獨 占

Sak.C

形成獨占的原因
1.無近似替代品(Ownership) ex:單一廠商擁有某項關鍵性的資源(鑽石)
2.政府造就的獨占(Legal) ex:政府授予單一廠商專賣權(中華郵政)
3.自然獨占(Natural) ex:生產具規模經濟，使得市場只容得下一家廠商(自來水、台電)

獨占廠商的平均收益與邊際收益
假設某個小鎮只有一家自來水廠，下表為市場需求表
自來水數量(Q) 價格(P) 總收益(TR) 平均收益(AR) 邊際收益(MR)
0 10 0
9
1 9 9 9
7
2 8 16 8
5
3 7 21 7
3
4 6 24 6
1
5 5 25 5
-1
6 4 24 4
結論: 獨占廠商的邊際收益會小於價格(P>MR)

邊際收益與彈性的關係

假設需求函數為 P = P(Q)
TR = P  Q = P(Q)  Q
TR
AR = = P(Q) = Demand function
Q
1.需求富有彈性，MR 為正
dTR dP  dP Q   1
MR = =  Q + P = P  1 +   = P  1 −  2.需求缺乏彈性，MR 為負
dQ dQ  dQ P   d 
3.需求單一彈性，MR 為零，此時收益極大
 獨占廠商中需求永遠是富有彈性的(搭配課本 P.301)

若需求函數為負斜率直線型 P = a − bQ
TR = P  Q = (a − bQ )  Q = aQ − bQ 2
TR
AR = = a − bQ = P
Q
※ MR 斜率為 AR 斜率的兩倍
dTR
MR = = a − 2bQ
dQ
獨占廠商如何定價?
思考: 為何獨占廠商不把價格訂越高越好?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
單一訂價法(Single-price)
Step1: 搭配邊際成本曲線，可在 MR = MC 條件下利潤極大化之最適產量 Q  (一階條件)
Step2: 由最適產量對應至市場需求曲線，決定市場價格 P
Step3: 市場價格 P 與 ATC 之垂直距離乘上 Q  可得經濟利潤
(我知道有點抽象，但請搭配實習課講解圖形或是課本 P.303 好好消化一下哈哈)
※相對於完全競爭市場，單一訂價的獨占廠商限制了產量，但有較高的價格。
以福利分析來說，獨占廠商會比完全競爭還無效率(因為生產者吸收了部分消費者剩餘)

差別取價(Price discrimination)
廠商在販賣相同單位的商品或勞務時，以不同價格賣出
例如:六福村遊樂園成人票 999 元、博愛票 399 元。
進行差別取價之前，獨占廠商需有兩個先決條件
(1)搞清楚不同的消費者型態並分類
(2)售出商品不得轉賣

本書介紹兩種差別取價的類型
(1)依照購買數量差別取價，例如:單買一片披薩 60 元，一次買整盒披薩(6 片)300 元
(2)依照不同客群差別取價，例如:航空公司的頭等艙、商務艙、經濟艙之訂價差別
※對於獨占廠商而言，提升生產者剩餘等同於提升經濟利潤，目的為榨乾消費者剩餘。

這家航空公司如果採單一訂價法，根據
MR=MC 決定最適產量 Q  =8000，對應回市場需
求曲線決定價格 P =120，此時生產者剩餘為
$640000。
如果把旅客分為兩群(商務需求、經濟需求)，面對第一群商務需求的旅客，我們訂價$120 將
得到與單一訂價時一樣的結果，注意!只有經濟需求的旅客在這價格下不會買單，於是航空
公司面對經濟需求的旅客訂價為$80，賣出 4000 張機票，多增加了$160000 的生產者剩餘。

看完以上解說，如果你是聰明的商人，你會就此作罷嗎??

不可能
所以經濟學家提出一種理想的取價 → 完全差別取價(Perfect price discrimination)
獨占廠商將每一單位訂價為消費者願付最高的價格，此時的邊際收益曲線即為市場需求曲
線，且滿足 P = MR = MC 時，消費者剩餘會消失殆盡。

政府管制自然獨占的方法有兩種
1.最有效率的訂價法為邊際成本訂價法( P = MC )
由於自然獨占發生於規模經濟時期( LRAC 遞減)， MC 在 LRAC 下方，若採邊際成本訂價法
則意味著廠商是虧損的狀態，比較好的解決方式為透過兩段訂價(Two-part tariff)以彌補損
失。
兩段訂價：廠商對消費者分兩次收費，例如買印表機要先付機器費用，之後墨水補充要另外購買。
2.第二好的訂價法為平均成本訂價法( P = AC )
平均成本訂價法下，廠商經濟利潤為零，但會造成無謂損失。
中文練習題

1. 假設某出版社最近要出版一位暢銷書作家的小說。該出版社付給該作家 200 萬美元取得

獨家出版權，且印書成本固定為每本 10 美元。出版社面對下列的需求表：
價格 需求量
＄100 0本
90 100,000
80 200,000
70 300,000
60 400,000
50 500,000
40 600,000
30 700,000
20 800,000
10 900,000
0 1,000,000

a. 計算每個數量下的總收益、總成本與利潤。利潤極大化下的產量為何？此時的價格又為
何？
b. 計算邊際收益（ MR = TR Q ）。比較邊際收益與價格孰大孰小，並說明之。
c. 畫出邊際收益、邊際成本與需求曲線。在哪個產量下，邊際收益與邊際成本曲線相交？
此一產量的意義為何？
d. 在你的圖形上，顯示無謂損失，並說明之。
e. 如果該出版社付給該作家 300 萬美元，而不是 200 萬美元，則該出版社的訂價會不會改
變？為什麼？
f. 如果該出版社追求的不是利潤極大，而是經濟效率極大，則該出版社的訂價為何？此時
的利潤又為何？
1. The simplest way for a monopoly to arise is for a single firm to
a. decrease its price below its competitors’ prices.
b. decrease production to increase demand for its product.
c. make pricing decisions jointly with other firms.
d. own a key resource.
2. A government-created monopoly arises when
a. government spending in a certain industry gives rise to monopoly power.
b. the government exercises its market control by encouraging competition among
sellers.
c. the government gives a firm the exclusive right to sell some good or service.
d. Both a and c are correct.
3. A natural monopoly occurs when
a. the product is sold in its natural state, such as water or diamonds.
b. there are economies of scale over the relevant range of output.
c. the firm is characterized by a rising marginal cost curve.
d. production requires the use of free natural resources, such as water or air.
4. Economists assume that monopolists behave as
a. cost minimizers.
b. profit maximizers.
c. price maximizers.
d. maximizers of social welfare.
5. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. The demand curve facing a competitive firm is horizontal, as is the demand
curve facing a monopolist.
b. The demand curve facing a competitive firm is downward sloping, whereas
the demand curve facing a monopolist is horizontal.
c. The demand curve facing a competitive firm is horizontal, whereas the
demand curve facing a monopolist is downward sloping.
d. The demand curve facing a competitive firm is downward sloping, as is the
demand curve facing a monopolist.
6. For a monopoly, the level of output at which marginal revenue equals zero is also the level of
output at which
a. average revenue is zero.
b. profit is maximized.
c. total revenue is maximized.
d. marginal cost is zero.
7. For a monopoly firm, which of the following equalities is always true?
a. price = marginal revenue
b. price = average revenue
c. price = total revenue
 d. marginal revenue = marginal cost
8. When a monopoly increases its output and sales,
a. both the output effect and the price effect work to increase total revenue.
b. the output effect works to increase total revenue, and the price effect works to
decrease total revenue.
c. the output effect works to decrease total revenue, and the price effect works to
increase total revenue.
d. both the output effect and the price effect work to decrease total revenue.
Figure 15-5
Price
P
MC

A
B

C ATC

F
G
H

D
O J K Quantity
L
MR
9. Refer to Figure 15-5. What price will the monopolist charge?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. F
10. Refer to Figure 15-5. How much output will the monopolist produce?
a. O
b. J
c. K
d. L
11. Refer to Figure 15-5. What area measures the monopolist’s profit?
a. (B-F)*K
b. (A-H)*J
c. (B-G)*K
d. 0.5[(B-F)*(L-K)]
Table 15-9
Consider the following demand and cost information for a monopoly.
Quantity Price Total Cost
0 $32 $6
1 $28 $20
2 $24 $34
3 $20 $48
4 $16 $62
5 $12 $76
12. Refer to Table 15-9. What is the marginal revenue of the 3rd unit?
a. $4
b. $12
c. $20
d. $28
13. Refer to Table 15-9. What is the marginal cost of the 4th unit?
a. $4
b. $14
c. $31
d. $62
14. Refer to Table 15-9. What price should the monopoly charge to maximize profit?
a. $16
b. $20
c. $24
d. $28
15. Refer to Table 15-9. At the profit-maximizing price, how much profit will the monopoly
earn?
a. $8
b. $10
c. $12
d. $14
16. Refer to Table 15-9. What is the monopolist’s average total cost of production at the profit-
maximizing price?
a. $12
b. $14
c. $16
d. $17
17. A monopolist
a. has a supply curve that is upward-sloping, just like a competitive firm.
b. does not have a supply curve because the monopolist sets its price at the same time
it chooses the quantity to supply.
 c. has a horizontal supply curve, just like a competitive firm.
d. does not have a supply curve because marginal revenue exceeds the price it
charges for its products.
18. The economic inefficiency of a monopolist can be measured by the
a. deadweight loss.
b. value of the unrealized trades that could be made if the monopolist produced the
socially-efficient output.
c. area above marginal cost but beneath demand from the monopoly output to the
socially-efficient output.
d. All of the above are correct.
19. If a social planner were running a monopoly, that planner could achieve an efficient outcome
by charging the price that is determined by the
a. minimum point on the average total cost curve.
b. intersection of the average total cost curve and the demand curve.
c. intersection of the marginal cost curve and the demand curve.
d. intersection of the marginal cost curve and the marginal revenue curve.
Figure 15-9
Price
P
MC

A
B

C ATC

F
G
H

D
O J K Quantity
L
MR

20. Refer to Figure 15-9. What area measures the deadweight loss?
a. (B-F)*K
b. 0.5[(P-O)*(L-O)]
c. 0.5[(A-H)*(L-J)]
d. 0.5[(B-F)*(L-K)]
21. A firm cannot price discriminate if it
a. has perfect information about consumer demand.
b. operates in a competitive market.
c. faces a downward-sloping demand curve.
d. is regulated by the government.
22. Which of the following is not an example of price discrimination?
 a. A movie theater charges a lower price for a child’s ticket than for an adult’s ticket.
b. A university rebates part of the cost of tuition in the form of financial aid for needy
students.
c. A local pizza chain offers a “buy three get one free” deal.
d. An ice cream parlor charges a higher price for ice cream than for sherbet.
23. Which of the following statements comparing monopoly with competition is correct?
a. A monopolist produces a higher level of output and charges a lower price
than a competitive firm would.
b. With perfect price discrimination, the total surplus under monopoly can be
the same as under competition.
c. With or without price discrimination, the consumer surplus under monopoly
is at least as large as it would be under competition.
d. The deadweight loss associated with monopoly is caused by the positive
economic profits of the monopolist; competitive firms do not earn a positive
economic profit so there is no deadweight loss under competition.
Figure 15-16
Price
50

45

40

35

30

25
22.5
20

15

10 M C=ATC
5 MR Demand

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 Quantity

24. Refer to Figure 15-16. If the monopoly firm is not allowed to price discriminate, then
consumer surplus amounts to
a. $0.
b. $1,562.50.
c. $3,125.
d. $6,250.
25. Refer to Figure 15-16. If the monopoly firm perfectly price discriminates, then consumer
surplus amounts to
a. $0.
b. $1,562.50.
c. $3,125.
 d. $6,250.
26. Refer to Figure 15-16. If the monopoly firm is not allowed to price discriminate, then the
deadweight loss amounts to
a. $0.
b. $1,562.50.
c. $3,125.
d. $6,250.
27. Refer to Figure 15-16. If the monopoly firm perfectly price discriminates, then the deadweight
loss amounts to
a. $0.
b. $1,562.50.
c. $3,125.
d. $6,250.
28. Refer to Figure 15-16. If there are no fixed costs of production, monopoly profit without price
discrimination equals
a. $0.
b. $1,562.50.
c. $3,125.
d. $6,250.
29. Refer to Figure 15-16. If there are no fixed costs of production, monopoly profit with perfect
price discrimination equals
a. $1.
b. $1,562.5.
c. $3,125.
d. $6,250.
30. If the government regulates the price that a natural monopolist can charge to be equal to the
firm’s marginal cost, the firm will
a. earn zero profits.
b. earn positive profits, causing other firms to enter the industry.
c. earn negative profits, causing the firm to exit the industry.
d. minimize costs in order to lower the price that it charges.
31. Which of the following is a characteristic of a single-price monopoly?
A) The firm is a price taker.
B) Demand is perfectly elastic.
C) There are many close substitutes for the firm's product.
D) Price exceeds marginal revenue.
32. For a single-price monopoly, marginal revenue is ________ when demand is elastic and is
________ when demand is inelastic.
A) negative; negative
B) negative; positive
C) positive; negative
D) positive; positive
33. Which of the following statements applies to a single-price monopolist?
A) In order to maximize profits, the monopolist will produce an amount of output that lies in the
elastic range of its demand.
B) In order to maximize profits, the monopolist will produce an amount of output that lies in the
inelastic range of its demand.
C) In order to maximize profits, the monopolist will produce where its demand is unit elastic.
D) In order to maximize profits, the monopolist will produce an amount of output in the inelastic
range of its supply.

34. Which area in the above figure shows the consumer surplus at the price and quantity that would
be attained if the industry were perfectly competitive?
A) A + B + C + D
B) A + B + C + D + E
C) F + G + H
D) A + B + C + D + E + F + G + H
35. Which area in the above figure shows the producer surplus at the price and quantity that would
be attained if the industry were perfectly competitive?
A) A + B + C + D + E
B) C + D + E + F + G + H
C) F + G + H
D) F + G + H + I + J + K
36. Which area in the above figure shows the consumer surplus at the price and quantity that would
be set by a single-price monopoly?
A) A + B
B) A + B + C + D + E
C) C + D
D) C + D + E + F + G + H
37. Which area in the above figure shows the producer surplus at the price and quantity that would
be set by a single-price monopoly?
A) C + D
B) C + D + E
C) C + D + F + G
D) C + D + F + G + I
38. In the above figure, if the market was a single-price monopoly rather than perfectly competitive,
which area shows the transfer of consumer surplus from consumers to producers?
A) A + B
B) C + D
C) C + D + E
D) E + H
39. In the above figure, which area is the deadweight loss from a single-price monopoly?
A) E
B) E + H
C) E + H + K
D) E + H + K + J
40. Which of the following statements is true?
A) Perfectly competitive markets are efficient, but monopoly markets never are efficient.
B) Perfectly competitive markets always reach equilibrium but monopoly markets never reach
equilibrium.
C) Perfect price discriminating monopolists can eliminate all deadweight losses and achieve
efficiency.
D) All the above statements are true.

41. In the figure above, the elasticity of demand facing the monopoly equals one when it produces
________ units of output.
A) h
B) j
C) k
D) none of the above
42. In the figure above, a single-price unregulated monopoly sets a price equal to
A) a.
B) b.
C) c.
D) d.
43. In the figure above, a single-price unregulated monopoly will produce an amount of output
equal to
A) h.
B) j.
C) k.
D) none of the above
44. In the figure above, if the market is a single-price monopoly rather than a perfectly competitive
industry, the transfer of consumer surplus from consumers to the producer is the area of
A) trapezoid beic.
B) triangle abe.
C) rectangle begd.
D) rectangle befc.
45. In the figure above, consumer surplus at the price that maximizes the profit for an unregulated,
single-price monopolist is the area of
A) rectangle 0heb.
B) triangle abe.
C) triangle eig.
D) rectangle 0hgd.
46. In the figure above, the deadweight loss when the market is a single-price monopoly rather than
perfectly competitive is the area of
A) triangle aeb.
B) triangle aic.
C) triangle eig.
D) triangle eif.
47. In the figure above, a perfectly price-discriminating monopoly will maximize profit by
producing at amount of output equal to
A) h.
B) j.
C) k.
D) none of the above
48. In the figure above, the total revenue of a perfectly price-discriminating monopolist at the
profit-maximizing output is equal to the area of
A) 0aij.
B) 0dgh.
C) aci.
D) obeij.
49. A natural monopoly that charges the profit-maximizing price will produce ________ amount of
output than a ________.
A) a larger; natural monopoly regulated with an average cost pricing rule
B) a more efficient; perfectly competitive industry
C) the same; natural monopoly regulated with a marginal cost pricing rule
D) a smaller; natural monopoly regulated with a marginal cost pricing rule

50. The figure above shows the marginal revenue, marginal cost, and demand curves for an airline
offering daily flights between Los Angeles and Toronto. If the airline is regulated using a marginal
cost pricing rule ________ flights will be offered each month at a price of ________ per flight.
A) 200; $300
B) 200; $100
C) 300; $200
D) 400; $100
51. The figure above shows the marginal revenue, marginal cost, and demand curves for an airline
offering daily flights between Los Angeles and Toronto. If the airline is regulated using a marginal
cost pricing rule total surplus will be ________.
A) $100,000
B) $60,000
C) $80,000
D) $20,000
52. If a natural monopoly has an average cost pricing rule imposed, the rule will
A) maximize total surplus in the regulated industry.
B) generate an economic loss for the regulated firm.
C) reduce the consumer surplus and generate a deadweight loss when compared to a marginal cost
pricing rule.
D) set price below marginal cost.
53. A rule that specifies the highest price that a regulated firm is permitted to set is called
A) rate of return regulation.
B) price cap regulation.
C) maximum price regulation.
D) average/marginal cost pricing.
54.Regulation that specifies that a firm's profits must be shared with its customers if the profit rises
above a target level is called
A) rate of return regulation.
B) minimum price regulation.
C) earnings sharing regulation.
D) average cost pricing.
中文題解答

A: 下表顯示收益、成本與利潤：

價格 需求量 總收益 邊際收 總成本 利潤

(1,000s) 益
$100 0 $0 ---- $2 $-2
90 100 9 $9 3 6
80 200 16 7 4 12
70 300 21 5 5 16
60 400 24 3 6 18
50 500 25 1 7 18
40 600 24 -1 8 16
30 700 21 -3 9 12
20 800 16 -5 10 6
10 900 9 -7 11 -2
0 1,000 0 -9 12 -12

a. 利潤極大化下的產量為 400,000，價格為 $60，或產量為 500,000，價格為 $50。這

兩個價量組合下的利潤都是 $18 百萬。
b. 獨占廠商的邊際收益永遠會小於價格，這是因為獨占廠商面對的是負斜率的市場需
求曲線，因此，獨占廠商若要增加銷售量，它必須要將售價調降，從而雖然新增的
那一單位銷售可以使它的收益增加售價那麼多，但前面的銷售量也適用新的較低價
格。因此，其邊際收益永遠會小於價格。
c. 下圖顯示邊際收益、邊際成本與需求曲線。在產量介於 400,000 與 500,000 之間時，
邊際收益與邊際成本曲線相交。此一產量的意義為廠商的利潤極大。

價
格
，
收
益
，
成
本

數量
d. 上圖中的 DWL 顯示無謂損失。使總剩餘最大的產量為需求曲線與邊際成本交點所對應
的產量。獨占廠商會生產邊際收益曲線與邊際成本曲線交點所對應的產量，因此，獨占
廠商所生產的產量小於使社會總剩餘達到最大的產量，也因此，獨占會造成無謂損失。
e. 該出版社的訂價不會改變，因為該出版社付給作家的費用屬於固定成本；其變動不會
影響該出版社的邊際成本或邊際收益，從而不會影響該出版社的訂價 (只會使其利潤
等額變動)。

f. 在此情況下，該出版社應將價格訂為每本 10 美元 ( P = MC ) 。此時該出版社會有虧
損，金額為該出版社付給作家的金額。

1~5 D C B B C
6~10 C B B B C
11~15 C B B C D
16~20 D B D C D
21~25 B D B B A
26~30 B A C D C
31~35 D C A B C
36~40 A C B B C
41~45 C B A D B
46~50 C B A D D
51~55 C C B C