02 Fourier Theory and Communication Signals

Communication Systems I
Part 2 :
Fourier Theory and Communication Signals
2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform P. 9 ~ P. 21
2.5 Dirac Delta Function P. 28 ~ P.36 Self-Study
2.6 Fourier Transforms of Periodic Signals P. 37 ~ P.40
NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 1
Introduction
• Communication signal is a deterministic signal.
– Waveforms are defined as functions of time f(t).
– Signals can be either analog or digital.
• Fourier transform
– Fourier transform provides the link between time-
domain and frequency-domain signals

The Fourier Transform
• Fourier Transform of signal g(t)

G ( f )   g (t ) exp( j 2 ft )dt G ( f )  F [ g (t )]

• Inverse Fourier transform of signal G(f)


g (t )   G ( f ) exp( j 2 ft )df g (t )  F 1[G ( f )]

• t denotes time (sec)

• f denotes frequency (Hz or 1/sec)
• angular frequency:  f (rad/sec)
• g(t) and G(f) constitute a Fourier-transform pair
g (t )  G ( f )
傅里葉分析之掐死教程: https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/19763358
Dirichlet’s conditions
• For the existence of Fourier transform of a signal
g(t), it is sufficient but not necessary, that g(t)
satisfies the Dirichlet’s conditions
– The function g(t) is single-valued, with a finite number
of maxima and minima in any finite time interval.
– The function g(t) has a finite number of discontinuities
in any finite time interval.
– The function g(t) is absolutely integrable, that is,
 
 g (t ) dt     g (t ) dt  
2
 
(Energy/power is finite!)

Continuous Spectrum

• Fourier transform: G ( f )   g (t ) exp( j 2 ft )dt
– transforms a pulse signal, g(t), of finite energy to a continuous
sum of exponential functions with frequencies in the interval from
- to .

• Inverse Fourier transform: g (t )   G ( f ) exp( j 2 ft )df
– g(t) can be regarded as the continuous sum of complex
exponential components (pure frequency) occupying the entire
frequency spectrum. G(f) f
• G( f ), a continuous spectrum,
can be expressed as
G ( f )  G ( f ) e j ( f ) 
g (t )   G (nf )e j 2 nft f
– G ( f ) is the continuous amplitude spectrum n 

–  ( f ) is the continuous phase spectrum   G ( f ) exp( j 2 ft ) df

Continuous Spectrum
• For the special case of a real-valued function g(t),
G ( f )  G* ( f )
that is,
◎ Amplitude spectrum is an even
function of the frequency.
◎ Amplitude spectrum is symmetric.
G ( f )  G ( f )
◎ Phase spectrum is an
odd function of the frequency.
◎ Phase spectrum is odd-symmetric
(anti-symmetric).
 ( f )   ( f )
Conjugate Symmetry
Example 2.1 Rectangular Pulse
 1 1
• A rectangular pulse with duration T  1,   t 
2 2
rect(t )  
and amplitude A: 0, t 
1
 2
• Let a signal g(t) = A rect (t /T)
The F.T. of g(t) is sin( )
Here we define: sinc( ) 

T /2
G( f )   A exp(  j 2 ft )dt
T /2
 sin( fT )  limsinc( )  1
 AT    AT sinc( fT )  0
  fT 
Example 2.2 Exponential Pulse

1, t 0
• A unit step function u(t) =  1 , t  0
2
0, t0

• Define an exponential decaying function: g (t )  exp(at )u (t )
The F.T. of g(t) is  1
G ( f )   exp( at ) exp( j 2 ft )dt 
0 a  j 2 f
• An exponential rising function: g (t )  exp(at )u (t )
The F.T. of g(t) is
0
G ( f )   exp(at ) exp( j 2 ft ) dt

1

a  j 2 f

Properties of the Fourier Transform
Convolution: https://read01.com/zh-tw/G7e3KD.html#.X2bFftRS_IU
Property 1 Linearity (Superposition)

• Let g1 (t )  G1 ( f ) and g 2 (t )  G2 ( f ) . Then for all
constants c1 and c2 , we have
c1 g1 (t )  c2 g 2 (t )  c1G1 ( f )  c2G2 ( f )
• Example 2.3:
(a) exp(  at ), t  0

g (t )  exp( a t )  1, t 0
exp(at ), t0

(b) exp( at ), t  0


g (t )  exp(a t )sgn(t )  1, t 0

 exp(at ), t  0
1, t  0

Where sgn(t )  0, t  0
1, t  0

Properties 2 & 3 Time Scaling & Duality
1 f
• Let g (t )  G ( f ). Then, g (at )  G( )
a a
• If g (t )  G ( f ), then G (t )  g ( f )
• Example 2.4 Sinc Pulse
we know: Arect  t   ATsinc( fT )
 
T 
A  f 
If g (t )  Asinc(2Wt ), then Asinc(2Wt )  rect  
2W  2W 
Properties 4 & 5 Time/Frequency Shifting

 j 2 ft0
• If g (t )  G ( f ) , then g (t  t0 )  G ( f )e
Proof:

G ( f )  g (t ) exp( j 2ft )dt
t   t  t0  G ( f )   g (t  t0 ) exp( j 2f (t  t0 ))dt
 G ( f )  exp(2ft0 )  g (t  t0 ) exp( j 2ft )dt

 exp(2ft0 ) F [ g (t  t0 )]
g (t  t0 )  G ( f )e  j 2ft0
• If g (t )  G ( f ), then 12
e j 2 fct g (t )  G ( f  f c )

Example 2.5 Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse
• A rectangular signal carried by a sinusoidal wave:
t
g (t )  Arect   cos(2 f c t ) where Tf c = 1
T 
1
 cos(2 f c t )   exp( j 2 f c t )  exp( j 2 f c t )
2
AT
 G( f )  sinc[T ( f  fc )]  sinc[T ( f  fc )]
2
 AT
 2 sinc[T ( f  f c )], f  0

G ( f )  0, f 0
 AT
 sinc[T ( f  f c )], f  0
 2
Properties 6 & 7 Area under g (t ) / G ( f )

• If g (t )  G ( f ) , then
 

g (t )dt   g (t )e  j 2 ft dt
 f 0
 G (0)
• If g (t )  G ( f ) , then
 
g (0)   G ( f )e j 2 ft
df   G ( f )df
 t 0 

Property 8 Differentiation in Time Domain
• If g (t )  G ( f ) , and assume that the first
derivative of g (t ) is Fourier transformable. Then,
d
g (t )  j 2 fG ( f )
dt
 d d 
g (t )   G ( f )e j 2 ft
df  g (t )   G ( f )e j 2 ft df
 dt dt 
• That is, differentiation of a time function g(t) has
the effect of multiplying its Fourier transform G(f)
by the factor j2f
dn
• Generalized form n g (t )  ( j 2f ) n G ( f )
dt
Example 2.6 Normalized Gaussian Pulse

d
• If g (t )  G ( f ) , then g (t )  j 2 fG ( f )
dt
• By duality: d G ( f )   j 2 tg (t )
df
dg (t ) dG ( f )
• Then by linearity: dt  j[ j 2 tg (t )]  j 2 fG ( f )  j df
• Q 0  0, If LHS = RHS = 0, we have
 dg (t )  g (t )  exp( t 2 )
 dt  2 tg (t )  0
then the solutions: 
 dG ( f ) G ( f )  exp( f )
2
2 fG ( f )  0
 df
so exp( t 2 )  exp( f 2 )
• Note: the area under g(t)/G(f) = 1.
 
 e  t dt   e  t e  j 2 ft dt  F (e  t )  e  f 1
2 2 2 2
  f 0 f 0 f 0
Property 9 Integration in Time Domain
• Let g(t)  G(f), then provided that G(0) = 0, we have
t 1

g ( )d 
j 2f
G( f )
• That is, integration of a time function g(t) has the effect of
dividing its Fourier transform G(f) by the factor j2f,
assuming that G(0) = 0.
• Example 2.6: Triangular Pulse
t
g 2 (t )   g1 ( )d

G1 ( f )  ATsinc( fT )[exp( j fT )  exp( j fT )]

 2 jATsinc( fT )sin( fT )
1
G2 ( f )  G1 ( f )  AT 2sinc 2 ( fT )
j 2 f
Property 10 Conjugate Functions

• g(t)  G(f), then for a complex-valued time function g(t), we
have g * (t )  G * ( f )
where the asterisk (*) denotes the complex conjugate
operation

• Proof: from IFT: g (t )   G ( f )e j 2 ft dt

 
g *(t )  (  G ( f )e j 2 ft
df )*   G *( f )e  j 2 ft df
 
 
Replacing f by f,    G *( f )e j 2 ft
df   G *( f )e j 2 ft df
 
Thus g * (t )  G * ( f )
• Example 2.8: If complex-value g (t )  Re[ g (t )]  j Im[ g (t )] ,
then Re[ g (t )]  1 [ g (t )  g *(t )]  12 [G ( f )  G *( f )]
1
2

 Im[ g (t )]  1
2j [ g (t )  g *(t )]  2 j [G ( f )  G *( f )]
Properties 11/12 Multiplication/Convolution in
Time Domain
• Property 12: Let g1(t)  G1(f) and g2(t)  G2(f), then

g1 (t ) g 2 (t )   G1 ( )G2 ( f   )d   G1 ( f )  G2 ( f )

• Property 13: Let g1(t)  G1(f) and g2(t)  G2(f), then


g1 (t )  g 2 (t )   g1 ( ) g 2 (t   )d  G1 ( f )G2 ( f )

• Proof: proven in differential equations.
Property 13 Rayleigh’s Energy Theorem

• Let g(t) be defined over the entire interval –  < t < ,
and assume its Fourier transform G(f) exists. If the
energy of the signal satisfies

E   g (t ) dt   (Finite Energy)
2

 
 g (t ) dt   G ( f ) df
2 2
• Then,  
(Energy Conservation)
• Proof: Let g1(t)  G1(f) and g2(t)  G2(f),

g1 (t ) g 2 (t )  F 1{G1 ( f )  G2 ( f )}  F 1  

G1 ( )G2 ( f   )d  
 g *(t )  G *( f ), Let g1 (t )  g (t ) and g 2 (t )  g *(t ), then
G1 ( f )  G ( f ), G2 ( )  G *( )  G2 ( f   )  G *( f   )
 g1 (t ) g 2 (t )  g (t )  g (t ) g *(t )  F 1
2



G ( )G *( f   )d  
Property 13 Rayleigh’s Energy Theorem (Cont’d)
 
 g (t ) dt   g (t ) g *(t )e  j 2 ft dt  F {g (t ) g *(t )} f 0
2
  f 0
 
 F F 1


G ( )G *( f   )d   f 0

  G ( )G *( )d 


  G ( f ) df
2

• Example 2.9: Consider a sinc pulse: Asinc(2Wt ) , its energy


E  A2  sinc 2 (2Wt )dt  Not easy!

A  f 
 Asinc(2Wt )  rect  
2W  2W 
2 2
 A   2 f   A  W A2
E     rect   df    W 1  df 
 2W   2W   2W  2W
Relationship between Time and Frequency
• The time-domain and frequency-domain

descriptions of a signal are inversely related:
– Signals in time-domain changed  Signals in frequency-
domain changed accordingly. We can only specify an
arbitrary specifications of either time or frequency, but
cannot specify both of them together.
– If a signal is strictly limited in frequency (or in time), its
representation in time (or in frequency) will trail on
indefinitely (asymptotically limited in time).
• In reality, a signal cannot be strictly limited in both
time and frequency.

Bandwidth
• The bandwidth is a measure of the extent of significant
spectral content of the signal for positive frequency.
• The signal can be either low-pass (~DC, referred as
baseband signal) or band-pass (~ fc, referred as RF
signal).
Low-pass Band-pass
Bandwidth Definitions (1/3)

• Null-to-null bandwidth
Low-Pass
(baseband)
Main Lobe BW (1/T)

Band-Pass
Problem: If there’s no null, BW is not defined. Null-to-Null BW (2/T)

Bandwidth Definition (2/3)
• 3-dB bandwidth (in terms of power/energy)
– 3-dB bandwidth is defined as the separation between
two frequencies at which the amplitude spectrum of
the signal drops to 1 / 2 (half power) of the peak
value at fc.
– If the spectrum is not symmetric, this definition is not
fair.
Low-Pass Band-Pass
Bandwidth Definition (3/3)

• root mean square (rms) bandwidth
– Root mean square bandwidth is defined as the
square root of the second moment of a properly
normalized form of the squared amplitude spectrum
of the signal.
– Advantage: better mathematical evaluation.
– Disadvantage: not easy be obtained from the signal’s
spectrum directly.
1/2
  f 2 G ( f ) 2 df 
Wrms

    
 
 
2
G ( f ) df


Time-bandwidth Product
• For any family of pulse signals that differ in time
scale, the product of the signal’s duration and its
bandwidth (time-BW product or BW-duration
product) is a constant:
(duration) x (bandwidth) = constant
time frequency  Inverse relationship!
• rms duration of the signal g(t)
1/2
  t 2 g (t ) 2 dt 
Trms

    TrmsWrms 
1
 
 g (t ) dt  4
2
  
Dirac Delta Function

• Dirac delta function  (t ) 1  (t )
1 
Definition:  (t )  lim  u (t )  u (t  k )  
k
t

k 0 k
 0k

 (t )  0 t  0 and   (t )  1  (t ) k0

•  (t) is a generated function, only exits

t
mathematically. 0
• Delta function is a factor in the integrand of an integral
with respect to time.
– Considering g(t) be a continuous function of time


g (t ) (t  t0 )dt  g (t0 )
– Sifting property of the delta function

Dirac Delta Function
• The convolutional integral of g(t) and  (t)


g ( ) (t   )d  g (t )  g (t )   (t )  g (t )
– The replication property of the delta function

• The Fourier transform of the delta function

F [ (t )]    (t ) exp( j 2 ft )dt  exp( j 2 ft ) t 0  1

– Using the sifting property of the delta function
F [ (t )]  1   (t )  1
The Delta Function – Limiting Form of Gaussian

Pulse
• Note: a normalized Gaussian pulse: e t  e  f
2 2
• Consider a Gaussian pulse of unit area

1  t2 
g (t )  exp   2  0
   
– Its derivatives are all continuous
– It dies away rapidly: lim g (t )   (t )
 0
1  f 
– By scaling property: g (at )  G  
a a
the corresponding Fourier transform:
G ( f )  exp( 2 f 2 )
Note: as   0, lim G ( f )  exp( 2 f 2 )  0  1

 0

Applications of the Delta Function (1/6)
• DC Signal: g(t) = 1
– Applying dual property to the Fourier transform pairs
 (t )  1  1 ( f )

– That is F (1)   exp( j 2 ft )dt   ( f )

– then  exp( j 2 ft )  cos(2 ft )  j sin(2 ft )
  
  exp( j 2 ft )dt   cos(2 ft )dt  j  sin(2 ft )dt   ( f )
  
 
  cos(2 ft )dt   ( f ) and  sin(2 ft ) dt  0
 

• Complex Exponential Function
– Applying the frequency-shifting property to the Fourier
transform pairs
 exp( j 2 f c t ) g (t )  G ( f  f c ) and 1   ( f )
 exp( j 2 f c t )   ( f  f c )
• Sinusoidal functions
– Considering the Fourier transform pairs
of cosine function
1
cos(2 f c t )  [exp( j 2 f c t )  exp( j 2 f c t )]
2
1
 [ ( f  f c )   ( f  f c )]
2

• Signum function
– Not satisfy Dirichlet conditions, no Fourier transform
1, t  0 a0

sgn(t )   0, t  0
 1, t  0

• Limiting form of signum function
 exp( at ), t  0
  j 4 f
g (t )   0, t  0  G( f )  2
a  (2 f ) 2 a0
 exp(at ), t  0
 a0
1
 j 4 f j f
Let a  0, then lim g (t )  sgn(t ) , and 2
a 0 a  (2 f ) 2
 j 4 f 1
F [sgn(t )]  lim 2 
a 0 a  (2 f ) 2
j f

• Unit step function
 1, t  0
1
u (t )   , t  0
2
 0, t  0
– The unit step function and signum function are related by

1
u (t )  [sgn[t ]  1]
2
– The Fourier transform pairs
1 1
u (t )   ( f )
j 2 f 2
• Integration in the time domain (revisit Property 9 of
the Fourier transform with G(0) = 0 assumption)
t 1
 
g ( )d 
j 2 f
G( f )
• Considering the general case without G(0) = 0

assumption
t
– Let y (t ) 
 g ( )d


– y(t) can be regarded as y (t )  
g ( )u (t   )d
 1,   t A convolution of

where u (t   )   1 ,   t g(t) and u(t)
2

 0,   t

y (t )   g ( )u (t   )d then Y ( f )  G ( f )  1  1  ( f ) 

•   j 2 f 2 
 
 g (t )  u (t )
Since G ( f ) ( f )  G (0) ( f )
1 1
 Y( f )  G ( f )  G (0) ( f )
j 2 f 2
• That is, the general form of Property 9 of Fourier

transform becomes
t 1 1

g ( )d 
j 2 f
G ( f )  G (0) ( f )
2

Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals
• Consider a periodic signal gT0 (t ) of period T0. Its
complex exponential Fourier series is expressed by
gT0 (t )  c
n 
n exp( j 2 nf 0t )
– where cn is the complex Fourier coefficients defined by
1 T0 /2
cn   gT (t ) exp( j 2 nf 0t )dt
T0 T0 /2 0
– where f0 is the fundamental frequency defined as the
reciprocal of the period T0: f0 = (T0)-1
• Let g (t ) equals gT0 (t ) over one period and zero
elsewhere  gT (t ),  T20  t  T20
g (t )   0
0, elsewhere

• Then, the

periodic signal gT (t ) can be expressed by 0
gT0 (t )   g (t  mT )  g (t )    (t  mT )
0 0
m  m 
g (t ): generating function
gT0 (t ) g (t )
t
-2T0 -T0 0 T0 2T0
• The complex Fourier coefficients cn:
1 T0 /2
cn 
T0  T0 /2
gT0 (t ) exp( j 2 nf 0t )dt

 f 0  g (t ) exp( j 2 nf 0t )dt  f 0G (nf 0 )

• Hence, g (t )  G ( f ) and Poisson’s sum formula
  
gT0 (t )  c
n 
n exp( j 2 nf 0t )  
n 
f 0G (nf 0 ) exp( j 2 nf 0t )   g (t  mT )
m 
0

• Finally, Fourier transform of a periodic signal becomes
   
F ( gT0 (t ))     g (t  mT0 )  e  j 2 ft dt

 m  
   
  f 0   G (nf 0 )e j 2 nf0t  e  j 2 ft dt

 n  
  
 f0  G(nf )
n 
0 
e  j 2 ( f  nf 0 ) t
dt  f 0  G(nf ) ( f  nf )
n 
0 0
• Periodicity in the time domain has the effect of changing the

spectrum of a signal into a discrete form defined at integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency
 
gT0 (t )   g (t  mT )  f  G (nf ) ( f  nf )
m 
0 0
n 
0 0
Ideal Sampling Function

• An ideal sampling function (comb function) consists
of an infinite sequence of uniformly delta functions
 T (t ) 
0   (t  mT )
m  
0
thus the generating function: g (t )   (t ) and G (nf 0 )  1

  
 T (t ) 
0   (t  mT )  f  G (nf ) ( f  nf )  f   ( f  nf )
m 
0 0
n 
0 0 0
n 
0

Signal Transmission in Linear Systems
• A system is a physical device that produces an

output signal (response) in response to an input
signal (excitation).
• The principle of superposition holds in a linear
system.
• Filters and Channels are typical examples of linear
systems.
– Filter is a frequency-selective device to limit the spectrum
of a signal to some band of frequencies.
– Channel is a transmission medium that connects the
transmitter and receiver of a communication system.
Time Response
• In time domain, impulse response is defined as the
response of the system (with zero initial conditions) to a
delta function  (t) in time domain at the input.
• In frequency domain, frequency response is defined as the
response of the system (with zero initial conditions) to an
identity function  in frequency domain at the input.
• A system is “time invariant” if the system condition doesn’t
vary as time. (wired: , wireless: )
• Assume a  (t) is applied to the system at t = 0, we denote
the impulse response of a linear time-invariant system by
h(t) and assume the output is y(t) and input is x(t).
excitation output
Time Response
• In a unit time , this pulse has an area equal to x().
• The system has an impulse response h(t) at t = 0.
• Since the system is LTI, at t = , the impulse is delayed by ,
thus the impulse response to x() is h(t – ), thus the
response of the excitation x() is x()h(t – ).
• For the total response y(t), which is an accumulation of
every small incremental response:

y (t )   x( )h(t   )d

 x(t )  h(t )
–  : excitation time
– t : response time
– (t – ): system-memory time
Tapped-Delay-Linex(Filter
n    ) x ( n   ( N  2)  )
• Assume
– h(t )  0 for t  0 and t  T f
The output y(t) is:
Tf
y (t )  x(t )  h(t ) 0t T   h( ) x(t   )d
f 0
Let x(t), h(t), and y(t) are uniformly sampled every , then
t  n and   k  : n, k are integers
N 1
then y (n )   h(k  ) x(n  k  ) , where N   T f
k 0
Define w  h(k  ) : a weight function
k
N 1
Then y (n )   wk x(n  k  )
k 0
This is called as a tapped-delay-line filter (transversal filter).
Causality
• A system is said to be causal if it does not respond
before the excitation is applied.
• For a system operating in real time to be physically
realizable, the system must be causal.
h(t )  0 for t  0
• For a system whose processed signals are pre-
stored in the memory, the system can be noncausal
but realizable.
Stability
• The system is said to be stable if the output signal
is bounded for all bounded input signals. (bounded
input-bounded output (BIBO) stability criterion)
• Let input signal x(t) be bounded
x(t )  M M is positive real finite number

y (t )   h( ) x(t   )d

  
y (t )  

h( ) x(t   ) d   | h( ) || x(t   ) | d  M  | h( ) | d
 

• BIBO stability 
| h(t ) | dt  

Frequency Response
• Consider a linear time-invariant system of impulse
response h(t ) driven by x(t )  exp( j 2ft )

y (t )  h(t )  x(t )   h( ) exp[ j 2 f (t   )]d


 exp( j 2 ft )  h( ) exp( j 2 f  )d

• Defined transfer function of the system as the
Fourier transform of its impulse response

H ( f )   h( ) exp( j 2f )d

y (t )
• Then, y (t )  H ( f ) exp( j 2ft )  H ( f ) 
x(t ) x ( t )  exp( j 2 ft )
exp( j 2 ft )
Only valid for
single frequency!
Frequency Response
• Consider an arbitrary signal x(t ) applied to the
system, by IFT: 
x(t )   X ( f ) exp( j 2 ft )df

• Or equivalently

in limiting form 
x(t )  lim
f 0
 X ( f ) exp( j 2 ft )f  lim
f  0
 X ( f )f exp( j 2 ft )
f  k f k  f  k f k 

 y (t )  lim
f  0
 H ( f ) X ( f ) exp( j 2 ft )f
f  k f k 

  H ( f ) X ( f ) exp( j 2 ft )df
  Y( f )  H ( f )X ( f )
1 1
 F [ H ( f ) X ( f )]  F [Y ( f )]
• Fourier transform of the output y(t) is equal to the product of the
transfer function of the system H(f) and the Fourier Transform of the
input x(t).
Frequency Response
• The transfer function H ( f ) can be expressed in a
complex quantity. Amplitude
Spectrum
H ( f )  H ( f ) exp[ j  ( f )]
– H ( f ) is the amplitude response
–  ( f ) is the phase response
• For a linear system with a real-valued impulse
response h(t), the transfer function H(f) exhibits
conjugate symmetry ( f ) Phase
H ( f )  H ( f ) Spectrum
 ( f )    ( f )
Frequency Response
• 1st Logarithm of H ( f )  H ( f ) exp[ j  ( f )] expression
ln H ( f )  ln[ H ( f ) exp j  ( f ) ]   ( f )  j  ( f ) where  ( f )  ln H ( f )
– ( f ) is called the gain/loss of the system, measured in
nepers. ( f ) is measured in radians.
• 2nd logarithm of H( f ) expression (in terms power)
ln H ( f )
 ( f )  20 log10 H ( f )  ( f )  20  8.69 ( f )
ln10
–  '( f ) is also called the gain/loss of the system, but
measured in decibels (dB). (Note: no phase expression)
• 3dB-bandwidth is widely adopted in the system
Low-Pass Band-Pass
System System

Paley-Wiener Criterion
• A necessary and sufficient condition for a
function  ( f ) to be the gain of the causal filter is
the convergence of the integral
 |( f ) | ( f )  f 2
 1 f 2
df   No proof in this course.
• Paley-Weiner criterion is the frequency-domain

equivalent of the causality requirements.
Filters
• A filter is a frequency-selective device that is used
to limit the spectrum of a signal to a specific band.
• passband versus stopband:
– Low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-stop types.
• An ideal low-pass filter, passband stopband
In frequency domain:
exp( j 2 ft0 ), B f  B
H( f )  
 0, f B
In time domain:
B
h(t )   exp[ j 2 f (t  t0 )]df
B
sin[2 B(t  t0 )]
  2 Bsinc[2 B (t  t0 )]
 (t  t0 )
Filters
• The ideal low-pass filter is noncausal because it
violates the Paley-Wiener criterion.
• We can build a causal filter that closely approximates
an ideal low-pass filter by making the delay t0 large
enough for the condition
sinc[2 B(t  t0 )]  1 for t  0
h(t )  0 for t  0
Pulse Response of Ideal Low-Pass Filter

• Consider a rectangular pulse x(t) of unit amplitude
and duration T , which is applied to the ideal low-
pass filter with h(t )  2 Bsinc (2 Bt ) .
• Output response

y (t )   x( )h(t   )d

T sin[2 B (t   )]
 2 B  T2 d

2 2 B (t   )
• The Gibbs phenomenon
– 9% overshoot
– The oscillatory pattern is related to the bandwidth of the
filter
Design of Filters
• The design of filters is usually carried out in
frequency domain by two steps:
– The approximation of a prescribed response by a
realizable transfer function. Note: Not every filter can be
100% realized by the transfer function!
– The realization of the approximating transfer function by a
physical device
• For an approximating transfer function H(f) to be
physical realizable, it must be BIBO stable.
Mathematic Numerical IC Design
Model Approximation Implementation
Design of Filters
• A Laplace transform can be obtained by replacing
j2f with the complex frequency s in the transfer
function:
( s  z1 )( s  z2 )L ( s  zm )
H ( s )  H ( f )
j 2 f  s
K
( s  p1 )( s  p2 )L ( s  pn )
n
a
 i 
Re[ pi ]  0
i 1 s  pi
for all i
– where zi: zeros, pi: poles
– For LPFs and BPFs, m < n, so that H(s) is finite as f  .
• If the system is causal, the BIBO condition for a
stable system restricts all the poles of H '( s ) to be
inside the left half of the s-plane, i.e., Re[ pi ]  0 for all i.
Different Types of Filters
• Butterworth filter is said to have a maximally flat passband
response.
• Chebyshev filter provides faster roll-off by allowing ripple in
the frequency response.
• Elliptic filter provide faster roll-off for a given number of poles.
• Finite-duration impulse response (FIR) filter (Tapped-Delay-
Line Filter) has only zeros and is stable.
Communication Link as a Filter

• The communication channel ordinarily acts as a
filter.
– Multipath: One path as the direct path between the
transmitter and receiver (line of sight), and the other path
as a reflection from an intervening object
h(t )   (t )   e j  (t   )
  (t )    i e ji  (t   i )
–  : reflection path duration
i
–  : reflection path attenuation

–  : reflection path phase rotation

Low-Pass and Band-Pass Signals
• Low-pass signals have their content limited by f  W
• Communication using low-pass signals is baseband
communication. (e.g. USB, Internet)
• A signal g(t) is a band-pass (upconverted) signal if its
Fourier transform G(f) is non-negligible only in a bandwidth
2W centered about frequency  fc. (e.g. WiFi, Cellular phone)
• Narrow-band Signal: 2W  f c
Low-pass Band-pass
signal signal
Band-Pass Signal in Time Domain

• A real-valued band-pass signal g (t ) with non-zero
spectrum G ( f ) in the vicinity of f c .
g (t )  a (t ) cos[ 2f c t   (t )]  Hybrid form of amplitude modulation
and angle/phase modulation
– a(t): envelope of the signal (always positive)  AM

– (t): phase of the signal  PM information information
Envelope cross 0,
– Note: the varying speed of a(t) and
phase changed by
(t) should be slower than cos(2fct) 180˚
Envelope and phase description

Phasor Representation
• Phasor representation of a band-pass signal is a vector
on the complex plane with length a(t) and phase  (t ).
• Canonical representation of a band-pass signal
g (t )  a (t ) cos[2 f c t   (t )]  Re[ a(t )e j (2 fct  ( t )) ]  Re[ g(t )e j (2 fct ) ]
g (t )  a (t ) cos[2 f c t   (t )]  g I (t ) cos(2 f c t )  gQ (t ) sin(2 f c t )
– g I (t )  a (t ) cos  (t ) : inphase component of g(t)
– gQ (t )  a (t ) sin  (t ) : quadrature component of g(t)
Inphase and quadrature description
g(t )  a (t )e j ( t )  a (t ) cos  (t )  ja (t ) sin  (t )  g I (t )  jgQ (t )
a (t )  g I (t )  g Q (t )
2 2
 gQ (t ) 
 (t )  tan  1

 g I (t ) 
Complex Baseband Representation

• By inspecting canonic representation, it can be
rewritten as
g (t )  Re[ g~ (t ) exp( j 2f c t )] ( f )
g(t )  G
– g~ (t ) is defined to be g~ (t )  g I (t )  jg Q (t )
– g~ (t ) is called complex envelope of the
band-pass signal, a low-pass signal
• g (t ) may be expanded as
1
g (t )  [ g(t ) exp( j 2 f c t )  g *(t ) exp( j 2 f c t )] ( f  f )
2 G c
1   *( f  f )]
 G ( f )  [G ( f  f c)  G c
2
Note: fc >> W  *( f  f )
G c
Complex Baseband Representation
• The real-valued low-pass nature of g I (t ) and g Q (t )
implies their Fourier transforms are symmetric
about the origin for f  W. G( f )  *( f )
G
– Let g~ (t )  g I (t )  jg Q (t ) , then
 g I (t )  Re[ g(t )]  12 [ g(t )  g *(t )]

 gQ (t )  Im[ g(t )]  2 j [ g(t )  g *(t )]
1
 g (t )  G ( f ),
Note:  *
 g (t )  G ( f )
*
GI ( f )  12 [G( f )  G *( f )]

 
 
GQ ( f )  2 j [G ( f )  G *(  f )]
1
Construction of Band-Pass Signal

• The band-pass signal g (t ) can be reconstructed from its in-
phase gI(t) and quadrature gQ(t) components.
A
g~ (t )  g I (t )  jg Q (t )
B
g (t )  g I (t ) cos(2 f c t )  gQ (t ) sin(2 f c t )
 a (t ) cos  (t ) cos(2 f c t )  a (t ) sin  (t ) sin(2 f c t )
 a (t ) cos(2 f c t   (t ))  Re[ g(t )e j 2 fct ]
Generation of Low-Pass Signals
• The low-pass properties of g I (t ) and g Q (t ) can be
derived from the band-pass signal g (t )
– Both low-pass filters are identical with bandwidth W.
g (t )  a (t ) cos(2 f c t   (t ))
At A (upper path): A
g (t )  cos(2 f c t )
 a (t ) cos(2 f c t   (t ))  cos(2 f c t )
 12 a (t )  cos(4 f c t   (t ))  cos  (t ) 
After LPF: High Frequency
1
2 a (t ) cos  (t )  12 g I (t )
At B (lower path): B
g (t )  sin(2 f c t )  a (t ) cos(2 f c t   (t )) sin(2 f c t )  12 a (t ) sin(4 f c t   (t ))  sin  (t ) 
Example 2.14 RF Pulse

• An RF pulse signal is defined by
t 
g (t )  A rect   cos(2 f c t )
T 
– Assume f cT  1 so that the RF pulse
may be considered narrow band g (t )
• Complex representation
t  t 
g (t )  Arect   cos(2 f c t )  Re  g(t )e j 2 fct   g(t )  A rect  
T  T 
 ( f )  ATsinc(Tf )
G
G( f ) 
AT
2
sinc T ( f  fc )  sinc T ( f  fc )
Envelope:
t
a (t )  g(t )  Arect  
T 
Band-Pass Systems
• Considering a band-pass system with input x(t),
output y(t) and the impulse response h(t) of a band-
pass filter.

y (t )  x(t )  h(t )   x( )h(t   )d  Y( f )  H ( f )X ( f )

• By analogy h(t) with g(t): h(t )  Re[h(t ) exp( j 2 f ct )]

1
h(t )  [h(t ) exp( j 2 f c t )  h *(t ) exp( j 2 f c t )]
2
1
 H ( f )  [ H ( f  f c )  H *( f  f c )]
2

– where H ( f ) is low-pass limited to f  B
– Thus the low pass filter:
2 H ( f  f c ), f  f c  0
H ( f )  
0, otherwise
Band-Pass Systems
• Consider the band-pass output y (t )
y (t )  Re[ y (t ) exp( j 2 f c t )]
–~
y (t ), a low-pass signal, is the complex envelop of y (t )
Y( f )  H( f )X ( f )
 12 [ H ( f  f c )  H *(  f  f c )]  12 [ X ( f  f c )  X *(  f  f c )]
 14 [ H ( f  f c ) X ( f  f c )]  14 [ H *( f  f c ) X *( f  f c )]
 1 [Y( f  f )  Y *( f  f )]
2 c c
1
– where Y( f )  H ( f ) X ( f ), then y (t )  h(t )  x(t )
1
2 2
 X ( f )  2 X ( f  f c )
  Y( f )  2Y ( f  f c )  12 H ( f ) X ( f )
 H ( f )  2 H ( f  f c )
Band-Pass Systems
• The band-pass system can be equivalent to low-
pass complex envelopes.
– Input signal
x (t )  Re[ ~
x (t ) exp( j 2f c t )]
– Impulse response
~
h(t )  Re[ h (t ) exp( j 2f c t )]
– Filtering 1
y (t )  h (t )  x(t )
2
– Output signal
y (t )  Re[ ~
y (t ) exp( j 2f c t )]
Example 2.15
t  t
• Input: x(t )  A rect   cos(2 f ct ), envelope: x(t )  A rect  
T  T 

X ( f )  ATsinc(Tf )
 f  fc    f  fc 
• Ideal BPF: H ( f )  rect    rect   Assume no thickness
 2B   2 B 
2, B f  B
H ( f )  
0, f B
c
h(t )  4 Bsinc(2 Bt )
Example 2.15
 1    ATsinc(Tf ),  B  f  B
• Output Y ( f )  H ( f ) X ( f )   ,
2  0, f  B
then
Y ( f )  12 [Y( f  f c )  Y *( f  f c )]
or 1 t
y (t )  h (t )  x(t )  2 Bsinc(2 Bt )  Arect  
2 T 
• then y (t )  Re[ y (t ) exp( j 2 f c t )] (No analytic solution)
Y( f )
2B 2B
Distortion
Phase Delay
• A dispersive (frequency selective) device, such as a filter or
communication channel, may introduce some delay into the
output signal in relation to the input signal.
– Phase varies linearly with frequency in an ideal filter, thus introducing
a constant delay. Example: Page 52
• For a steady sinusoidal signal at frequency fc in a channel, a
total phase shift  ( fc) is introduced, then the output signal
y(t) differs the input x(t) by a phase e j  ( fc ) .
y (t )  x(t )e j  ( fc )  x(t )e j 2 fcTd
 ( fc )  ( fc )
• Then these two signals have a time delay by Td  
2 f c c
seconds, where c is the angular velocity.
– Phase delay is not necessarily the true signal delay. (Pure frequency)
Example: Page 65

Group Delay
• Information is carried after “modulation” on a sinusoidal wave.
Thus a narrow group of frequencies is generated centered at
fc.
• For an slow varying signal modulated by a sinusoidal carrier,
there is a delay (group delay) between the envelope of the
input signal and that of the output signal.
– True signal delay
phase delay
group delay
NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I
t Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 73
Phase and Group Delay

• Assume a dispersive channel and input signal:
H ( f )  K exp[ j  ( f )] x (t )  m(t ) cos( 2f c t )
– K is constant
– (f) is a nonlinear function of frequency
– x(t) is a band-pass input signal limited to f  f c  W and
fc >> W. So m(t) is a low-pass signal with BW of W.
• Expand the phase delay function by Taylor series
 ( f ) 1 2 ( f )
 ( f )   ( fc )  ( f  fc )  ( f  fc )2  L
f f  fc
2! f 2 f  fc
• Define phase delay
 ( fc ) Nonlinear terms
p  
2 f c
• Define group delay 1  ( f )
g  
2 f f  fc
Then  ( f )  2 f c p  2 ( f  f c ) g a linear function of f
H ( f )  K exp[ j 2 f c p  j 2 ( f  f c ) g ]
and H ( f )  2 H ( f  f c )  2 K exp[ j 2 f c p  j 2 f  g ]
a constant
• The equivalent low-pass complex
envelope representation
– Input signal
x(t )  m(t ) cos(2 f c t ) x(t )  m(t )
 
 Re[ x(t ) exp( j 2 f c t )] X(f )  M(f )

– Channel transfer function
H ( f )  2 H ( f  f c )  2 K exp[  j 2 f c p  j 2 f  g ]
– Received signal
1
Y( f )  H ( f ) X ( f )  K exp( j 2 f c p ) exp( j 2 f  g ) M ( f )
2
 y (t )  K exp( j 2 f c p )m(t   g )
 y (t )  Re[ y (t ) exp( j 2 f c t )]  Re[ Km(t   g ) exp( j 2 f c (t   p ))]
 Km(t   g ) cos[2 f c (t   p )]
a group/envelope delay a phase/carrier delay
• If  ( f ) varies linearly with frequency, the signal is delayed
but undistorted. If the linear condition is violated, signal is
distorted  group delay distortion.

Sources of Information
• Information, including speech, music, television,
video, fax, PC… etc., could be analog or digital.
• Analog signal:  Digital signal:
Unipolar
Bipolar
• Digital waveform
K
representation
g (t )   bk p (t  kT )
k 0
– bk: binary data, could be (0, 1), (-1, 1)
– p(t): pulse shape, could be rectangular or other shapes
– T: Bit time
Sources of Information
• Almost all analog sources are presented digitally
these days.
• Modulation is inherently an analog process
regardless of whether the information source is
analog or digital.
2.13 Numerical Computation (DFT & FFT) (Self-Study)

2.14 Theme Example

02 Fourier Theory and Communication Signals

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02 Fourier Theory and Communication Signals

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Communication Systems I

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 1

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 2

• Inverse Fourier transform of signal G(f)

• t denotes time (sec)

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 4

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 5

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 7

Example 2.2 Exponential Pulse

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 8

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 9

Property 1 Linearity (Superposition)

(b) exp( at ), t  0

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 11

Properties 4 & 5 Time/Frequency Shifting

 G ( f )  exp(2ft0 )  g (t  t0 ) exp( j 2ft )dt

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 12

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 13

Properties 6 & 7 Area under g (t ) / G ( f )

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 14

Example 2.6 Normalized Gaussian Pulse

G1 ( f )  ATsinc( fT )[exp( j fT )  exp( j fT )]

Property 10 Conjugate Functions

• Property 13: Let g1(t)  G1(f) and g2(t)  G2(f), then

• Proof: proven in differential equations.

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 19

Property 13 Rayleigh’s Energy Theorem

• Proof: Let g1(t)  G1(f) and g2(t)  G2(f),

• Example 2.9: Consider a sinc pulse: Asinc(2Wt ) , its energy

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 21

Relationship between Time and Frequency

• The time-domain and frequency-domain

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 22

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 23

Bandwidth Definitions (1/3)

Main Lobe BW (1/T)

Problem: If there’s no null, BW is not defined. Null-to-Null BW (2/T)

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 25

Bandwidth Definition (3/3)

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 26

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 27

Dirac Delta Function

•  (t) is a generated function, only exits

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 28

– The replication property of the delta function

– Using the sifting property of the delta function

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 29

The Delta Function – Limiting Form of Gaussian

• Consider a Gaussian pulse of unit area

Note: as   0, lim G ( f )  exp( 2 f 2 )  0  1

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 30

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 31

Applications of the Delta Function (2/6)

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 32

Applications of the Delta Function (4/6)

– The unit step function and signum function are related by

• Considering the general case without G(0) = 0

Applications of the Delta Function (6/6)

• That is, the general form of Property 9 of Fourier

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 36

Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 38

• Periodicity in the time domain has the effect of changing the

NTHU EE364000 Communication Systems I Y.H. Huang & K.M. Feng 39