WEEK 3: CLASSIFICATION/ FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
OBJECTIVES
1. Write reports, minutes, memos and various business correspondences
2. Explain the circumstances under which written form of communication may be the
most appropriate to use.
3. Be able to explain the advantages and disadvantages of using written
communication.

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written communication includes letters, memorandum, reports, abstract, minutes, articles and
press releases. Writer’s communication has advantages in that it provides a written record and
evidence of dispatch and receipts; it is also capable of relaying complex ideas; provides analysis
evaluation and summary, abbreviation information to depressed receivers; can confirm, interpret
and clarify oral communication and also forms the basis of contract agreement.
A message constitutes written communication when it is put in “black and white.” It is a formal
type of communication. The sender of the message or his representative constitutes the writer.
Written communication is usually considered binding on business organizations and is often used
as evidence. Technological advancement has enlarged the gamut of written communication
through email and other such facilities.
Merits
i ) Precise and Accurate: Written communication is generally prepared with great care and
precision. The very prospect of writing makes a person conscious. You have to be very serious
and organized while communicating in the written form, because written communication is open
to verification.
ii) Easily verified: Since written communication is on paper etc., it can be read and re-read. It
also offers itself to verification. There is also, thus, less chance of someone twisting the message
to his or her own advantage.
iii) Permanent record: Written communication constitutes a permanent record it also acts like
evidence. It proves very useful for future reference as it can be preserved for years. For example,
old orders and decisions can serve as basic for new ones.
iv) Suitable for lengthy and complicated messages: Lengthy and complicated messages can be
understood better when they are in the written form rather than in the oral. There is les chance of
misinterpretation and misunderstanding. Also, the language used in lea subject to change.
v) Responsibility can be easily fixed: In written communication, responsibilities of sender and
receiver can be fixed easily. People have the tendency of shifting responsibilities for mistakes,
but this is difficult if the onus is obvious in black and white.
iv)Has legal validity: Written communication is acceptable as a legal document. Written
communication has been used as evidence since time immemorial.
Demerits of written communication
(i) Slower method of communication: Written communication can be time- consuming since it
may take even two or even three days to reach the receiver (by letters, for instance). By contrast,
oral communication is immediate.
(ii) Further delay if clarification is required: Written communication hampers quick
clarifications. The receiver may write back for clarifications and wait for a reply, making the
process tedious. Even if clarification is not needed, there is still a delay between the time the
sender writes a message and the receiver receives it.
(iii ) Leads to too much of paperwork: Since written communication is basically done on paper,
one may tend to use it as an escape mechanism paper- free offices remain a dream.
(v) Costly in terms of money and man- hours: Written letters is a costly process not only because
you need to spend money on postage, but also because several persons are involved in the
process of sending out a letter from an organization. Their time costs organization money. While
oral communication can be short and quick, written communication, because of its very nature,
tend to be lengthy.
(vi) No flexibility: The written word is not subject to instant change after communication.
Therefore, conveying an afterthought may proves very lengthy, and, at times, even impossible.
(vii) Literacy essential: It goes without saying that in written communication, the sender as well
as the receiver should be literate. Literacy also means literacy in the language of the message.
The receiver should know the language in which a message has been written: it is no use
receiving a message in English if you are not conversant with that language.
Notwithstanding its limitations, it can be safely concluded that written communication remains
the spine of an organization. Almost all formal communication is in the written form.

Samples of Written Communication

Curriculum Vitae
This is a summary of an individual, covering among other areas person details, education,
experience, skills, career objectives, hobbies etc . it is aimed at showing the reader what you are
capable of doing.
Preparations
Ask yourself questions
i) What is your ideal position? (Here think about your perfect job, what you like about
it, do you like a variety or repetitive jobs.
ii) What kinds of things do you like doing? Think about hobbies, what do you do at
home or leisure
iii) Think about your favorite job in the past. What was it you liked about so much?
iv) Are there gaps in your employment?
v) What are your reasons for leaving each position(remember at some point your
employer will contact your former employer).
Content
Personal details
Name: Your official names( as they appear in your official documents such as academic
certificates, National Identification card)
Date of birth: state the date / month/ year of birth
Contacts: (Telephone, e-mail address. Postal address etc)
Marital status: state whether married or single
ID No: state your identification/ passport number
Nationality: state your nationality
Languages spoken: list the languages you can fluently communicate in
b) Career Objectives: State your objectives in relation to career, what do you aim for in your
career
c) Personal Attributes
d) Professional training: state the trainings you have had related to the profession particularly
those offered by professional bodies eg CPA, MSK, IHRM
e) Work experience: Date- Organisation,-what experience/duties done- start from the recent to
the earliest
f) Academic qualification: Date- Institution- qualification attained -starting from the highest
g) Referees: Names, Contacts-Address, phone, e-mail etc
NB Referees must be people who know you very well, not your relatives and should always be
contacted before including them in your C.V
Do’s of C.Vs
Keep to one page depending on experience
Describe your main functions, what you did incidentally
Emphasize those duties that are most relevant to your present application
Include any specific recognition, accomplishment or projects you were involved with.
Describe your former/current employer include the size of the company and type of industry
Write about yourself in a positive light
Strive to be concise and target your information to the employer.
C.V’s Don’ts
Try to fit too much information on the page
Use personal information such as race, ethnicity
Leave suspicious gaps in your working history
Do not include any health information unless requested to do so
Include reasons for leaving the previous jobs
Include referees on the same page( Referees should always be on a separate page unless
otherwise advised)
NB Your C.V must stand out
Remember to show your strengths and minimize weak points
Front your key selling points
Start with personal details, careers statements your education, work experience start with the
most relevant and work through to others
Turn your skills around to show how relevant they are to the job
Your C.V should display eagerness to learn and high degree of motivation. Employers look for
someone eager to learn. C.V are tailor-made, done for specific needs

Letters
Broadly letters are classified as personal or non-personal letters otherwise known as formal and
informal letters or official and friendly letters respectively.
Business/ non-personal letters/ official/ formal letters.
Functions of a business letter.
1. Making a lasting impression.
Oral communication, whether in face to face or over the phones are rarely remembered
in full because its impact is felt mainly during the time it is being heard. Once the next
oral communication is taken up, the effect of the previous one is reduced. However, a
letter makes a lasting impression on the reader’s mind because it stays with him, goes
with him and does its work effectively every time it is read.

2. Widening the approach.

Frequently, a businessman finds it difficult to send his representatives to all the places of
his business connections. It is the letter that reaches any place at whatever distance. In its
effect, a business letter helps widen the area of operation. Only letters can send the goods
of a businessman to places thousands of miles away, even across the country.

Executives, professionals, politicians, e.t.c. are difficult to be approached in person. But a

letter can find easy access to one and all. A letter knows what is the right time to reach
different persons and it enjoys the advantage of being able to wait till the reader has
leisure and inclination to turn to it.
3. An authoritative proof.
A commitment in writing binds the parties concerned to the text of writing. A letter,
signed by a responsible person, is an authoritative proof of what is said in it. It can even
 be treated as a valid document that can be produced as evidence in a court of law in case
of dispute.
Action can be taken, responsibilities can be fixed and mistakes can be pointed out only if
communications over the phone or telegraphic communications are confirmed in writing.
4. Building goodwill.
An important purpose of a business letter is to sell the good reputation and friendliness of
a company. It aims at building goodwill in the customer –company relationship, holding
present customers and capturing new ones, reviving inactive accounts and inviting
customers to buy more and varied products. The underlying purpose of all letters is to
create customers in order to make profits.

Thus business letters are an indispensable means of communication for industry and
commerce. Business letters represent the firm just as much as the personality of the firms
sales man and the quality of its goods or services. Therefore business letters must try to
make the best possible impression on those who receive them.
Their function must go beyond those of presenting information clearly and courteously.
They must make friends, build goodwill and add to the company’s prestige.
Types of Business Letters.
Business letters may be classified into the following kinds:-
i) Letters of Enquiry
These are simple letters for information prices, literature and favours. This type of letter
is also written to order goods or services.

ii) Letters Answering Request

These are replies to inquiries. Some of these letters are difficult to write because
sometimes the answer being given is negative. They are therefore the most important
letters to write and they require utmost tact and courtesy.
iii) Claim Letters
Claim letters are those written by inconvenienced or offended customers or persons. They
are actually letters of complaints.
iv) Adjustment Letters
 These are letters written in response to clients’ complaints. When the adjustment asked
for is not granted, in refusal the writer has to give satisfactory reasons for refusal. These
letters are most difficult to write and hence require special understanding of people and of
the company which the writer represents.

v). Credit Letter

A large percentage of business transactions is carried on credit basis letters have to be
written in request for credit.
When credit is denied because the applicant is not “credit worthy”, then this requires
tactfulness.
v) Sales Letter
These are also known as introductory letters, which aim at promoting goodwill and public
relations it does not attempt to sells goods or services directly, but first make friends and
in the long run increase purchase.

vi) Employment Letters

Such letters include applications for vacancies, resignation letters and even letters for
thanking an employer for an interview.
vii) Social Letters
There are some letters meant for maintenance of friendly relationships with customers
and business acquaintances. These social business correspondence includes letter of
congratulations, letters of sympathy, invitations, letters of friendships and thank you
letters.They do a great deal to build goodwill.
Vii). Collection letters.
These are letters written to remind those who do not clear their debts in time. Sometimes
they have to be threatened before they will pay what they owe. These are known as collection
letters and are the most difficult and challenging to write . Their effectiveness is measured by the
amount of money they bring in from careless customers.

Parts of a business letter.

a) Heading
 b) Inside Address
c) Salutation
d) Reference/Subject
e) Body of the letter
f) Signature
g) Enclosures( Optional depending o situations)
h) CC( optional depending on situations)

Heading:
Most firms have letterheads which will state the name of the company, address, telephone
number, fax numbers and a short description of the firms business.
Date
It also bears some space for the date.
Reference
This is printed on the same line as the date. Sometimes we have both OUR REF………….. and
YOUR REF………………..

b) Inside Address
This is the address of the firm or the recipient of the letter. If the letter is being directed to a
particular person or official. The phrase “For the attention of” is used.
c) The Salutation
This is the greeting part which commences on letter, and preceeds the message. It would be
written below the inside addresses (or attention of……) and should start first with the left
margin and with a comma.
a) Subject and Reference
This is a brief one-line mention of the major theme of the letter right in the beginning and
adds to its clarity.
The usual forms of mentioning the subject and reference are;-
Sub: Overdraft facilities for………………….
Ref: Your letter dated/No…………………….
Or
 Ref: Your order dated……………….
c). Body of the letter
Opening paragraph: -
German proverb- A good beginning is half the battle won. It applies doubly when it comes to
writing successful business letters. This is where the reader should be enticed to go ahead with
interest and concentration.
The letter should open with expression of pleasure, gratitude or acknowledgement or with
reference to the action you have taken in response to the readers’ previous letter if any.
Secondly a reason for writing this letter should be given.
Thirdly the essential names dates locations or other data to put the message of
The middle paragraph (s) develops detailed messages. At this stage the detailed data which
comprises the letter’s message is logically, briefly clearly set down.
In complex letters several middle paragraphs may in turn deal with one principal aspect of an
involved message. This will make it easier for the reader to grasp.
- The closing paragraph: It states action needed. The paragraph states simply and
clearly what action the writer needs from the recipient.
Since the action statement is the entire reason for writing letters other than informational ones,
the requirement or request for action appears virtually at the end of the letter and , thus
reminding the recipient of the action to be taken.

Complementary close
This is merely a polite way of ending a letter. Each form of salutation has an equivalent
complementary close. For example.

Dear Sir (s)…….. Yours faithfully

Dear Madam…..

Dear Mr.…………
Dear Miss………. Yours sincerely
Dear lord, lord
Dear Tom Sincerely
Dear Mary In regards

MEMORANDUM
A memorandum is a written form of communication that is similar to a letter but it is used for
internal communication purposes only. This includes other branches of an organization.
In a large organization, it may be necessary to pass brief items of information from one office to
another or from one department to another. This is usually done on a memorandum (simply
called memo in short or internal memo).
An internal memo has the following features:
 Name of the person sending out the memo.
 Name of the person(s) the memo is being sent to.
 Reference number (optional).
 Date.
 Subject (information heading).
 Body- for brief information- not detailed communication.
 Sender’s signature or initials—at the bottom of the main text.

A memo is basically used for sending messages which are brief in nature. Such messages are
used for information only and not for decision making. Only used for internal communication
and it is also known as loose minutes
When to use a memo to communicate:
To issue instructions to staff.
To communicate decisions and policy changes to staff
To give or seek suggestions
To request help or information
To confirm a decision arrived at on telephone etc.
To send messages or very brief reports
Introduce a topic, a person
Enquire about certain matters/information
Remind members of an organization any important matters
A memorandum has different features from a letter e.g. it has no salutation, no complementary
close, has internal address only. It has a reference, a date and subject.
A memorandum should be brief and to the point. The structure of a memorandum may vary from
one organization to another.
Structure of a Memorandum
There are various types of memorandum formats e.g.-
From:……………………….. Date…………………………….
To:…………………………. Subject…………………………..
OR
Date…………………………………………………………………..
From…………………………………………………………………..
To …………………………………………………………………….
Subject…………………………………………………………….

Initials or signature of writer

C Business Reports
A business report is an orderly presentation of facts about specific business activity as
programme. A report is a basic management tool used in decision making. In large scale
organizations, top executives can’t keep a personal watch over all the activities, so they have to
depend on reports from the heads of various departments. A report is a communication from
someone who has some information to someone who wants to use that information.
Types of reports.
Reports are of different kinds. They depend upon the organization’s business situations. Broadly,
they can be classified as:
Routine/ Periodic/Progress reports. These are the most common types of reports written at
regular intervals. These may be weekly reports from the sales/ production/operations/ customer
service personnel. The reports facilitate the monitoring of work and decision making.
Informational reports. These are reports that examine business situations/ problems and provide
factual information.
Justification reports with recommendations. Often managers have to justify a decision that arises
out of the facts gathered and relevant to the problem. In such cases, managers offer
recommendations based on the analysis and the interpretation.
Situational reports. Managers are also expected to submit reports about their office trips,
conferences, and seminars to keep organization informed about what they have gained from
these activities. Such reports do not follow a formal order. Since they are informal in nature,
letter/ memo format is generally used.
Feasibility reports. All business projects may not appear profitable. Therefore, based on analysis
and interpretation of cost, benefits, disadvantages, and future possibilities, managers have to
point out whether it is feasible to proceed with the project.
Research reports. Research is the backbone of an organization. Decisions about growth depend
so much on research that it has to be continuously carried out. Often, business houses
commission research studies that must examine the real problem objectively and completely.
Business plan/ proposal. These are persuasive reports that attempt to secure new business. They
answer all the basic questions that the investor might want to know. The report writer must write
convincingly.
Reports can be written in:
Letter format
Memo format
Formal/ manuscript format
Characteristics of a good report
1. Precision.
In a good report, the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of writing it. Hi
investigation, analysis and recommendations are directed by this central purpose.
Precision gives a kind of unity and coherence to the report and makes it a valuable
document.
2. Accuracy of facts.
The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report. Since reports invariably
lead to decision making, inaccurate facts may lead to disastrous decision.
3. Relevance.
The facts presented in a report should be not only accurate but relevant also. While it is
essential that every fact included in a report has a bearing on the central purpose, it is
equally essential to see that nothing relevant has escaped inclusion. Irrelevant facts make
a report confusing; exclusion of relevant facts render it in complete and likely to mislead.
4. Reader-orientation
A good report is always reader-oriented. While drafting a report, it is necessary to keep in
mind the person[s] who is[are] going to read it. A report meant for the layman will be
different from another meant for technical experts.
5. Objectivity of recommendation.
If recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and objective.
They should come as logical conclusion to investigation and analysis. They must not
reveal any self-interest on the part of the writer.
6 Simple and unambiguous language.
A good report is written in a simple and unambiguous language. It is a kind of scientific
document of practical utility; hence it should be free from various forms of poetic
embellishment like figures of speech.
7. Clarity.
A good report is absolutely clear. Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. The
report writer must proceed systematically. He should make his purpose clear, define his
sources, state his findings and finally make necessary recommendations. He should
 divide his report into short paragraphs giving them headings, and insert other suitable
sign posts to achieve greater clarity.
8. Brevity
A report should be brief. It is difficult to define brevity in absolute terms. Nor brevity be
laid down as a rule. All that can be said is that a good report should be as brief as
possible. Brevity should not be achieved at the cost of clarity. Nor should it be at the cost
of completeness. Sometimes the problem being investigated is of such importance that it
calls for a detailed discussion of facts. Then a decision should not be evaded. Brevity in a
report is the kind of brevity one recommends for a précis. Include everything significant
and yet brief.
9. Grammatical accuracy.
The grammatical accuracy of language though listed at number 9 in the characteristics of
a good report is of fundamental importance. It is one of the basic requisites of a good
report as any other piece of composition. Who is going to read a report if its language is
faulty? Besides, faulty construction of sentence makes the meaning obscure and
ambiguous.
Preparing the report.
Once you are clear about the purpose of writing a report, the following five steps are
suggested to write a report.
[i] Investigating the source of information.
[ii] Taking notes
[iii] Analyzing the data
[iv] Making an outline; and
[v] Writing report
Investigating the source of information.
Investigating the sources of information is a kind of spadework. It is to be done right in the
beginning. The extent of investigation will of course, depend on the length and importance of
the report. Major sources of information are company files, personal observation, interviews,
letters, questionnaires, library research.
Taking notes.
In the course of investigations, the writer keeps taking notes of anything that appears to be
related to the subject. Then there is no time to analyze them and determine how they will be
of help in the final report. But as the writer keeps turning them in his mind over and over
again, a kind of pattern starts emerging and he begins to be clear about what is relevant and
what is not. It is very general kind of pattern but it gives the writer at least a starting point.
Analyzing the data.
Now is the time to analyze the collected data in the light of the pattern that has evolved. A lot
of data will have to be rejected while a need might be felt to collect more data. The final
pattern will emerge at the stage. The writer should never hurry through this stage, since this
is the most important stage in writing a report.
Making an outline.
Once the final pattern of the final report has taken shape in the writer’s mind, he should
prepare an outline to write the report. In this outline, the problem is stated, the facts are
recorded, they are briefly analyzed, and the logical conclusions are arrived at. An outline is
note essential, but it should be found extremely helpful in writing a systematic report.
Writing the report.
The last stage is that of writing the report. It will need a complete shutting between the
outline and the notes. First a rough draft of the report is prepared. Then it is revised, pruned
and polished. If the writer has some more time at his disposal, he will find it advantageous to
come back to his rough draft after, say, a couple of days. This short interval will make his
revision work really meaningful. The writer should also be careful that the language of the
report is simple, unambiguous and free from grammatical errors. It is now to type it out in a
proper form and submit it.
Organization of a Report
There are three ways in which a report can be organized:
1. Letter form
2. Memorandum form
3. Letter-text combination form.
1. Letter form
Incase of brief, informal reports, the arrangement followed in business letters is adopted.
Its main parts are the heading or the title, date, address, salutation, the body,
complimentary close and signature. It is usually written in the first person-I or We.
The body of the letter can be further divided into the following parts:

[i] Introduction-The introductory paragraphs present the terms of reference and the
subject to study. Here the writer states the problem confronting him in the light of the
terms of reference and the relevant circumstances.
[ii] Findings-The next few paragraphs present the findings of the investigation.
1v) conclusion- It should logically relate to the findings
[iii] Recommendations- Recommendations that logically follow the findings are given in
the last paragraph of the body.
2. Memorandum form.
Adopting the memorandum form is a simpler way of presenting the reports, since here
the formalities of the letter are done away with. The title of the subjects is stated on the
top. This is followed by the name of the writer of the report, the date, the actual text and
the conclusion. As in the letter form, the text of the report is divided into paragraphs with
headings and sub-headings.Large business houses have different types of printed forms
so send reports. This simplifies the procedure and ensures uniformity of style.
3. Letter-text combination.
Long reports are usually written in the letter text combination form. A complete report in
this form includes three major parts:
1. Introductory material;
2. The body of the report;
3. Addenda.
The complete outline of such a report is as follows :
1. Introductory parts
A Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation.
B Title page
 C Contents page
D Summary.

2. Body of the report

A Definition of the problem
B Methods of procedure
C Findings
D Conclusions and recommendations
3. Addenda.
A Bibliography
B Appendix
C Index.

It is not essential that a report contains all these parts.

Long reports containing most of these parts are generally submitted in a book form.
Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation.
A letter of transmittal is a routine letter written to transmit the report from the writer to the
reader. It performs several important functions:
[i] It provides a permanent record of transfer.
[ii] It shows the date on which the report was submitted
[iii] It states the name and the position of the writer of the report
[iv] It also states when and by whom the report was authorized.
[v] It may invite the reader’s comments and suggestions.
A letter of presentation is slightly different from a letter of transmittal. In addition to giving
information contained in the letter of transmittal, it usually states the purpose and scope of the
report, refers to the writer’s sources of information, and highlights special features’.If a letter of
transmittal is written, the additional matter put in the letter of presentation is included in the first
part of the body under the heading ‘Definition of the problem’.
Title page
The title page gives the title or heading of the report, the person [s] to whom it is
submitted, the date of submission and the name of the writer [s].
 Contents page.
This page gives the title and the page number of each chapter. If the report contains
illustrations, the contents page may also contain a table of illustrations with their page
numbers.
Summary
In case the report is very lengthy, it is advisable to include a summary or synopsis of the
report for ready reference.
Definition of the problem
This is the first part of the body of the report. Here the terms of reference, the subject of the
study and its importance and scope are stated.
Method of procedure ( Methodology)
This explains how the investigations were made and what the sources of information were.
Findings.
It’s the main part of the report. It contains the facts found out by the writer along with his
comments. It may include charts, graphs, statistical tables and even excerpts from other
published reports.
Conclusions and recommendations
Based on facts and findings , the writer draws some definite conclusions . He puts forward some
concrete suggestions or recommendations or recommendations.

Bibliography.
If the writer of the report consulted some other materials, a list of references and bibliography
should be included.
Appendix.
These are statistical data, charts and diagrams that are incorporated in the main body of the
report.
Index.
In case of lengthy reports, an index of the contents of the report may be included.
Signature. A report must be dated and signed by the person(s) submitting it. Incase of a report
prepared by a committee, the signature of the chairman is sufficient
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. It is important for the sender of a message to conduct audience analysis in order to
choose the right form, media, time among other aspects of communication. In the
light of the above describe the right audience for a written messages
2. Explain a memo as a form of written communication.
3. Outline the key components of a report