EAC2022 Lecture2

Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences
Sergi Elizalde
Dartmouth College
Enumerative and algebraic combinatorics - Lecture 2
Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Compositions
Denition
A composition of n is an ordered list of positive integers

(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) such that a1 + a2 + · · · + ak = n.

Compositions
Denition

Example
There are 4 compositions of 3:
3, 2 + 1, 1 + 2, 1 + 1 + 1.

Compositions
Denition

Example
There are 4 compositions of 3:
3, 2 + 1, 1 + 2, 1 + 1 + 1.
Proposition
n−1
The number of compositions of n with k parts is .

k−1
The total number of compositions of n is 2n−1 .

Compositions
Proposition
n−1

k−1
Proof.
Think of a composition as a placement of n balls into k boxes, by

inserting k −1 vertical separations | into a row of n balls •.

Compositions
Proposition
n−1

k−1
Proof.

For example,
•| • • • | • | • •
represents the composition 1 + 3 + 1 + 2 = 7.

Compositions
Proposition
n−1

k−1
Proof.

For example,
•| • • • | • | • •
A composition with k parts is obtained by choosing k − 1 locations
for | among the n − 1 available gaps. This is equivalent to choosing
a (k − 1)-element subset of [n − 1].

Compositions
Proposition
n−1

k−1
Proof.

For example,
•| • • • | • | • •
A composition with k parts is obtained by choosing k − 1 locations
for | among the n − 1 available gaps. This is equivalent to choosing
a (k − 1)-element subset of [n − 1].
Finally, the total number of compositions of n is the total number
of subsets of [n − 1], which is 2
n−1 .

Set partitions
Denition
A partition of a set X is a decomposition of X as a union of

disjoint non-empty sets.

Set partitions
Denition

Specically, we write X = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ Ak where Ai 6= ∅ for all i ,
and Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ for alli 6= j . The order of the sets Ai is irrelevant.

Set partitions
Denition

Example
There are 5 partitions of [3]:
{1, 2, 3} {1}∪{2, 3} {1, 2}∪{3} {1, 3}∪{2} {1}∪{2}∪{3}.

Set partitions
Denition

Example
There are 5 partitions of [3]:
{1, 2, 3} {1}∪{2, 3} {1, 2}∪{3} {1, 3}∪{2} {1}∪{2}∪{3}.
Note that {2} ∪ {1, 3} would be the same partition as {1, 3} ∪ {2},
since the order of the sets is irrelevant.

Set partitions
Denition
Let B(n) denote the number of set partitions of [n]. These are
called the Bell numbers.

Set partitions
Denition
Let S(n, k) denote the number of set partitions of [n] into k blocks.
These are called the Stirling numbers of the second kind.

Set partitions
Denition
Pn
Note that B(n) = k=1 S(n, k).

Set partitions
Denition
Pn
Example
S(3, 2) = 3, B(3) = 5.

Set partitions
Denition
Pn
Example
S(3, 2) = 3, B(3) = 5.
S(n, 0) = 0, S(n, 1) =

Set partitions
Denition
Pn
Example
S(3, 2) = 3, B(3) = 5.
S(n, 0) = 0, S(n, 1) = 1, S(n, n) =

Set partitions
Denition
Pn
Example
S(3, 2) = 3, B(3) = 5.
S(n, 0) = 0, S(n, 1) = 1, S(n, n) = 1.

Stirling numbers of the second kind
Here is a table of S(n, k) for small n and k:
n\k 1 2 3 4 5 6 B(n)
1 1 1
2 1 1 2
3 1 3 1 5
4 1 7 6 1 15
5 1 15 25 10 1 52
6 1 31 90 65 15 1 203

n\k 1 2 3 4 5 6 B(n)
1 1 1
2 1 1 2
3 1 3 1 5
4 1 7 6 1 15
5 1 15 25 10 1 52
6 1 31 90 65 15 1 203
S(n, n − 1) =

n\k 1 2 3 4 5 6 B(n)
1 1 1
2 1 1 2
3 1 3 1 5
4 1 7 6 1 15
5 1 15 25 10 1 52
6 1 31 90 65 15 1 203
n

S(n, n − 1) = 2 .
Proof: choose which two elements are in the same block.
S(n, 2) =

n\k 1 2 3 4 5 6 B(n)
1 1 1
2 1 1 2
3 1 3 1 5
4 1 7 6 1 15
5 1 15 25 10 1 52
6 1 31 90 65 15 1 203
n

S(n, n − 1) = 2 .
Proof: choose which two elements are in the same block.
S(n, 2) = 2n−1 − 1.
Proof: To partition[n] = A1 ∪ A2 , choose A1 to be any subset
except A1 = ∅ and A1 = [n]; then take A2 to be its complement.
n
There are 2 − 2 choices of A1 . Finally, divide by 2 because the
n
order of A1 and A2 is irrelevant, giving (2 − 2)/2 = 2
n−1 − 1.

Proposition
For 0 < k < n,
S(n, k) = S(n − 1, k − 1) + k S(n − 1, k).

Proposition
For 0 < k < n,
S(n, k) = S(n − 1, k − 1) + k S(n − 1, k).
Proof.
Count partitions of [n] according to whether n is in a block by itself

or not.

Proposition
For 0 < k < n,
S(n, k) = S(n − 1, k − 1) + k S(n − 1, k).
Proof.

or not.
If n is in a block by itself, the remaining entries form a

partition of[n − 1] into k − 1 blocks, so there are
S(n − 1, k − 1) such partitions.

Proposition
For 0 < k < n,
S(n, k) = S(n − 1, k − 1) + k S(n − 1, k).
Proof.

or not.
If n is in a block by itself, the remaining entries form a

partition of[n − 1] into k − 1 blocks, so there are
S(n − 1, k − 1) such partitions.
If n is a block that contains other elements, such partitions
can be obtained as follows. Partition [n − 1] into k blocks
(S(n − 1, k) choices), then decide in which of these k blocks n
goes (k choices). There are k S(n − 1, k) such partitions.

Bell numbers
Proposition
n
X n
B(n + 1) = B(k).
k
k=0

Bell numbers
Proposition
n
X n
B(n + 1) = B(k).
k
k=0
Proof.
Count partitions of [n + 1] according to the number of elements

that are not in the same block as n + 1. Let k be this number, and
note that 0 ≤ k ≤ n.

Bell numbers
Proposition
n
X n
B(n + 1) = B(k).
k
k=0
Proof.
Count partitions of [n + 1] according to the number of elements

that are not in the same block as n + 1. Let k be this number, and
note that 0 ≤ k ≤ n.
n

We have
k choices for these k elements, since they form a subset
of [n]. Then we have B(k) choices for how to partition these
elements into blocks.

Possible answers to counting questions
Suppose we want to solve a problem about counting the number of

certain objects of size n, such as compositions of n, set partitions
of [n], permutations of length n, tilings of a 2 ×n board with
dominoes, etc.


dominoes, etc.
More abstractly, we are given an innite list of sets A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . ,

and we want to nd an = |An |.


dominoes, etc.

What does it mean to nd an ?


dominoes, etc.

What does it mean to nd an ?
Let us look at some possible ways to express the answer an .

1. Explicit closed formula

Example
Let an be the number of subsets of [n] = {1, 2, . . . , n}. Then

an = 2n .

Example

an = 2n .
Example
Let an be the number of permutations of [n]. Then an = n!.

Example

an = 2n .
Example
Let an be the number of permutations of [n]. Then an = n!.
Example
Let an be the number of compositions of n. Then an = 2n−1 .

Example
Let an be the number of derangements of [n], that is, permutations

without xed points.

Example

without xed points. For example, a3 = 2 because 231 and 312 are
the two derangements of {1, 2, 3}. Then
an =

Example

n
X (−1)i
an = n! .
i!
i=0

Example

n
X (−1)i
an = n! .
i!
i=0
Not as elegant as the previous formulas because of the summation

and the alternating signs, but still a good formula because we don't
have a simpler one.

2. Recurrence

2. Recurrence
Example
Let B(n) be the number of set partitions [n]. Then
n
X n
B(n + 1) = B(k).
k
k=0

2. Recurrence
Example
Let B(n) be the number of set partitions [n]. Then
n
X n
B(n + 1) = B(k).
k
k=0
Let's look at another important recurrence...

A recurrence to count tilings
In how many ways can we tile an 2 ×2 board with dominoes?

In how many ways can we tile an 2 ×2 board with dominoes?
Answer: 2.

In how many ways can we tile an 2 ×n board with dominoes?

Let's call this number an , and look at the rst few values:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
an 1 2

n 1 2 3 4 5 6
an 1 2 3

n 1 2 3 4 5 6
an 1 2 3 5

n 1 2 3 4 5 6
an 1 2 3 5 8

n 1 2 3 4 5 6
an 1 2 3 5 8 13
Do you see a pattern?

n 1 2 3 4 5 6
an 1 2 3 5 8 13
Do you see a pattern?
an = an−1 + an−2
This kind of relation is called a recurrence.
The numbers an satisfying this recurrence are called the Fibonacci

numbers. They originated in a problem about rabbit breeding.
an = an−1 + an−2
To prove this recurrence, look at the possible ways to put the

rightmost tile(s):
n−1 n−2

an = an−1 + an−2
To prove this recurrence, look at the possible ways to put the

rightmost tile(s):
n−1 n−2
If the rightmost tile is vertical, If the rightmost tiles are

the rest of the board can be horizontal, the rest of the board
tiled in an−1 ways. can be tiled in an−2 ways.

2. Recurrence
Example
Let an be the number of number of tilings of a 2 ×n board with

dominoes. Then an = an−1 + an−2 , with initial conditions
a0 = a1 = 1.

2. Recurrence
Example
Let an be the number of number of tilings of a 2 ×n board with

dominoes. Then an = an−1 + an−2 , with initial conditions
a0 = a1 = 1.
3. Algorithm
How good this method is depends on the elegance and the

performance of the algorithm. In particular, the time needed to
compute an should be much less than the value an itself.

4. Asymptotic estimate
Example
Let an be the number of labeled planar graphs with n vertices.

Then
an ∼ δn−7/2 γ n n!,
for some explicit constants δ, γ .

Example

Then
an ∼ δn−7/2 γ n n!,
Here an ∼ bn means that
lim an /bn = 1.
n→∞

Example

Then
an ∼ δn−7/2 γ n n!,
Here an ∼ bn means that
lim an /bn = 1.
n→∞
An asymptotic estimate can be very useful when we don't have a

formula, or when we are interested in the approximate behavior for
large n.

5. Generating function
Next we will learn about this powerful tool.

5. Generating function
Next we will learn about this powerful tool.
References about generating functions:
A. de Mier, Lecture notes for Enumerative Combinatorics:

https://mat-web.upc.edu/people/anna.de.mier/ec/
lectec.pdf
P. Flajolet, R. Sedgewick, Analytic Combinatorics. An online
http:
version is available at
//algo.inria.fr/flajolet/Publications/book.pdf
H. Wilf, Generatingfunctionology, available at
http://www.math.upenn.edu/~wilf/DownldGF.html

Generating functions
Suppose we have a sequence of numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , where an is

counting the number of certain objects of size n; for example
compositions of n, partitions of [n], tilings of a 2 × n board, etc.


Denition
The generating function of a sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . is the formal

power series
A(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + a3 z 3 + · · · =
X
an z n .
n≥0


Denition
The generating function of a sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . is the formal

power series
A(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + a3 z 3 + · · · =
X
an z n .
n≥0
Here z is a variable that is used so that the coecients record the

sequence an . We usually do not think of z as taking any particular
values.

Example 1: geometric series
Consider the sequence 1, r , r

2 , r 3 , . . . , that is an = r n for all n.


Its generating function is
A(z) = 1 + rz + r 2 z 2 + r 3 z 3 + . . .


A(z) = 1 + rz + r 2 z 2 + r 3 z 3 + . . .
Note that
r z A(z) = rz + r 2 z 2 + r 3 z 3 + r 4 z 4 + . . . ,
and so A(z) − r z A(z) = 1.


A(z) = 1 + rz + r 2 z 2 + r 3 z 3 + . . .
Note that
r z A(z) = rz + r 2 z 2 + r 3 z 3 + r 4 z 4 + . . . ,
and so A(z) − r z A(z) = 1. Solving for A(z), we get
1
A(z) = ,
1 − rz
which gives a compact way to write A(z).


A(z) = 1 + rz + r 2 z 2 + r 3 z 3 + . . .
Note that
r z A(z) = rz + r 2 z 2 + r 3 z 3 + r 4 z 4 + . . . ,
and so A(z) − r z A(z) = 1. Solving for A(z), we get
1
A(z) = ,
1 − rz
which gives a compact way to write A(z).
We do not care about the value of z or about convergence of the
series.
Example 2: compositions
The number of compositions of n is
(
1 if n = 0,
cn = n−1
2 if n ≥ 1.

(
1 if n = 0,
cn = n−1
2 if n ≥ 1.
So, the generating function is
n−1 n
X X X
cn z n = c0 + cn z n = 1 + 2 z
n≥0 n≥1 n≥1
X
n n+1
X
n n z 1−z
=1+ 2 z =1+z 2 z =1+ = .
1 − 2z 1 − 2z
n≥0 n≥0

(
1 if n = 0,
cn = n−1
2 if n ≥ 1.
So, the generating function is
n−1 n
X X X
cn z n = c0 + cn z n = 1 + 2 z
n≥0 n≥1 n≥1
X
n n+1
X
n n z 1−z
=1+ 2 z =1+z 2 z =1+ = .
1 − 2z 1 − 2z
n≥0 n≥0
In some cases we can nd a generating function even if we don't

know a formula for the coecients.

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Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Enumerative and algebraic combinatorics - Lecture 2

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

A composition of n is an ordered list of positive integers

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

A composition of n is an ordered list of positive integers

There are 4 compositions of 3:

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

A composition of n is an ordered list of positive integers

There are 4 compositions of 3:

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Think of a composition as a placement of n balls into k boxes, by

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Think of a composition as a placement of n balls into k boxes, by

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Think of a composition as a placement of n balls into k boxes, by

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Think of a composition as a placement of n balls into k boxes, by

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

A partition of a set X is a decomposition of X as a union of

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

A partition of a set X is a decomposition of X as a union of

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

A partition of a set X is a decomposition of X as a union of

There are 5 partitions of [3]:

{1, 2, 3} {1}∪{2, 3} {1, 2}∪{3} {1, 3}∪{2} {1}∪{2}∪{3}.

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

A partition of a set X is a decomposition of X as a union of

There are 5 partitions of [3]:

{1, 2, 3} {1}∪{2, 3} {1, 2}∪{3} {1, 3}∪{2} {1}∪{2}∪{3}.

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Here is a table of S(n, k) for small n and k:

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Here is a table of S(n, k) for small n and k:

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Here is a table of S(n, k) for small n and k:

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

Here is a table of S(n, k) for small n and k:

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

For 0 < k < n,

S(n, k) = S(n − 1, k − 1) + k S(n − 1, k).

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

For 0 < k < n,

S(n, k) = S(n − 1, k − 1) + k S(n − 1, k).

Count partitions of [n] according to whether n is in a block by itself

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

For 0 < k < n,

S(n, k) = S(n − 1, k − 1) + k S(n − 1, k).

Count partitions of [n] according to whether n is in a block by itself

If n is in a block by itself, the remaining entries form a

Sergi Elizalde Compositions, set partitions, and recurrences

For 0 < k < n,

S(n, k) = S(n − 1, k − 1) + k S(n − 1, k).

Count partitions of [n] according to whether n is in a block by itself

If n is in a block by itself, the remaining entries form a

More abstractly, we are given an innite list of sets A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . ,

More abstractly, we are given an innite list of sets A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . ,

More abstractly, we are given an innite list of sets A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . ,