Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform

Chapter 2.
2 The Fourier Transform

◊ sinc function
sin (πλ )
sinc ( λ ) ≡
πλ
◊ As the pulse duration T is decreased,

decreased the first zero-crossing
zero crossing of the
amplitude spectrum |G( f )| moves up in frequency.
◊ The relationship between the time
time-domain
domain and frequency
frequency-domain
domain is
an inverse one.
◊ A pulse, narrow in time, has a significant frequency description over
a wide range of frequencies, and vice versa.
13 Jameel Ahmad Fall 2018
Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
◊ [Example 2.2] Exponential Pulse

◊ A ttruncated
t d form
f off a decaying
d i exponential
i l pulse
l isi shown
h iin the
th
following figure
(a)Decaying exponential pulse. (b)Rising exponential pulse.

◊ [Example 2.2] Exponential Pulse(cont.)

◊ It iis convenient
i t tto mathematically
th ti ll define
d fi the
th decaying
d i
exponential pulse using the unit step function.
◊ An unit step function is defined as:
⎧1, t > 0
⎪⎪ 1
u (t ) = ⎨ , t = 0
⎪2
⎪⎩0 t < 0
◊ D
Decaying
i exponential
i l pulse
l off fi
figure ((a)) can bbe expressed
d as
g (t ) = exp(− at )u (t )

the Fourier transform of this pulse is
∞
G ( f ) = ∫ exp ( − att ) exp ( − j 2π ft ) dt
0
∞
∞ eexpp ⎡⎣ −t ( a + j 2π f ) ⎤⎦
=∫ exp ⎡⎣ −t ( a + j 2π f ) ⎤⎦ dt = −
0
( a + j 2π f ) 0
1
=
a + j 2π f
the Fourier-transform pair for the decaying exponential pulse of

figure (a) is therefore
1
exp ( − at ) u ( t ) U
a + j 2π f
◊ [Example 2.2] Exponential Pulse(cont.)

◊ Ri i exponential
Rising ti l pulse
l off Fi
Fig. (b)
1
g ( t ) = exp ( at ) u ( −t ) expp ( at ) u ( −t ) U
a − j 2π f
0
G( f ) = ∫ exp ( at ) exp ( − j 2π ft ) dt
−∞
0 1
= ∫ exp ⎡⎣t ( a − j 2π f ) ⎤⎦ dt =
−∞ a − j 2π f
◊ The decaying and rising exponential pulses are both
asymmetric functions of time t .
◊ Th i Fourier
Their F i transformsf are therefore
h f complex
l valued.
l d
◊ Truncated decaying and rising exponential pulses have the
same amplitude spectrum,
spectrum but the phase spectrum of the one is
the negative of that of the other.
Fourier--transform Pairs
Fourier

Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform
◊ Summary of properties of the Fourier transform

Property Mathematical Description
1 Linearity
1. ag1 ( t ) + bg 2 ( t ) U aG1 ( f ) + bG2 ( f ) ,
a and b are constants.
2. Time scalingg 1 ⎛ f ⎞
g ( at ) U G ⎜ ⎟ where a is constant
a ⎝a⎠
3. Duality If g ( t ) U G ( f ) then G ( t ) U g ( − f )
4. Time shifting g ( t − t0 ) U G ( f ) exp ( − j 2π ft0 )
5. Frequency shifting exp ( j 2π f c t ) g ( t ) U G ( f − f c )
∞
6 A
6. Area under
d g(t)
()
∫ g ( t ) dt = G ( 0 )
−∞
Property Mathematical Description
7. Area under G ( f ) ∞
g ( 0 ) = ∫ G ( f ) df
−∞
88.Differentiation
Diff i i iin d
g ( t ) U j 2π fG ( f )
the time domain dt
9. Integration
teg at o in tthee t 1 G ( 0)
∫ g (τ ) dτ U G( f )+ δ(f)
time domain −∞ j 2π f 2
10. Conjugate If g ( t ) U G ( f ) then g ∗ ( t ) U G ∗ ( − f )
f ti
functions
11. Multiplication in ∞
the time domain

g1 ( t ) g 2 ( t ) U ∫ G1 ( λ )G ( f − λ ) d λ
∞
−∞
∞
12. Convolution in
∫ g1 (τ )g 2 ( t − τ ) dτ U G1 ( f ) G2 ( f )
the time domain −∞
∞ 2 ∞
13. Rayleigh’s
g ( t ) dt = ∫ G ( f ) df
2
energy theorem ∫−∞ −∞
◊ Property 1：Linearity (Superposition)

Lett g1 (t ) U G1 ( f ) andd g 2 (t ) U G2 ( f ). Then
L Th for
f all
ll constants
t t c1
and c2, we have
c1 g1 ( t ) + c2 g 2 ( t ) U c1G1 + c2G2 ( f )
◊ Proof: the proof of this property follows simply from the

linearity of the integrals defining G( f ) and g(t).

◊ [Example 2.3] Combinations of Exponential Pulses

Consider a double exponential pulse
⎧exp ( − at ) , t>0
⎪
g ( t ) = ⎨1, t =0
⎪exp ( at ) , t<0
⎩
= exp ( − a t )
Symmetric in time domain.
Spectrum is real and symmetric.
This pulse
Thi l may be b viewed
i d as the
th sum off a truncated
t t d ddecaying
i
exponential pulse and a truncated rising exponential pulse.
1 1 2a
G( f ) = + = 2
a + j 2π f a − j 2π f a + ( 2π f )2
2a
2 a
exp ( − a t ) U 2
a + ( 2π f )
2

◊ [Example 2.3] Combinations of Exponential Pulses(cont.)
⎧exp ( − at ) , t >0
⎪
g ( t ) = ⎨0,
0 t =0
⎪− exp ( at ) , t<0
⎩
⎧+1, t>0
⎪
sgn ( t ) = ⎨0, t =0
⎪−1, t<0
⎩
g ( t ) = exp ( − a t ) sgn ( t )

◊ [Example 2.3] Combinations of Exponential Pulses(cont.)

1 1
F ⎣exp ( −a t ) sgn ( t ) ⎦ =
⎡ ⎤ −
a + j 2π f a − j 2π f
− j 4π f
=− 2
a + ( 2π f )
2
− j 4π f
exp ( − a t ) sgn ( t ) U
a + ( 2π f )
2 2
The Fourier transform is odd and purely imaginary.

◊ In general, a real odd-symmetric time function has an odd and
purely
l imaginary function
f as its Fourier transform.
f
◊ Property 2：Time Scaling Compression of a function in

the time domain is equivalent
1 ⎛ f ⎞
Let g (t ) U G ( f ) . Then g ( at ) U
to the expansion of its Fourier
G⎜ ⎟ transform in the frequency
a ⎝a⎠ domain, or vice versa.
Proof：F ⎡ g ( at ) ⎤ = ∞ τ
◊
⎣ ⎦ ∫ g ( at ) exp ( − j 2π ft ) dt τ = at → t =
−∞ a
1 ∞ ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎤ 1 ⎛ f ⎞
For a > 0 : F ⎡⎣ g ( at ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ g (τ ) exp ⎢ − j 2π ⎜ ⎟τ ⎥ dτ = G ⎜ ⎟
a −∞ ⎣ ⎝a⎠ ⎦ a ⎝a⎠
1 −∞ ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎤
For a < 0 : F ⎣⎡ g ( at ) ⎦⎤ = ∫ g (τ ) exp ⎢ − j 2π ⎜ ⎟τ ⎥ dτ
a ∞ ⎣ ⎝a⎠ ⎦
1 ∞ ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎤ 1 ⎛ f ⎞
= − ∫ g (τ ) exp ⎢ − j 2π ⎜ ⎟τ ⎥ dτ = − G ⎜ ⎟
a −∞∞ ⎣ ⎝a⎠ ⎦ a ⎝a⎠
Q.E.D.
◊ Property 3：Duality
◊ If g ( t ) U G ( f ), then G ( t ) U g ( − f )
∞
◊ Proof G ( f ) = ∫−∞ g (t )e− j 2π ft dt
∞
g (t ) = ∫ G ( f )e j 2π ft df
−∞
∞
7 t→ f f → t g ( f ) = ∫ G (t )e j 2π ft dt
−∞
∞
g (− f ) = ∫ G (t )e − j 2π ft dt = F{G (t )}
−∞
⎛t ⎞
◊ [Example 2.4] A rect ⎜ ⎟ U AT sinc ( fT ) (2.10)
⎝T ⎠
A ⎛−f ⎞ A ⎛ f ⎞
A sinc ( 2Wt ) U rect ⎜ ⎟ = rect ⎜ ⎟
2W ⎝ 2W ⎠ 2W ⎝ 2W ⎠
◊ Property 4：Time Shifting
◊ If g ( t ) U G ( f ) , then g ( t − t0 ) U G ( f ) exp ( − j 2π ft0 )
◊ Proof ： Let τ = ( t − t0 )
∞
F ⎡⎣ g ( t − t0 ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ g ( t − t0 ) exp ( − j 2π ft ) dt
−∞
∞
= exp ( − j 2π ft0 ) ∫ g (τ ) exp ( − j 2π f τ ) dτ
−∞
= expp ( − j 2π fft0 ) G ( f )
◊ The amplitude of G( f ) is unaffected by the time shift, but

its phase is changed by the linear factor -2πft0.
◊ Property 5：Frequency Shifting (Modulation Theorem)
◊ If g ( t ) U G ( f ) , then exp ( j 2π f c t ) g ( t ) U G ( f − f c )
where f c is a real constant
◊ Proof： ∞
F ⎡⎣exp ( j 2π f c t ) g ( t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ g ( t ) exp ⎡⎣ − j 2π t ( f − f c ) ⎤⎦ dt
−∞
∞
= G ( f − fc )
◊ Multiplication of a function by the factor exp(-2πfct) is

equivalent
q to shifting
g its Fourier transform in the positive
p
direction by the amount fc.

◊ [Example 2.5] Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse

Consider
C id the
th pulse i l g ( t ) shown
l signal h in
i figure
fi (a)
( ) which
hi h consists
i t off
a sinusoidal wave of amplitude A and frequency f c , extending in
duration from t = -T/2
T/2 to t = T/2.
T/2 This signal is sometimes referred to
as an RF pulse when the frequency f c falls in the radio-frequency
band. The signal g ( t ) of figure (a) may be expressed mathematically
as follows
⎛t ⎞
g ( t ) = A rect ⎜ ⎟ cos ( 2π f c t )
⎝T ⎠

◊ [Example 2.5] Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse (cont.)

we note that
1
cos ( 2π f c t ) = ⎡⎣exp ( j 2π f c t ) + exp ( − j 2π f c t ) ⎤⎦
2
applying the frequency-shifting
frequency shifting property to the Fourier-transform
Fourier transform
pair, we get the desired result
G( f ) =
AT
2
{ }
sinc ⎡⎣T ( f − f c ) ⎦⎤ + sinc ⎡⎣T ( f + f c ) ⎦⎤
in the special case of fcT>>1,

T>>1 we may use the approximate result
⎧ AT
⎪ 2 sinc ⎡⎣T ( f − f c ) ⎤⎦ , f >0
⎪
G ( f ) ⎨0, f =0
⎪ AT
⎪ sinc ⎣⎡T ( f + f c ) ⎦⎤ , f <0
⎩ 2
◊ [Example 2.5] Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse (cont.)

The amplitude
Th lit d spectrum
t off the
th RF pulse
l isi shown
h in
i figure
fi (b).
(b) This
Thi
diagram, in relation to figure in page 12, clearly illustrates the
frequency-shifting
frequency shifting property of the Fourier transform.
transform

◊ Property 6：Area Under g(t)

∞
If g ( t ) U G ( f ) , then ∫−∞ g ( t ) dt = G ( 0 ) Physical meaning for G(0)?
That is, the area under a function g(t) is equal to the value of its
Fourier-transform G( f ) at f =0. This result can be obtained by
putting f =0 in the formula of Fourier transform.
∞
G ( f ) = ∫ g ( t ) exp ( − j 2π ft ) dt
−∞
◊ Property 7：Area Under G( f )

∞
If g ( t ) U G ( f ), then g ( 0 ) = ∫−∞ G ( f ) df
That is,
is the value of a function g(t) at t =0 0 is equal to the area
under its Fourier-transform G( f ). This result can be obtained by
putting t =0 in the formula of inverse Fourier transform.
∞
g ( t ) = ∫ G ( f ) exp ( j 2π ft ) df
−∞

◊ Property 8：Differentiation in the Time Domain

Lett g ( t ) U G ( f ) , andd assume that
L th t th
the fi
firstt derivative
d i ti off g(t)
( ) iis
Fourier transformable. Then
d
g ( t ) U j 2π f G ( f ) (2.31)
dt
Th t is,
That i differentiation
diff ti ti off a timeti function
f ti g(t) (t) hhas th
the effect
ff t off
multiplying its Fourier transform G( f ) by the factor j2πf. If we
assume that the Fourier transform of the higher higher-order
order derivative
exists, then dn
() ( ) G( f )
n
n
g t U j 2π f
dt
◊ Proof：This result is obtained by taking the first derivative of both
sides of the integral
g defining g the inverse Fourier transform.
∞
g ( t ) = ∫ G ( f ) exp ( j 2π ft ) df
−∞

◊ [Example 2.6] Gaussian Pulse

◊ We will
W ill derive
d i the th particularti l form f off a pulse
l signal
i l that
th t has
h the
th
same mathematical form as its own Fourier transform.
◊ By differentiating the formula for the Fourier transform G( f )
with respect to f, we have d
∞
G ( f ) = ∫ g ( t ) exp
p ( − j 2π fft ) dt − j 2π tg ( t ) U G ( f )
−∞ df
d d
◊ Add (2.31) g ( t ) U j 2π f G ( f ) plus j times − j 2π tg ( t ) U G( f )
dt dff
dg ( t ) ⎡ dG ( f ) ⎤
+ 2π tg ( t ) U j ⎢ + 2π fG ( f ) ⎥
dt ⎣ df ⎦
dg ( t ) dG ( f )
◊ If = −2π tg ( t ) , then = −2π fG ( f )
dt df

◊ [Example 2.6] Gaussian Pulse (cont.)

◊ Since the
Si th pulse
l signal
i l g(t)( ) andd it
its F
Fourier
i transform
t f G( f ) satisfy
ti f
the same differential equation, they are the same function, i.e.
G( f ))= g( f ),
) where g( f ) is obtained from g(t) by substituting f
for t.
dg ( t )
◊ Since
dt
= −2π tg ( t ), we can obtain g ( t ) = exp ( )
−π t 2
◊ Thi pulse
This l iis called
ll d a Gaussian
G i P Pulse.
l
exp ( −π t 2 ) dt = 1 exp ( −π t 2 ) U exp ( −π f 2 )

∞
∫−∞

◊ Property 9：Integration in the Time Domain

◊ L t g ( t ) U G ( f ) . Then
Let Th provided
id d that
th t G(0)=0,
G(0) 0 we have
h
t 1
∫−∞ g (τ ) dτ U j 2π f G ( f ) (2 39)
(2.39)
Proof: d ⎡ t ⎤
g (t ) = ( )
dt ⎢⎣ ∫−∞
◊ g τ dτ
⎥⎦
◊ Applying the time-differentiation property of the Fourier

transform d
x ( t ) U j 2π f X ( f )
d
dt
{
F ⎡⎣ g ( t ) ⎤⎦ = G ( f ) = j 2π f F ∫ g (τ )dτ ⎤
⎡ t
⎢⎣ −∞ }
⎥⎦
◊ [Example 2.7] Triangular Pulse

◊ consider the doublet pulse g1(t) shown in Fig
Fig. (a).
(a) By
integrating this pulse with respect to time, we obtain the
triangular pulse g2(t).
◊ The doublet pulse of figure (a) is real and odd-symmetric and

its Fourier transform is therefore odd and purely imaginary.
◊ The
h triangular
i l pulse
l off fi
figure (b) iis reall and
d symmetric
i andd its
i
Fourier transform is therefore symmetric and purely real.
◊ [Example 2.7] Triangular Pulse (cont.)

◊ g1(t)
( ) consists
i t off two
t rectangular
t l pulse:
l
◊ amplitude A, defined for the interval −T ≤ t ≤ 0
◊ Fourier transform: ATsinc( fT ) exp( jπ fT )
◊ amplitude –A, defined for the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T
◊ Fourier transform: − ATsinc( p(− jπ fT
( ffT ) exp( f )
◊ Invoking the linearity property of the Fourier transform of g1 ( t )
G1 ( f ) = AT sinc ( fT ) ⎡⎣exp ( jπ fT ) − exp ( − jπ fT ) ⎤⎦
= 2 jAT sinc ( fT ) sin (π fT ) G1 ( 0 ) = 0
1 i (π fT )
sin
G2 ( f ) = G1 ( f ) = AT sinc ( fT )
j 2π f πf
= AT 2sinc 2 ( fT )
◊ Property 10：Conjugate Functions

◊ If g ( t ) U G ( f ) , then
th for
f a complex-valued
l l d time
ti function
f ti g(t)
( ) we
have
g ∗ ( t ) U G∗ ( − f )
∞
◊ Proof： g ( t ) = ∫ G ( f ) exp ( j 2π ft ) df
−∞
◊ taking the complex conjugates of both sides yields
∞
g ( t ) = ∫ G ∗ ( f ) exp ( − j 2π ft ) df
∗
−∞
◊ Replacing f with –f gives
−∞ ∞
g ( t ) = − ∫ G ( − f ) exp ( j 2π ft ) df = ∫ G ∗ ( − f ) exp ( j 2π ft ) df
∗ ∗
∞ −∞
◊ Corollary:
y g ∗ ( −t ) U G ∗ ( f )

◊ [Example 2.8] Real and Imaginary Parts of a Time Function
g ( t ) = Re ⎡⎣ g ( t ) ⎦⎤ + j Im ⎣⎡ g ( t ) ⎦⎤
◊
g ∗ ( t ) = Re ⎡⎣ g ( t ) ⎤⎦ − j Im ⎡⎣ g ( t ) ⎤⎦
1 1
Re ⎣⎡ g ( t ) ⎦⎤ = ⎡⎣ g ( t ) + g ( t ) ⎤⎦
∗
Im ⎡⎣ g ( t ) ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ g ( t ) − g ∗ ( t ) ⎤⎦
2 2j
1
Re ⎡⎣ g ( t ) ⎤⎦ U ⎡⎣G ( f ) + G ∗ ( − f ) ⎤⎦
2
1
Im ⎡⎣ g ( t ) ⎤⎦ U ⎡⎣G ( f ) − G ∗ ( − f ) ⎤⎦
2j
(Im[g(t)]=0)
◊ If g(t) is a real-valued time function, we have G( f )= G*(- f ).
In other words, G( f ) exhibits conjugate symmetry.
◊ Property 11：Multiplication in the Time Domain

◊ L t g1 ( t ) U G1 ( f ) andd g 2 ( t ) U G2 ( f ).Then
Let Th
∞
g1 ( t ) g 2 ( t ) U ∫ G1 ( λ ) G2 ( f − λ ) d λ
−∞
◊ Proof：Let’s denote g1 ( t ) g 2 ( t ) U G12 ( f )

∞
G12 ( f ) = ∫ g1 ( t ) g 2 ( t ) exp ( − j 2π ft ) dt
−∞
g 2 ( t ) = ∫ G2 ( f ' ) exp ( j 2π f 't ) df '

∞
◊ For g2(t),
) we have:
−∞
g1 ( t ) G2 ( f ' ) exp ⎡⎣ − j 2π ( f − f ' ) t ⎤⎦df ' dt

∞ ∞
G12 ( f ) = ∫ ∫
−∞
∞ −∞
∞
◊ Define: λ= f − f'
G12 ( f ) = ∫ G2 ( f − λ ) ∫ g1 ( t ) exp ( − j 2πλt ) dt ⎤ d λ

⎡
∞ ∞
−∞ ⎢
⎣ −∞ ⎥⎦
◊ The inner integral is recognized as G1(λ)

∞
G12 ( f ) = ∫ G1 ( λ ) G2 ( f − λ ) d λ Q.E.D.
−∞
◊ This integral is known as the convolution integral expressed in
the
h ffrequency ddomain,i and d the i G12( f ) iis referred
h ffunction f d to as
the convolution of G1( f ) and G2( f ).
◊ Th multiplication
The lti li ti off two
t signals
i l in i th
the ti
time ddomain
i iis
transformed into the convolution of their individual Fourier
transforms in the frequency domain
domain. This property is known as
the multiplication theorem.
Notation:
G12 ( f ) = G1 ( f ) ∗ G2 ( f )
◊
g1 ( t ) g 2 ( t ) U G1 ( f ) ∗ G2 ( f )
G1 ( f ) ∗ G2 ( f ) = G2 ( f ) ∗ G1 ( f )
◊ Property 12：Convolution in the Time Domain

◊ L t g1 ( t ) U G1 ( f ) andd g 2 ( t ) U G2 ( f ), then
Let th
∞
∫ g1 (τ )g 2 ( t − τ ) dτ U G1 ( f ) G2 ( f )
−∞
◊ Proof： ∞
g12 (t ) = ∫ G1 ( f )G2 ( f )e j 2π fft df
−∞
= ∫ G1 ( f ) ∫ g 2 (u )e − j 2π uf du ⎤e j 2π ft dff
⎡
∞ ∞
−∞ ⎢⎣ −∞ ⎥⎦
Let λ = t − u
= ∫ g 2 ( t − λ ) ∫ G1 ( f )e j 2π f λ df ⎤d λ
⎡
∞ ∞
−∞ ⎢
⎣ −∞ ⎥⎦
∞
= ∫ g1 ( λ ) g 2 ( t − λ )d λ
−∞ Q.E.D.
◊ We may thus state that the convolution of two signals in the time
domain is transformed into the multiplication of their individual
Fourier transforms in the frequency domain.
◊ This pproperty
p y is known as the convolution theorem.
◊ Property 11 and property 12 are the dual of each other.
◊ Shorthand notation for convolution:
g1 ( t ) ∗ g 2 ( t ) U G1 ( f ) G2 ( f )

◊ Property 13：Rayleigh’s Energy Theorem

(
(Parseval's
l' or Plancharel’s
l h l’ theorem)
h )
◊ Let g(t) be defined over the entire interval -∞<t<∞ and assume its
F i transform
Fourier f G( f ) exists.
i If the
h energy off the
h signal
i l satisfies
i fi
∞ 2
E = ∫ g ( t ) dt < ∞
－∞
then ∞ ∞
∫ g ( t ) dt = ∫ G ( f ) df
2 2
−∞ −∞
◊ |G( f )|2 is defined as the energy spectral density (valid for energy
signal).
◊ For power signal,
signal we define power spectral density S( f ):
∞ 1 T 2
P＝∫ S ( f ) df = lim ∫ g ( t ) dt ( deterministic signal )
−∞ T →∞ 2T −T
◊ Proof: ∞ 2 ∞
E=∫ g ( t ) dt = ∫ g * ( t ) ⋅ g ( t )dt
－∞ －∞
= ∫ g * ( t ) ∫ G ( f ) e j 2π ft df ⎤ dt
⎡
∞ ∞
−∞
∞ ⎢⎣ −∞∞ ⎥⎦
= ∫ G ( f ) ∫ g * ( t ) e j 2π ft dt ⎤ df
⎡
∞ ∞
−∞ ⎢⎣ −∞ ⎥⎦
*
= ∫ G ( f ) ⎡ ∫ g ( t ) e − j 2π ft dt ⎤ df
∞ ∞
−∞ ⎢⎣ −∞ ⎥⎦
∞
= ∫ G ( f ) G * ( f ) df
−∞
∞
= ∫ G ( f ) df
2
−∞

◊ [Example 2.9] Sinc Pulse (continued)

◊ Consider
C id th
the sinc
i pulse
l A sinc(2Wt).
i (2W ) Th The energy off this
thi pulse
l
equals ∞
E = A ∫ sinc 2 ( 2Wt ) dt
2
−∞
◊ The integral in the right-hand side of this equation is rather

difficult to evaluate.
evaluate
◊ From example 2.4, the Fourier transform of the sinc pulse A
sinc(2Wt) is equal to (A/2W)rect( f /2W). Applying Rayleigh
Rayleigh’ss
energy theorem 2
⎛ A ⎞ ∞ 2⎛ f ⎞
E =⎜ ⎟ ∫−∞ rect ⎜ ⎟df
⎝ 2W ⎠ ⎝ 2W ⎠
2
⎛ A ⎞ W A2
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2W ⎠
∫−W df = 2W
◊ Summary of Properties for Fourier Transform

g(t) Real Symmetric Asymmetric Real Valued Real Valued and
Valued and Symmetric Odd Symmetric
G( f ) Conjugate Real Complex Real Valued and Odd and Purely
Spectrum Symmetry Valued Valued Symmetric Imaginary
◊ Compression of a function in the time domain is equivalent to the

expansion of its Fourier transform in the frequency domain, or vice
versa.

Marc Ph. Stoecklin — TABLES OF TRANSFORM PAIRS — v1.5.3 2
Table of Continuous-time Frequency Fourier Transform Pairs
R +∞ F R +∞
f (t) = F −1 {F (f )} = −∞ f (t)ej2πf t df ⇐==⇒ F (f ) = F {f (t)} = −∞ f (t)e−j2πf t dt
F
transform f (t) ⇐==⇒ F (f )
F
time reversal f (−t) ⇐==⇒ F (−f ) frequency reversal
F
complex conjugation f ∗ (t) ⇐==⇒ F ∗ (−f ) reversed conjugation
F
reversed conjugation f ∗ (−t) ⇐==⇒ F ∗ (f ) complex conjugation
F
f (t) is purely real ⇐==⇒ F (f ) = F ∗ (−f ) even/symmetry
F
f (t) is purely imaginary ⇐==⇒ F (f ) = −F ∗ (−f ) odd/antisymmetry
F
even/symmetry f (t) = f ∗ (−t) ⇐==⇒ F (f ) is purely real
F
odd/antisymmetry f (t) = −f ∗ (−t) ⇐==⇒ F (f ) is purely imaginary
F
time shifting f (t − t0 ) ⇐==⇒ F (f )e−j2πf t0
F
f (t)ej2πf0 t ⇐==⇒ F (f −
f0) frequency shifting
F
time scaling f (af ) ⇐==⇒ 1
|a|
F fa

1 f F
|a|
f a
⇐==⇒ F (af ) frequency scaling
F
linearity af (t) + bg(t) ⇐==⇒ aF (f ) + bG(t)
F
time multiplication f (t)g(t) ⇐==⇒ F (f ) ∗ G(f ) frequency convolution
F
frequency convolution f (t) ∗ g(t) ⇐==⇒ F (f )G(f ) frequency multiplication
F
delta function δ(t) ⇐==⇒ 1
F
shifted delta function δ(t − t0 ) ⇐==⇒ e−j2πf t0
F
1 ⇐==⇒ δ(f ) delta function
F
ej2πf0 t ⇐==⇒ δ(f − f0 ) shifted delta function
F 2a
two-sided exponential decay e−a|t| a>0 ⇐==⇒ a2 +4π 2 f 2
2 F 2
e−πt ⇐==⇒ e−πf
2 F 1 2
ejπt ⇐==⇒ ejπ( 4 −f )
F j
e−jφ δ (f + f0 ) − ejφ δ (f − f0 )

sine sin (2πf0 t + φ) ⇐==⇒ 2
F 1
e−jφ δ (f + f0 ) + ejφ δ (f − f0 )

cosine cos (2πf0 t + φ) ⇐==⇒ 2
F j
sine modulation f (t) sin (2πf0 t) ⇐==⇒ 2
[F (f + f0 ) − F (f − f0 )]
F 1
cosine modulation f (t) cos (2πf0 t) ⇐==⇒ 2
[F (f + f0 ) + F (f − f0 )]
F 1
sin2 (t) 2δ(f ) − δ f − π1 − δ f + 1

squared sine ⇐==⇒ 4 π
F 1
cos2 (t) 2δ(f ) + δ f − π1 + δ f + 1

squared cosine ⇐==⇒ 4 π

t
1 |t| 6 T F
rectangular rect T
= 0 |t| > T
2 ⇐==⇒ T sinc T f
2
1 − |t| |t| 6 T

t F
triangular triang T
= T ⇐==⇒ T sinc2 T f
0 |t| > T

1 t > 0 F 1
step u(t) = 1[0,+∞] (t) =  ⇐==⇒ j2πf
+ δ(f )
0 t<0

1 t>0 F 1
signum sgn (t) =  ⇐==⇒ jπf
−1 t<0

F 1 f 1
sinc sinc (Bt) ⇐==⇒ B
rect B
= 1
B [− B ,+ B ]
(f )
2 2
F 1 f
squared sinc sinc2 (Bt) ⇐==⇒ B
triang B
dn F
n-th time derivative dtn
f (t) ⇐==⇒ (j2πf )n F (f )
F 1 dn
n-th frequency derivative tn f (t) ⇐==⇒ (−j2π)n df n
F (f )
1 F −2π|f |
1+t2
⇐==⇒ πe
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between
Time and Frequency
◊ The time-domain and frequency-domain description of a
signal are inversely related:
◊ If the time-domain description of a signal is changed, then the
frequency domain description of the signal is changed in an
frequency-domain
inverse manner, and vice versa.
◊ If a signal is strictly limited in frequency,
frequency then the time-domain
description of the signal will trail on indefinitely.
◊ A signal
g is strictlyy limited in frequency
q y or strictlyy band limited if its
Fourier transform is exactly zero outside a finite band of frequencies.
◊ If a signal is strictly limited in time, then the spectrum of the
signal
i l iis infinite
i fi i in i extent.
◊ A signal is strictly limited in time if the signal is exactly zero outside a
finite time interval.

Time and Frequency
◊ Bandwidth
◊ The bandwidth of a signal provides a measure of the extent of
significant spectral content of the signal for positive
frequencies.
◊ When the signal is strictly band limited, the bandwidth is well defined.
◊ When the signal is not strictly band-limited,
band limited there is no universally
accepted definition of bandwidth.
◊ A signal is said to be low-pass if its significant spectral content

is centered around the origin.
◊ A signal is said to be band-pass if its significant spectral

content is centered around ±fc, where fc is a nonzero frequency.

Time and Frequency
◊ Bandwidth (cont.)
◊ When th
Wh the spectrum
t off a signal
i l iis symmetric
t i with
ith a main
i lobe
l b
bounded by well-defined nulls(i.e. frequencies at which the
spectrum is zero),
zero) we may use the main lobe as the basis for
defining the bandwidth of the signal.
◊ When the signal is low-pass, the bandwidth is defined as one

half the total width of the main spectral lobe, since only one
h lf off this
half thi llobe
b li
lies inside
i id the
th positive
iti frequency
f region.
i
◊ When the signal is band

band-pass
pass with main spectral lobes centered
around ±fc, where fc is large, the bandwidth is defined as the
width of the main lobe for positive frequency. This definition
of bandwidth is called the null-to-null bandwidth.
Time and Frequency
◊ Bandwidth (cont.)

Time and Frequency
◊ 3-dB Bandwidth
◊ When the signal is low-pass, the 3-dB bandwidth is defined as
the separation between zero frequency, where the amplitude
spectrum attains its peak value,
value and the positive frequency at
which the amplitude spectrum drops to 1/ 2 of its peak value.
◊ When the signal is band-pass,
band-pass centered at ±fc, the 3-dB
bandwidth is defined as the separation (along the positive
q
frequencyy axis)) between the two frequencies
q at which the
amplitude spectrum of the signal drops to 1/ 2 of the peak
value at fc.
◊ Advantage : it can be read directly from a plot of the amplitude
spectrum.
◊ Disadvantage:
i d it
i may be
b misleading
i l di if the
h amplitude
li d spectrum
has slowly decreasing tails.
Ch a p t e r 22.4
Chapter The
.4 T h e IInverse Relationship
n ve r s e Re la t io n s h ip bbetween
e t we e n
Time and Frequency
◊ 3-dB Bandwidth

Time and Frequency
◊ Root Mean Square (rms) Bandwidth
◊ Root Mean Square (rms) bandwidth, defined as the square root
of the second moment of a properly normalized form of the
squaredd amplitude
lit d spectrum
t off th
the signal
i l about
b t a suitably
it bl
chosen point.
◊ The rms bandwidth of a low-pass
low pass signal is formally defined as:
1
⎛ ∞ f 2 G ( f ) 2 df ⎞
∫
2
Wrms = ⎜ −∞∞∞ ⎟
⎜ ( )
2 ⎟
⎝ ∫−∞
G f df
⎠
◊ An attractive feature of the rms bandwidth is that it lends itself
more readily to mathematical evaluation than the other two
definitions of bandwidth, but it is not as easily measurable in
the laboratory.
Time and Frequency
◊ Time-Bandwidth product
◊ For any family of pulse signals (e.g. the exponential pulse)
that differ in time scale, the product of the signal’s duration
andd it
its bandwidth
b d idth is i always
l a constant,
t t as shown
h by
b
(duration) ⋅ (bandwidth) = constant
◊ Th product
The d t is
i called th time-bandwidth
ll d the ti b d idth product d t or
bandwidth-duration product.
◊ If the duration of a pulse signal is decreased by reducing the

time scale by a factor a, the frequency scale of the signal
signal’ss
spectrum, and therefore the bandwidth of the signal, is
increased by the same factor a.

Time and Frequency
◊ Time-Bandwidth product (cont.)
◊ Consider
C id th
the rms bandwidth.
b d idth ThThe corresponding
di definition
d fi iti for
f the
th
rms duration is
1
⎛ ∞ t 2 g ( t )2 dt ⎞
∫
2
Trms ⎜
= −∞∞ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ∫ g ( t ) dt ⎟
2
⎝ −∞ ⎠
◊ Th time-bandwidth
The ti b d idth product
d t hhas th
the ffollowing
ll i fform:
1
TrmsWrms ≥
4π
◊ Gaussian pulse satisfies this condition with the equality sign.

Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
◊ The Dirac delta function, denoted by δ(t), is defined as having zero
amplitude everywhere except at t = 0, 0 where it is infinitely large in
such a way that it contains unit area under its curve; i.e.
∞
δ ( t ) = 0, t ≠ 0 ∫ δ ( t )dt = 1
−∞
◊ The delta function δ(t) is an even function of time t.

◊ Sifting property of the delta function:
∞
∫ g ( t )δ ( t − t0 ) dt = g ( t0 )
−∞
◊ Replication property of the delta function: the convolution of any

function with the delta function leaves that function unchanged.
∞
g ( t ) ∗ δ ( t ) = ∫ g (τ ) δ ( t − τ ) dτ = g ( t )
−∞
◊ Fourier transform of the delta function is given by
∞
F ⎣⎡δ ( t ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ δ ( t ) exp ( − j 2π ft ) dt = 1 δ (t ) U 1
−∞
◊ This relation states that the spectrum f nction δ(t)

spectr m of the delta function
extends uniformly over the entire frequency interval.
◊ We may view the delta function as the limiting form of a pulse of
unit area as the duration of the pulse approaches zero.

◊ Applications of the Delta Function
◊ DC Signal If g ( t ) U G ( f ) then G ( t ) U g ( − f ) 1 U δ (− f )
◊ By applying the duality property to the Fourier-transform pair of δ ( t ) U 1
and noting that the delta function is an even function, we obtain
1Uδ ( f )
◊ DC signal is transformed in the frequency domain into a delta function.
◊ Another definition for the delta function:

∞ ∞
∫ exp ( − j 2π ft ) dt = δ ( f ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Delta functin is real.
→ ∫ cos ( 2π ft ) dt = δ ( f )
−∞ −∞
◊ Applications of the Delta Function

◊ Complex Exponential Function
1Uδ ( f ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
Applying the frequency-shifting property:
exp ( j 2π f c t ) U δ ( f − f c )
exp ( j 2π f c t ) g ( t ) U G ( f − f c )
◊ Sinusoidal Functions
◊ By using Euler’s
Euler s formula:
1
cos ( 2π f c t ) = ⎡⎣exp ( j 2π f c t ) + exp ( − j 2π f c t ) ⎤⎦
2
1 1
cos ( 2π f c t ) U ⎡⎣δ ( f − f c ) + δ ( f + f c ) ⎤⎦ sin ( 2 π f c t ) U ⎡⎣δ ( f − f c ) − δ ( f + f c ) ⎤⎦
2 2j

Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform

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Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform

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Chapter 2.

2 The Fourier Transform

◊ As the pulse duration T is decreased,

◊ [Example 2.2] Exponential Pulse

(a)Decaying exponential pulse. (b)Rising exponential pulse.

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◊ [Example 2.2] Exponential Pulse(cont.)

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the Fourier-transform pair for the decaying exponential pulse of

◊ [Example 2.2] Exponential Pulse(cont.)

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◊ Summary of properties of the Fourier transform

Property Mathematical Description

the time domain

◊ Property 1：Linearity (Superposition)

◊ Proof: the proof of this property follows simply from the

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◊ [Example 2.3] Combinations of Exponential Pulses

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◊ [Example 2.3] Combinations of Exponential Pulses(cont.)

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◊ [Example 2.3] Combinations of Exponential Pulses(cont.)

The Fourier transform is odd and purely imaginary.

◊ Property 2：Time Scaling Compression of a function in

◊ Property 4：Time Shifting

◊ If g ( t ) U G ( f ) , then g ( t − t0 ) U G ( f ) exp ( − j 2π ft0 )

◊ The amplitude of G( f ) is unaffected by the time shift, but

◊ Property 5：Frequency Shifting (Modulation Theorem)

◊ Multiplication of a function by the factor exp(-2πfct) is

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◊ [Example 2.5] Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse

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◊ [Example 2.5] Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse (cont.)

in the special case of fcT>>1,

◊ [Example 2.5] Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse (cont.)

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◊ Property 6：Area Under g(t)

◊ Property 7：Area Under G( f )

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◊ Property 8：Differentiation in the Time Domain

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◊ [Example 2.6] Gaussian Pulse

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◊ [Example 2.6] Gaussian Pulse (cont.)

exp ( −π t 2 ) dt = 1 exp ( −π t 2 ) U exp ( −π f 2 )

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◊ Property 9：Integration in the Time Domain

◊ Applying the time-differentiation property of the Fourier

◊ [Example 2.7] Triangular Pulse

◊ The doublet pulse of figure (a) is real and odd-symmetric and

◊ [Example 2.7] Triangular Pulse (cont.)

◊ Property 10：Conjugate Functions

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◊ [Example 2.8] Real and Imaginary Parts of a Time Function

◊ Property 11：Multiplication in the Time Domain

◊ Proof：Let’s denote g1 ( t ) g 2 ( t ) U G12 ( f )

g 2 ( t ) = ∫ G2 ( f ' ) exp ( j 2π f 't ) df '

g1 ( t ) G2 ( f ' ) exp ⎡⎣ − j 2π ( f − f ' ) t ⎤⎦df ' dt

G12 ( f ) = ∫ G2 ( f − λ ) ∫ g1 ( t ) exp ( − j 2πλt ) dt ⎤ d λ

◊ The inner integral is recognized as G1(λ)

◊ Property 12：Convolution in the Time Domain

◊ Property 11 and property 12 are the dual of each other.

◊ Shorthand notation for convolution: