NURSING RESEARCH LECTURE

NCM111
PRELIMS
Editha C. Sabalboro

TOPIC OUTLINE ANNOUNCEMENTS

Lesson 1: Introduction to research Sept. 6, 2022 Group activity posted in GCR

Lesson 2: Classification of research Sept. 12,2022 Quiz 1: lesson 1

Quiz 2: history of research
(Sept 13,2022)

Lesson 3:

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

WHAT IS NURSING RESEARCH? ● Research is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined

methods to answer questions and solve problems. The
ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine, and expand
a body of knowledge.
○ According to Palispis (2004), research plays a very
significant role in education. Research is carried out
for a specific purpose– to answer specific questions
or to solve a particular controversy or issue. Thus,
research must not only be conducted because it is
a prerequisite to obtaining a degree, but more so
because it can potentially mobilize society.
○ According to Sanchez(2002), it is the continuing
discovery and exploration of the unknown. It entails
an investigation of new facts leading to the
discovery of new ideas, new methods, and
improvements.

● Nursing research is systematic inquiry designed to

develop knowledge about issues of importance to nurses,
including nursing practice, nursing education,
administration, and informatics

● Clinical Nursing Research, that is, research designed to

guide nursing practice and to improve the health and
quality of life of nurses’ clients. Clinical nursing research
typically begins with questions stemming from
practice-related problems – problems as ones you may
already have encountered; ued to improve patient care

○ Examples of nursing research questions:

■ Among current smokers, are more sources
of second hand smoke exposure associated
 with higher nicotine dependence and lower
intention to quit smoking? (Okoli, Browning,
Rayens & Hahn, 2008)
■ What are the late effects of cancer
treatment among long-term cancer
survivors, and what are ways in which
survivors find support and information that
are not provided via follow-up care?
(Klemm, 2008)

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 1. Scientific Knowledge

● Measurement and testing of knowledge
● Systematic and methodological
a. Inductive approaches- specific to general
b. Deductive approaches- general to specific
c. Qualitative methods
d. Quantitative methods
e. Mixed methods

2. Tradition
● Knowledge passed down through generation

1. Can be conveyed through observed practice, role

modeling, written documents, books, journal
articles, and often from experienced practitioners.
2. Traditional practices can be imposed: ‘This is the
way it should be done because this is the way it
has always been done.
3. Can lead to the development of a nursing culture
that accepts practices as being right, without
questioning their foundation and evidence-base.

3. Intuition and tacit (implied knowledge)

● Drawing on experience and knowledge to make a
care judgment.
● Developed through experience gained by
Engagement in practice.
● Can be criticized for a lack of objectivity and ability
to identify a rationale behind decisions.

4. Personal Knowledge
○ Personal knowledge is individual knowledge
shaped through being personally involved in
situations and even in practice. Personal
knowledge can be developed through reflecting on
practice experiences
○ Personal knowledge can reflect a range of
experience and be based on a number of sources
of knowledge
CHARACTERISTICS OF NURSING 1. Systematic
RESEARCH ● step-by -step
Siparet
● Logical
● methodical
2. Objective
● Should not be biased
● Impartial
3. Feasible
● Doable
● Can be carried out within an allotted time
4. Empirical
● Undergo the process of research
● Engage oneself in conducting research
● Based on the experiences of the researcher
5. Clear
● Clearly indicate objectives –

★ Cyclical
- Starts with a problem, ends with a problem
★ Timely
★ Analytical

PURPOSES OF NURSING 1. Nursing research provides a scientific basis for the

RESEARCH practices or methodologies used in nursing care
management.
2. Nursing research is undertaken for the continuous
development of and further productivity in healthcare.
3. Nursing research develops tools for assessing the
effectiveness of nursing interventions.
4. Nursing research provides solutions to problems
concerning health maintenance, health delivery, and
healthcare.
5. Nursing research develops and evaluates alternative
approaches to nursing education that enable the students
to gain broader knowledge and specialized skills for safe
practice.
6. Nursing research experience advances the personal and
prof qualification of a nursing practitioner.

TYPES OF NURSING RESEARCH 1. Basic or Pure research

● Undertaken to extend the base of knowledge in a
discipline.
● A researcher may perform an in-depth study to better
Understand normal grieving processes, without having
explicit applications in mind.

2. Applied research
● Focuses on finding solutions to existing problems.
● An applied study might assess the effectiveness of a
nursing intervention to ease grieving.
 Identification
Quantitative example of description:
Carls (2007) described the prevalence of stress urinary
incontinence in young female athletes participating in high impact
sports, and therateat which they had told someone of their
problem.

Exploration
Qualitative example of exploration:
Cristobal and colleagues (2008) explored the experience of cancer
pain in African American patients with cancer through a 6-month
online forum.
- Conduct a study, will explore the phenomenon via
observation

Prediction and Control

Research has shown that the incidence of Down syndrome in
infants increase with the age of the mother. We can thus predict
that a woman aged 40 years is at higher risk of bearing a child
with Down syndrome than is a woman aged 25 years.

Explanation
In qualitative studies, researchers may search for explanations
about howorwhya phenomenon exists or what a phenomenon
means as a basis for developing a theory that is grounded in rich,
in-depth, experiential evidence.

Explanation
Blue (2007) tested a theoretical model to explain physical activity
and dietary patterns among adults at risk for diabetes. The model
purported to explain positive health behaviors on the basis of
theoretically relevant concepts, such as subjective norms and
perceived behavioral control.
Qualitative example of explanation:
Coughlan and Ward (2007) conducted a study that sought to
explain the meaning of “quality of care” for recently relocated
residents from two older hospital-style facilities to a new long-term
care facility in Canada.

Treatment or Intervention
Grove and colleagues (2008) tested the effectiveness of an
intervention that included acupressure and interactive multimedia
on visual acuity in school-aged children with visual impairment

GOALS IN CONDUCTING 1. To produce evidence-based nursing practice, a Prof. Nurse

RESEARCH must ensure that she/he is able to give proper health care
to patient through:
1. Provide best clinical practice proven by research.
2. Principles on which the tasks and functions of a
nurse are based and formulated through research.
3. SOPs and guidelines in the hospitals are based
from research.
4. Results of nursing research must be published in
books and journals.

ROLES OF NURSES IN NURSING
RESEARCH
HISTORY OF RESEARCH
(memorize for quiz and exam)
5. Results can also be utilized in seminars and
conferences.
2. To establish credibility in the nursing profession. Nursing
profession is distinct. Its distinctiveness can be achieved
when there are special practices and peculiarities of
services in a given area or field. Research is essential to
produce new procedures, programs and practices.
3. To observe accountability in nursing practice. Every action
by a nurse must have a rationale. The nurse must be
accountable for each task she/he performs.
4. To promote cost-effectiveness through documentation of
nursing care. The findings of research must be shared with
and utilized by the individuals, group community for which
it was intended.
1. Principal investigator
2. Member of the research team
3. Identifier of researchable problems
4. Evaluator of research findings
● Determines relevance of findings
5. User of research findings
6. Patient/client advocate during study
7. Subject/respondent/participant
● Quantitative: Respondent
● Qualitative: Participant
● 1859 Nightingale’s Notes on Nursing is published
● 1900 American Nursing Journal begins publication
● 1923 Columbia University establishes first doctoral
program for Nurses
● Goldmark Report with recommendations for nursing
education published
● 1955 inauguration of the American Nurses’ Foundation to
sponsor nursing research
● 1957 Establishment of nursing research center at Walter
Reed Army Institute
● 1963 International Journal of Nursing Studies begins
publication
● 1965 American Nurses’ Association (ANA) begins
sponsoring nursing research conferences
● 1969 Canadian Journal of Nursing Research begins
publication
● 1971 ANA establishes a Commission on Research
● 1972 ANA establishes its Council of Nurse Researchers
● 1976 Stetler and Marram publish guidelines on assessing
research for use in practice
● 1978 The journals Research in Nursing & Health and
Advances in Nursing Science begin publication
● 1979 Western Journal of Nursing Research begins
publication
● 1982 The Conduct and Utilization of Research in Nursing
(CURN) project publishes report
● 1983 Annual Review of Nursing Research begins
publication
● 1985 ANA Cabinet on Nursing Research establishes
 research priorities
● 1986 National Center for Nursing Research (NCNR)
established within U.S. National Institutes of Health
● 1988 The journal Applied Nursing Research begins
publication
● 1989 U.S. Agency for Healthcare Policy
● and Research (AHCPR)is established (renamed Agency
for Healthcare Research and Quality or AHRQ in 1999)
● 1993 NCNR becomes a full institute, the National Institute
of Nursing Research (NINR)
● The Cochrane Collaboration is established
● 1994 The journal Qualitative Health Research begins
publication
● 1995 The Joanna Briggs Institute, an international EBP
collaborative, is established in Australia
● 1997 Canadian Health Services Research Foundation is
established with federal funding
● 2000 NINR’s annual funding exceeds $100 million
● The Canadian Institute of Health Research is launched
● 2004 The journal Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing
begins publication
● 2005 Sigma Theta Tau International publishes research
priorities
VIDEO
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zeqxR4eK98M
Importance of Nursing
● Research must be an integral part of nursing
● It provides the power to nurses to be professional
● It helps to develop, define refine nursing knowledge
● It provides effective patient care, nursing education and administration.
● It promotes evidence based practice
● It ensures credibility of nursing profession
● It provides accountability for nursing practices
● It enables availability of cost-effective care
● The development and utilization of nursing knowledge is essential for continued development in patient
care
● Nurses are expected to adopt a research based of EBP
● By using research findings to guide their decisions, actions, and interactions with patients
● Research is the only way that can provide nurses first hand experience
● Specific nursing actions and decisions should be based on EBP
● Rapid advancement in medical science and technology
○ Researches are essential to keep pace with the advancement
● It is also essential to understand varied dimensions of thor profession
● Research enables nurses to study characteristics of particular nursing situation
● Research help to find solution for cost-effective care
● It helps to eliminate nursing actions which do not achieve desired outcome
● It also help to identify practices that improve health care outcome

Conclusion
● Build and expand the body of nursing knowledge
 ● Validate and refine the existing nursing practice
● Make healthcare efficient and cost-effective

LESSON 2: CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

Classification of Research 1. Purpose of Doing Research

a. Exploratory Research
b. Descriptive Research
c. Explanatory (Causal)Research
2. The Uses of Research
a. Basic Research
b. Applied Research
i. Action research
ii. R&D
iii. Impact Assessment Research
iv. Evaluation Research
3. The Time Dimension in Research
a. Cross-Sectional Research
b. Longitudinal Research
i. A cohort analysis-
ii. Time Series
iii. Panel Study
4. Research (data collection)Techniques Used
a. Quantitative
b. Qualitative

Before a researcher begins to conduct a study, he or she

must
decide on a specific type of research

For classification of research we shall look from four

dimensions

1. The purpose of doing research;

2. The intended uses of research;
3. How it treats time i.e. the time dimension in research;
and
4. The research (data collection) techniques used in it.

I. PURPOSE OF DOING RESEARCH

● If we ask someone why he or she is conducting a study, we might get a range of responses :
○ My boss told me to do´;
○ It was a class assignment´;
○ I was curious.´
● Simply, there are almost as many reasons to do research as there are researches.
● Yet the purposes of research may be organized into three groups based on what the researcher is
trying to accomplish
a. Explore a new topic,
b. Describe a social phenomenon,
c. Explain why something occurs.
1. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH ● You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order to
learn about it, you begin at the beginning to clarify
and define the nature of a problem. Management
may have discovered general problems but research
is needed to gain a better understanding of
problems.
● Exploratory research may be the first stage in a
sequence of studies.
● The results of exploratory research are not usually
useful for decision-making by themselves, but they
can provide significant insight into a given situation.
● Although the results of qualitative research can give
some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when"
something occurs, it cannot tell us "how of ten" or
"how many."

Goals of Exploratory
1. Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and
concerns;
2. Develop well-grounded picture of the situation;
3. Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas,
conjectures, or hypotheses;
4. Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5. Formulate questions and refine issues for more
systematic inquiry;
6. Develop techniques and a sense of direction for
future research.

Categories of Exploratory Research

● Experience Surveys
○ An exploratory research technique in which
individuals who are knowledgeable about a
particular research problem are surveyed
● Secondary Data Analysis
○ Data that have been previously collected for
same purpose other than problem at hand
(Books, periodicals, government source,
internet, media)
● Case Studies
○ Intensely investigates one or A few situations
similar to the problem.
○ Investigate in depth.
● Pilot Studies
○ The use of small-scale diverse research
techniques that involves sampling but doesn't
apply rigorous standards.
○ It includes:
○ Focus group Interview
■ A focus group is a gathering of 6 to 10
people who are carefully selected and
invited to discuss relevant problems of
interest in the presence of a
 moderator.
○ Projective Techniques
■ An indirect means of questioning that
enables a respondent to project
beliefs and feelings of a 3rd party.
■ These are unstructured prompts or
stimuli that encourage the respondent
to project their underlying motivations,
beliefs, attitudes, or feelings onto an
unclear situation. They are all indirect
techniques that attempt to disguise the
purpose of the research.

2. DESCRIPTIVE/STATISTICAL ● Describe characteristics of a population or

RESEARCH phenomenon.
● Descriptive research seeks to determine the answers
to who, what, when, where, and how questions.
Although the data description is factual, accurate and
systematic, the research cannot describe what
caused a situation.
● Labor Force Surveys, Population Census, and
Educational Census are examples of such research.

Goals of Descriptive Research

1. Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics
i.e. provide an accurate profile of a group;
2. Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the
situation;
3. Present background information;
4. Create a set of categories or classify the information;
5. Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
6. Focus on who, what, when,where, and how but not
why.

3. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH ● When we encounter an issue that is already known

and have a description of it, we might begin to
wonder why things are the way they are.
● The desire to know ³why,´ to explain, is the purpose
of explanatory research.
● Subdivided in Causal research conducted to identify
cause and effect relationships
○ Laboratory Experiment
○ Field Experiment

Goals of Explanatory Research

1. Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and
enrich a theory’s explanation.
2. Determine which of several explanations is best.
3. Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory’s
predictions or principle.
4. Advance knowledge about underlying process.
5. Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a
theory’s predictions or principle.
6. Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new
issues,new topics:
 7. Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation
or prediction.
8. Test a theory’s predictions or principles

II. THE USES OF RESEARCH

● Some researchers focus on using research to advance general knowledge, whereas others
use it to solve specific problems.
○ Basic Research
○ Applied Research
■ Action Research
■ R&D (Research and Development)
■ Impact Assessment Research
■ Evaluation Research

1. Action Research: ● It allows practitioners to address those concerns that

are closest to them.
● In this, researchers want to improve the way they
address issues and solve problems. In larger
organizations it is guided by professional
researchers.
● action research = action and research
● act -> review -> act -> review

2. R & D ● Research and development of new products or

procedures or innovations.

3. Impact Assessment Research ● Its purpose is to estimate the likely consequences of

a planned change. Such an assessment is used for
planning and making choices among alternative
policies.
● Eg. Impact of Basha Dam on the environment,
impact of CNG on atmosphere of Quetta.

4. Evaluation Research ● It addresses the question, Did it work?´

● The process of establishing value judgment based on
evidence about the achievement of the goals of a
program, policy, or way of doing something.
● Two types of evaluation research are formative and
summative.
○ Formative evaluation is built-in monitoring or
continuous feedback on a program used for
program management.
○ Summative evaluation looks at final program
outcomes. Both are usually necessary

III. THE TIME DIMENSION IN RESEARCH

● Some studies give us a snapshot of a single, fixed time point it in detail & some studies
provide a moving picture that lets us follow events, people, or sale of products over a period
of time.

a. CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH ● In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at

one point in time.

b. LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH
Lesson 3: Evidence-Based Nursing Practice
EVIDENCE-BASED NURSING PRACTICE
How Is EBP Incorporated In Nursing?
● The simplest and least costly.
● cannot capture the change processes.
● Cross-sectional research can be exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory, but it is most consistent
with a descriptive approach to research.
● Examining features of people or other units at more
than one time. It is usually more complex and costly
than cross-sectional research more powerful,
especially when researchers seek answers to
questions about change.
● There are three types of longitudinal research: time
series, panel, and cohort.
a. Time Series Research
● This same type of information is collected on a group
of people or other units across multiple time periods.
Researchers can observe stability or change in the
features of the units or can track conditions over
time.
b. The panel study
● In panel study, the researcher observes exactly the
same people, group, or organization across time
periods. It is a difficult to carry out such study.
c. A cohort analysis
● It is similar to the panel study, but rather than
observing the exact same people, researcher collects
information from people who have same nature,
same characteristics etc.
● Nurses team to seek the most current scientific
evidence to provide excellent patient care.
● Evidence-based practice in nursing is crucial to
successful patient care, and it is also a good tool for
shaping policies, procedures, and safety regulations.
● Thus, EBP continues to improve our healthcare
systems both for patients and healthcare
professionals.
What Is EBP In Nursing?
● EBP in nursing is an integration of research
evidence, clinical expertise, and a patient's
preferences. This problem-solving approach to
clinical practice encourages nurses to provide
individualized patient care.
EBP helps nurses determine an effective course of action for
care delivery. EBP involves the following five steps:
1. Form a clinical question to identify a problem.

What Kind Of Research Is Used In EBP?
How does EBP benefit nurses and
patients
How to identify problem
P Patient
I Intervention
C Comparison
● Alternative plan/treatment
O Outcome
T Time
2. Gather the best evidence.
3. Clinically Analyze the evidence.
4. Apply the evidence to clinical practice.
5. Assess the result.
○ Ask a question.
○ Search the latest research.
○ Incorporate clinical experience.
○ Accommodate patient preferences.
○ Apply the results.
Research utilized in EBP falls into four categories. They are:
1. Randomized controlled trials.
2. Evidence gathered from cohort, case-control analysis
or observational studies.
3. Opinions from clinical experts that are supported by
experiences, studies or reports from committees.
4. Personal experience.
★ The above four categories are listed in descending
order from most credible to less reliable.
● The inclusion of EBP in nursing provides nurses with
the scientific research to make well-founded
decisions.
● Through EBP, nurses can stay updated about new
medical protocols for patient care. By searching for
documented interventions that fit the profiles of their
patients, nurses can increase their patients' chances
for recovery.
● EBP enables nurses to evaluate research so they
understand the risks or effectiveness of a diagnostic
test or treatments.
● The application of EBP enables nurses to include
patients in their care plan. This allows patients to
have a proactive role in their own healthcare since
they can voice concerns, share their values and
preferences and make suggestions on how they
want to proceed.
What is the advantage of EBP for
Healthcare organizations
LESSON 4: RESEARCH PROCESS
● is the examination and analysis of systematically gathered facts about a particular problem. The main
goal is to discover or validation of knowledge.
General Phases of the Research Process
Phase I – Selecting and Defining the Problem
Quali - do not do theoretical framework yet.
Do it after chap 3
Quanti- theoretical first
Phase II – Selecting a research design
Phase III – Collecting data
- Empirical phase
Phase IV – Analyzing Data
- Analytical design
Phase V – Utilizing Research Findings
Research process
This phase involves selecting and defining an area of
research that provides an opportunity to advance nursing
knowledge. Through review of literature,the researcher
determines the rationale for conducting the study, a
justification of the need to investigate the problem
and a theoretical framework according to which the research
results will be interpreted. It clearly states the research
problem.
● Clearly state the research problem
● Review of related literature
● Identify pertinent variables (any factor property that a
researcher measures, controls, and manipulates.
● Formulate research questions and hypothesis
(tentative prediction about the relationship of
● 2 or more variables pertaining population under
study)
● Develop a conceptual framework
● In this phase, the researcher designs the study and
plans the methods of subject selection, testing and
measurement to ensure that all procedures are
clearly defined.
● This is the phase where the researcher implements
the plan designed in Phase 1 and 2.
● Data collection is usually the most time-consuming
part of the research process.
● Present the data and interpret the findings.
● This involves analyzing, interpreting and making
valid conclusions about the data.
● Statistical procedures are applied to summarize
quantitative data in a meaningful way.
● During this phase, the research hypothesis will either
be supported or not supported. Analysis of results
leads to new questions that stimulate further study.
● Utilizing Research Findings In this final phase, the
researcher gets the opportunity to share the findings

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROBLEM SOLVING, NURSING RESEARCH, AND NURSING PROCESS
Process
1. Data Collection
2. Problem Definition
3. Plan
4. Implementation,
modification
LESSON 5: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
“What should I be reading and what do I
do with it all?”
FUNCTIONS OF RELATED LITERATURE
with other colleagues. Research findings which are
not disseminated to colleagues are of little value to
anyone. Reporting the outcome of research may be
in the form of journal articles, abstracts, oral
presentation and poster presentations. The research
process culminates in interpreting the findings and
communicating with others any new knowledge
gained from the research.
Nursing Research Nursing Process
1. Problem Identification 1. Assessment Phase
2. Methodological 2. Diagnosis Phase
Development
3. Data Management 3. Planning Phase
4. Disseminate Findings 4. Implementation Phase
- Publish findings and - Implement plan of care
evaluation - Collaborate with other
- Review findings members of the health
- Critique findings team
- Modify plan as needed
5. Evaluation Phase
- Compare outcomes of
care
- Collaborate with other
members of the health
team
- terminate /modify/continue
nursing interventions as
needed
● A survey of existing knowledge on the research topic
is gatherers from previously published materials
● This part serves to define, classify, and facilitate
objective comprehension of the variable being
studied
● Provides research ideas
● Orients the researcher to what is already known
● Provides conceptual context
● Provides information about research approaches
KINDS OF DATA ● Research = studies/researches
● Non-research = consist of experiences, opinions and
Related theories of experts along the the problem area

Kinds of research literature

● Research/Empirical lit
○ “Related literature”
○ Obtain data from studies, researches,
dissertation which are either published or
unpublished
○ Data-based
○ “Research data”
● Nonresearch/conceptual/theoretical literature
○ “Nonresearch data”
○ “Related ??”
○ Written by experts
○ Viewpoint, experiences
○ Own interpretation of a topic
○ May include models, theories, conceptual
frameworks
○ Books, encyclopedias, journal articles,
publications, magazines, newspapers, etc.

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A REVIEW OF 1. Find relevant materials

LITERATURE ★ Know the topic first
● Sources of info can be found everywhere
● It is the researcher’s priority to enrich his
work by reading literature containing
important data so he/can fully comprehend
the variables under study.
● Source of materials:
○ Library (journals, textbook, reference
books, theses, dissertations, and
internet)

2. Actual Reading
● What variables are mentioned?
● What are the characteristics or descriptions
of the variables?
○ These questions will help the
researcher understand the said
variables so the indicators will be
easily established.
● Further questions shall be asked:
○ What relationship exists between the
variables based on the information
given?
○ How can the information provided in
this material be of use to my
research?
○ This will lead the researcher to decide
if the book/article is worth including in
the final literature review or not
 3. Note taking
● Good researcher- being systematic
● Must establish a system of note-taking –
save time and effort.
● Prepare index cards on which he/she can
take down notes.
● Note taking is useful especially when the
researcher is already synthesizing and
compiling ideas
● presented in the different references.
● Note taking also facilitates consolidation of
the literature gathered
★ Include documentation (summarize, quote,
reference)

TYPES OF READING 1. Elementary reading

● This is the kind of reading which everyone does and
is demonstrated by an individual who passes from
illiteracy to literacy.
● Consists merely of the recognition of letters and
basic sounds and literal comprehension of
sentences.
● Able to comprehend the ideas presented.

2. Systematic skimming
● Research demands a lot of reading
● The researcher must establish a system through
which he can maximize his time searching for
literature.
● Choose wisely what should and should not be
included in your study

3. Analytic reading
● A good investigator asks questions to thoroughly
understand the article, such as:
○ “What is the book or article all about?”
○ “What is being said in detail and how”

4. Comparative reading
● The highest level of reading requires one to place
what he/she is currently reading in relation to other
materials he/she has previously read. The reader
can state the similarities and differences between 2
or more articles in terms of their variables and
propositions.
● Look for similar studies for the firm foundation of
his/her investigation

WHAT LITERATURE SHOULD YOU REVIEW

Journal articles ● These are good, especially for up-to-date

information.
 ● They are frequently used in literature reviews
because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date
format for research.
● Depending on the publication, these materials may
be refereed or non-refereed materials.
○ Refereed materials
■ Refereed materials are publications
reviewed by “expert readers”; or
referees before publication.
● “peer -reviewed materials”
■ Refereed materials are also referred
to as Peer Reviewed.
■ Refereed materials assure readers
that the information conveyed is
reliable and timely.

○ Non-refereed materials
■ Non-refereed materials such as Trade
Journals or Magazines use less
rigorous standards of screening prior
to publication.
■ Non-refereed materials may not by
checked as intensely as refereed
materials, but many can still be
considered scholarly.

Books ● Remember that books tend to be less up-to-date, as

it takes longer for a book to be published than for a
journal article.
● They are still likely to be useful for including in your
literature review as they offer a good starting point
from which to find more detailed and up-to-date
sources of information.

Conference proceedings ● These can be useful in providing the latest research,

or research that has not been published.
● They are also helpful in providing information about
people in different research areas, and so can be
helpful in tracking down other work by the same
researchers

Government/corporate reports ● Many government departments and corporations

commission or carry out research. Their published
findings can provide a useful source of information,
depending on your field of study.

Newspapers ● Since newspapers are generally intended for a

general (not specialized) audience, the information
they provide will be of very limited use for your
literature review.
● Newspapers are more helpful as providers of
information about recent trends, discoveries or
changes, e.g. announcing changes in government
policy.
● Newspapers do not give unbiased opinions.
Theses and dissertations ● These can be useful sources of information.
However there are disadvantages:
○ They can be difficult to obtain since they are
not published, but are generally only
available from the library or interlibrary loan
○ The student who carried out the research
may not be an experienced researcher and
therefore you might have to treat their
findings with more caution than published
research.

Internet ● The fastest-growing source of information is on the

Internet
● Bear in mind that anyone can post information on
the internet so the quality may not be reliable
● The information you find may be intended for a
general audience and so not be suitable for inclusion
in your literature review