage
increases the
current by orders of magnitude as may be seen from Figure 5 where the I-V plot
is
presented in a logarithmic scale. Note that we have drawn a vertical line at
Vd=0.7 Volts to
indicate the relative insensitivity of the voltage drop across the diode for large
currents.

(Lectures and labs-dan lec_3_diodes slaydi & 1ci sual 1ci kitabda sehife 3
operating modes hissesindedi)

6. Explain main difference between semiconductor and ideal diode. Give real
model of semiconductor diode
An ideal diode is a diode that acts like a perfect conductor when voltage is applied forward biased
and like a perfect insulator when voltage is applied reverse biased. So when positive voltage is
applied across the anode to the cathode, the diode conducts forward current instantly.

The differences mean circuit designers and engineers must be careful to avoid an oversimplification
of the analysis of diode circuitry. Other differences allow for a few applications not possible with an
ideal diode.

The main difference between semiconductor and ideal diode is 0.7 V.

And both have different V-I characteristics.

İdeal diode’s V-I characteristics:

Semiconductor’s V-I characteristics:

Real model of semiconductor diode:

A diode is constructed by fabricating p and n regions in Si as shown schematically on Figure 3(a). The
symbol of the diode and the corresponding arrangement of the p and n regions is shown on Figure
3(b). The boundary between the p and the n regions is called the p-n junction.
The mathematical function that describes the relationship between the voltage Vd, and the diode
current Id of a diode (the full model) is,

7. Explain main principle of working Zener diode and give model and
I-V characteristic curve.
(Bu qrafik ve modeli mutleq cekmeye calisin, mence when the Zener yazilan hissedeki yazilara
(Dr.-Ing. Ulrich Tietze, Dr.-Ing. Christoph ... pringer-Verlag Berlin
ehtiyac yoxdu)
Heidelberg (2008).pdf )
8)In which applications is the diode used mainly? Explain principle of working
half and full wave rectifiers.
8ci sualin 1ci suali:In which applications is the diode used mainly?
(rectifying alternating voltages)

(voltage stabilization)

(tuning the frequency in resonantcircuits)

8ci sualin 2ci suali:Explain principle of working half and full wave rectifiers.

The output signal Vo is a rectified signal of the input Vin and the circuit that generated this

signal, Figure 10 , is called Rectifier circuit. Furthermore, since it passes only half of the

input signal it is called a Half Wave Rectifier Circuit.

Rectifiers are used extensively in the conversion of AC signals to DC. In such a circuit the

half wave rectifier is not efficient since it “wastes” half of the signal. A circuit that

overcomes this problem is the full wave rectifier which uses four diodes as shown on

Figure 17. The diodes are arranged in a bridge configuration. The output voltage is taken

across the resistor R.

9) Why need transistor device? Show input and output I-V characteristic curve
for npn BJT in common emitter scheme
Transistors make excellent electronic switches. They can turn currents on and off billions of times
per second. Digital computers use transistors as a basic mechanism for storing and moving data.

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the collector current, Ic, versus the
collector-emitter voltage, Vce ,for various values of the base current, Ib

The plot indicates the four regions of operation: the saturation, the cutoff, the active and the
breakdown. Each family of curves is drawn for a different base current and in this plot
Ib4>Ib3>Ib2>Ib1
11. Give simplified models of npn BJT transistor for all regions of operation.
(Fundamentals of Electronics Book 1: Electronic Devices
and Circuit Applications Bolme 3.4)

12) Explain principle of digital abstraction based on BJT transistor. Give

transfer characteristic for TTL inverter. Give example of building a TTL
circuit.

1. The principle of operation is based on the ability to control the electrical

conductivity of the device and the current flowing through by terminals
 2. The transmission characteristic of a TTL converter can be derived by
applying a fradually increasing input voltage and determing the
sequence of events that occur when each transistor changes in
conduction state.

3.
(Nihaddan almisam)

14) . What is difference between BJT and FET transistors? Show input and
output I-V characteristic curve for any type of FET transistor.
BJTs and FETs are two different kinds of transistors and also known as
active semiconductor devices. The acronym of the BJT is Bipolar Junction
Transistor and FET stands for Field Effect Transistor. BJTS and FETS are
available in a variety of packages based on the operating frequency,
current, voltage, and power ratings. These types of devices allow a greater
degree of control over their work. BJTS and FETs can be used as switches
and amplifiers in electrical and electronics circuits. The major difference
between BJT and FET is that in a field-effect transistor only majority charge
carries flows, whereas in BJT both majority and minority charge carriers
flow.

BJT (bipolar junction transistor ) is the bipolar device.

FET (field-effect transistor) is a unijunction transistor.

Bjt is s the current control device.

FET  is the voltage-controlled device.

BJT is bigger in size than FET.

FET is smaller in size than BJT.

Bjt has three parts ( base, Emitter, and Collector).

Fet has three parts (Drain, Source, and Gate).

FET

The term FET stands for Field-effect transistor and it is also named a
Unipolar transistor. FET is one type of transistor, where the o/p current is
controlled by electric fields. The basic type of FET is totally dissimilar from
BJT. FET consists of three terminals namely source, drain, and gate
terminals. The charge carriers of this transistor are holes or electrons,
which flow from the source terminal to the drain terminal via an active
channel. This flow of charge carriers can be controlled by the voltage
applied across the source and gate terminals.

BJT?
The BJT is one type of transistor that uses both majority and minority
charge carriers. These semiconductor devices are available in two types
such as PNP and NPN. The main function of this transistor is to amplify
current. These transistors can be used as switches and amplifiers. The
applications of BJTs involve a wide range that includes electronic devices
like TVs, mobiles, computers, radio transmitters, audio amplifiers, and
industrial control.
16. Give explanation of all regions for n channel JFET transistor.
Ohmic Region:
The ohmic region is that portion of the curve between V DS = 0 and pinch-off on
the output characteristic curve in Figure 4.4.
The mathematical expression defining this region is,

The V-I relationship in this region is

Saturation Region
The saturation region occupies the portion of the output characteristic curve of
Figure 4.4 where I D That is,
The drain current is virtually independent of V DS in this region

The expression for the pinch-off parabola can be derived from Equation by
substituting V GS = V DS + V PO

Cut-off Region:
The JFET is said to be in the cut-off region when,

V GS < V PO

The drain current is zero when the JFET is cut-off,

ID = 0

18) Explain principle of digital abstraction based on MOS transistor. Give

example of building a CMOS circuit

The term a digital circuit refers to a device that works in a

binary world. In the binary world, the only values are zeros and
ones. In other words, the inputs of a digital circuit are zeros and
ones, and the outputs of a digital circuit are zeros and ones.
Digital circuits are usually implemented by electronic devices and
operate in the real world. In the real world, there are no zeros
and ones; instead, what matters is the voltages of inputs and
outputs. Since voltages refer to energy, they are continuous
(unless quantum physics is used). So we have a gap between
the continuous real world and the two-valued binary world. One
should not regard this gap as absurd. Digital circuits are only
an abstraction of electronic devices. In this chapter, we explain
this abstraction, called the digital abstraction.

In the digital abstraction, one interprets voltage values as

binary values. The advantages of the digital model cannot be
overstated; this model enables one to focus on the digital
behavior of a circuit, to ignore analog and transient
phenomena, and to easily build larger, more complex circuits
out of small circuits. The digital model together with a simple
set of rules, called design rules, enable logic designers to design
complex digital circuits consisting of millions of gates that
operate as expected.
Qırmızı olan daha əsasdır

Example of building a CMOS circuit.

19) Why need operational amplifier? Show I-V characteristic curve and show
regions of operation.

An operational amplifier (OpAmp) is one of the four fundamental

building blocks of the modern electronics. OpAmp behaves in a near-
ideal fashion. Analysis of OpAmp provides a good review of the basic
circuit analysis techniques. OpAmp is used to design low and
intermediate frequency analog circuitry. In the most basic circuit it is
used as a voltage amplifier. Its importance is only surpassed by the
transistor.

Characteristic curve:

20) What applications is have for OpAmp with negative feedback. Give
explanation for some OpAmp application.

What applications is have for OpAmp with negative feedback.

In negative feedback, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180 degree into the circuit while the
feedback network is so designed that it produces no phase shift or zero phase shift. Thus the
resultant feedback voltage Vf is 180 degree out of phase with the input signal Vin.
Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced, there are many advantages of negative
feedback such as,

 Stability of gain is improved

 Reduction in distortion
 Reduction in noise
 Increase in input impedance
 Decrease in output impedance
 Increase in the range of uniform application

Applications of negative feedback amplifier :

 They are used in almost all electronic amplifiers.

 They are used in the regulated power supplies.
 They are used in amplifiers(amplifiers having a large bandwidth).

Give explanation for some OpAmp application.

Op-amp non-inverting amplifier : The non-inverting amplifier circuit provides gain and also a very
high input impedance. Accordingly it is widely used in many amplifier input stages.

The non-inverting operational amplifier circuit provides the mainstay for applications where a high
input impedance is required - it is even used as a voltage follower by applying the output directly to
the inverting input. The very high gain of the circuit means that the input voltage is very accurately
followed and a very high input impedance is maintained to ensure there is no loading of the previous
stage.

21) What is comparator and Schmitt trigger? Explain on OpAmp based circuit.
What is comparator?
An operational amplifier without feedback, as shown in Fig. 6.35, represents the
basic
circuit of a comparator. Its output voltage is given by

The corresponding transfer characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.36. Due to the high
gain,
the circuit responds to very small voltage differences V1 − V2. It is thus
suitable for the
comparison of two voltages, and operates with high accuracy.

At the zero crossing of the input voltage difference, the output voltage does not
im-
mediately reach the saturation level because the transition is limited by the slew
rate. For

frequency-compensated standard operational amplifiers, it can be as low as

1V/ms. A volt-
age rise from − 12 V to +12 V therefore takes 24 ms. An additional delay is
incurred due

to the recovery time needed after the amplifier has been saturated.
As the amplifier possesses no negative feedback, it also does not require any
frequency
compensation. Its omission can improve the slew rate and recovery time by a
factor of
about 20.
Considerably shorter response times can be attained when using special
comparator
amplifiers, which are designed for use without feedback and have especially
small recovery
times. However, the gain and hence the accuracy of the threshold are somewhat
lower than
those of operational amplifiers. Usually, the amplifier output is directly
connected to a level-shift circuit, which permits compatible operation with logic
circuits. Its application and
characteristics are shown in Figs. 6.37 and 6.38. A number of commonly used
comparators are listed in Fig. 6.39.

What is Schmitt trigger?

The Schmitt trigger is a comparator, for which the positive and negative
transitions of the
output occur at different levels of the input voltage. Their difference is
characterized by
the hysteresis Vi. As described in earlier sections, Schmitt triggers can be
realized by
transistors, but in the following section some designs involving comparators are
discussed.
(Dr.-Ing. Ulrich Tietze, Dr.-Ing. Christoph ... pringer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
(2008).pdf sehife 600)

22) Explain the main difference between sequential and combinational circuits.
Give examples for this circuits
Both the sequential and combinational circuits are the most widely used ones in
the arena of digital electronics. They constitute two broad categories of circuits.
Now let’s talk about the difference between combinational and sequential
circuits.

Out of these two circuits- one is very much time-dependent, and the other one is
independent. The combinational circuit is time-independent. The output it
generates does not depend on any of its previous inputs. On the other hand,
sequential circuits are the ones that depend on clock cycles. They depend
entirely on the past as well as the present inputs for generating output

23) How works RS flip flop? Give logical circuit and truth table
If we consider nor version without clock we can see two input S and R standing for “set” and “reset”
respectively.to understand how does it work we should analyze truth table given below.
Case1: S=0 R=1 Q=0 Q¯=1

S=0 R=0 Q=0 Q¯=1 (MEMORY)

Case2: S=1 R=0 Q=1 Q¯=0

S=0 R=0 Q=1 Q¯=0 (MEMORY)

Case3: S=1 R=1 Q=0 Q¯=0 (NOT RATIONAL)

S=0 R=0 Q=0 Q¯=1

24. How works JK type flip-flops and explain main difference with RS flipflop? Give
truth table.